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CHAPTER-II

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 General

Since the advent of industrial and technological revolutions, economic

indicators are representing as the principal criteria for measuring progress. This

industrial and technological revolution has been accompanied by a growing

negative impact on the environment in terms of pollution and degradation as it

carries the seeds of environmental damage, assisted and abetted by both needs and

greed of man. Activities like as manufacturing, processing, transportation and

consumption of material and energy deplete the stock of natural resources add

stress to the environmental systems by accumulation of the stock of wastes. The

productivity of the industries depends on the supply and quality of natural and

environmental resources. Such as water, air, forest energy and fishery resources.

The pollution of water, air, atmosphere and noise is the by-product of economic

development, particularly, industrialization and urbanization. Greenhouse effect,

global warming and acid precipitation are caused by pollution at global level.

Environmental degradation often tends to become irreversible and impose

damaging costs on the economy. It also results to human losses, loss of labour

productivity from ill – health and loss of crop output at local levels. The ecological

and social costs of unrestrained pollution and degradation are the major problem in

cities like Aurangabad. Industrialization is on the increase, which of course is

necessary for the progress of Aurangabad city but so is the environmental pollution

due to vehicular exhaust, industrial emissions and waste generation. Such air

pollution in city due to its nature has the potential to cause irreversible reactions in

the environment and hence can pose a major threat to our very existence. Since the

carrying capacity of the environment is not unlimited and some areas or

ecosystems are more susceptible to adverse environmental impacts than others,

unplanned and haphazard industrialization can substantially increased the risk to

the environment. Therefore, the studies on local environment are necessary for

knowing the status of monitoring and for modifying the land-use practices and

local developmental policies of Aurangabad.

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2.2 Background of current research

A number of studies at different locations have shown that air and water

pollution are taking a heavy toll of human life, through ill-health and premature

mortality. The environmental pollution and ecological degradation because of

urbanization and industrialization is becoming issue great human concern. It was

recognized that mass production by industry and mass consumption by society are

depleting the resources and are generating huge amounts of solids waste and

managements were first focused in 1972 at the United Nations Human

Environment Conference held at Stockholm. Since then, a much greater awareness

has been created at all levels not only amongst the developed countries but also the

developing countries particularly in growing cities in respect of environmental

issues. A number of international committees were formed at different levels to

address the environmental issues and decisions have been taken to cope up with the

fast development and emerging environmental problems.

The world Commission on Environment & Development (WCED) issued a

report as “Our Common Future” and appealed for the application of principles of

sustainable development in 1987. Later, the Inter Governmental Panel on Climate

Change, (IPCC) was organized jointly by the United Nations Environmental

Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) with support

from the G-7 nations in 1989 to focus environmental issues and discuss on

sustainable development.

The catastrophic social and economic consequences of global climate

change by the end of 21st century were described in the first report of IPCC in

1990. As a result, the United Nations Conference on Earth & Development (Earth

Summit) was held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 where more than 180 nations

participated and discussed the environmental issues to find the way out. The Rio

Declaration, Agenda 21, Framework Convention on Climate Change, Biodiversity

Convention, and Forest Declaration were signed to cope with the global problems

of the 21st global problem of 21

st century which include biodiversity and climate

change.

In the Agenda 21, the central concept of “Green Productivity” is a holistic

evolutionary outcome of traditional principles and practices of productivity. It is

the key to achieve sustainable development and is at local, national and

international levels. “Green productivity” signifies a new paradigm of socio-

25

economic development aimed at the pursuit of economic and productivity growth

while protecting the environment. Another option that has been suggested is

carbon capture and sequestration (CCS). However, feasible technological for this

have not yet been developed and there are serious question about the cost as well

as permanence of the CO2 storage repositories. During the last ten years, forest-

based carbon trading has been developed to achieve global environmental health

(Ludang and Jaya, 2007). The local trees can be the best option for sequestering

atmospheric carbon and long term storage, which need be studied to ensure their

suitability and extents. The present study aims at the same for city environment of

Aurangabad.

2.3 Global Carbon Cycle

The process of photosynthesis is to transfer of carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere and the carbon is stored in wood parts and other plant tissues and the

respiration that accompany plant metabolism transfers some of the carbon back to

the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. When live biomass die, their debris will decay

also emitting carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere out of fraction of the dead

organic material is resistance to decay, that carbon accumulates in the soil and

stored for extended periods of time (Dilling, et al., 2006; Cairns, et al., 2003). The

Chemical and physical processes are also responsible for the exchange of carbon

dioxide across the sea surfaces. The small difference between the flux in to and out

of the surface ocean is responsible for net uptake of carbon dioxide by the ocean

(Bellamy, 2009; Cairns, et al., 2003; Dilling, et al., 2006).

The Earth’s atmosphere contains carbon dioxide (CO2) and other

greenhouse gases (GHGs) that act as a protective layer, causing the planet to be

warmer than it would otherwise be. This heat retention is critical to maintaining

habitable temperatures. If there were significantly less CO2 in the atmosphere,

global temperatures would drop below levels to which ecosystems and human

societies have adapted. As CO2 levels rise, mean global temperatures are also

expected to rise as increasing amounts of solar radiation are trapped inside the

“greenhouse” (Field, 1995; Diling, et al., 2006; IPCC, 1996; 2001; Smith, 1981).

The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is determined by a continuous flow

among the stores of carbon in the atmosphere, the ocean, the earth’s biological

systems, and its geological materials. As long as the amount of carbon flowing into

26

the atmosphere as CO2 and out in the form of plant material and dissolved carbon

are in balance, the level of carbon in the atmosphere remains constant (Stavins, and

Richards, 2005).

2.4 Photosynthesis

The word photosynthesis means "To put together with light" (Hairiah, et

al., 2009). When water, carbon dioxide, sunlight are put together they make

glucose and oxygen (O2). The process whereby plants make the carbohydrates

glucose, sucrose and starch from sunlight, carbon dioxide and water which are

used as used or stored. During this process oxygen and water are released as

byproducts. The carbohydrates that are used are converted to energy through the

process of respiration; carbon dioxide and water are formed as byproducts

(http://www.need.org; Hairiah, et al., 2009).

Photosynthesis removes CO2 from the air and adds oxygen, while cellular

respiration removes oxygen from the air and adds CO2. The processes generally

balance each other out. Both animals and plants release CO2 as a 'waste'. This is

due to a process called cell respiration where the cells of an organism break down

sugars to produce energy for the functions they are required to perform. From the

plants, carbon is passed up the food chain to all the other organisms. This occurs

when animals eat plants and when animals eat other animals. The process of

photosynthesis, plants convert radiant energy from the sun into chemical energy in

the form of glucose (Hairiah, 2009)

Water + Carbon Dioxide + Sunlight = Glucose + Oxygen

6 H20 + 6CO2 + Radiant Energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2

The equation for cell respiration is as follows:

Glucose + Oxygen àEnergy + Water + Carbon Dioxide

C6H12O6 + 6O2 à Energy + 6H2O + 6CO2

CO2 is returned to the atmosphere when plants and animals die and

decompose. The decomposers release CO2 back into the atmosphere where it will

be absorbed again by other plants during photosynthesis (Baes, et al., 1977;

Hairiah, et al., 2009). In this way the cycle of CO2 being absorbed from the

27

atmosphere and being released again is repeated over and over. In the carbon cycle

the amount of carbon in the environment always remains the same. However, in

the last 200 years the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation has increased the

amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide from 0.028 to 0.035% and the concentration

keeps increasing. As more photosynthesis occurs, more CO2 is converted into

biomass, reducing carbon in the atmosphere and sequestering it in plant tissue

above and below ground (Mathews, et al., 2000; Gorte, 2009) resulting in growth

of different parts (Chavan and Rasal, 2010). Carbon is sequestered by the plant

photosynthesis and stored as biomass in different parts of the tree while, carbon

sequestration rate has been different in age groups (Chavan and Rasal, 2011).

Photosynthesis transfers carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and the carbon is

stored in wood and other plant tissues. (Dilling, et al., 2006) Many efforts are

being made to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide (Kaplan, 1985; Schroeder, 1993;

Nowak, 1994; Brown, 1997; Chave, 2005; Hairiah, 2009; Jasmin and Birundha,

2011; Chavan and Rasal, 2012).

2.5 Greenhouse gases and Greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases include Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Water

vapour (H2O), Nitrous oxide (N2O), and Ozone (O3) play an important role on

Earth’s climate (Dhruba, 2008). Carbon dioxide is by far the most common and

abundant greenhouse gas (IPCC, 1996; Samalca, 2007).

Solar energy (heat from the sun), arrives in the earth’s atmosphere in the

forms of short wavelength radiation. Part of this is reflected by the earth’s surface

and atmosphere; however, the majority is absorbed, warming the planet. As the

earth’s surface gains heat, it starts emitting long wave, infra-red radiation back into

the atmosphere (Marinelli and Worth, 1994; Vina, 2004; Dhruba, 2008;

Schahczenski and Hill, 2009). Green house gas acts as insulator or blanket to keep

the earth warm by absorbing long wave infrared radiation, so that it is favorable for

life (IPCC, 2002; Nugroho, 2006; Hairiah, 2009).

Despite their relative scarcity, greenhouse gases are vital to life on earth.

Because, these have an ability to act like a blanket, trapping some of these infra-

red radiations and preventing them from escaping back into space; without this

process the temperature on the earth’s surface would be a much lot colder than

what we know and feed. This concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

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has grown enormously due to anthropogenic activities and would appear to be

disturbing the currently existing natural balance between incoming and outgoing

energy (Hairiah, 2009; Marinelli and Worth, 1994; IPCC, 2002).

2.6 Carbon cycle and global climate change

Carbon exists in every living or that has ever lived. There is a perpetual

cycle of carbon being sequestered on earth and emitted back into the atmosphere.

Carbon cycle movement of carbon in any of the forms like solid, liquid and gas,

between the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere or geosphere

(Pearson, et al., 2005; Houghton, 2001; 2005; Samalca,2007). Humankind is

increasingly influencing the carbon cycle through the burning of large quantities of

fossil fuel and by the cutting down of forests. The human induced accumulation of

carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are driving the

climate change. As CO2 levels rise, mean global temperatures are also expected to

rise due to increasing amounts of solar radiation which are getting trapped inside

the “greenhouse” for extended period. It is likely that current atmospheric

concentrations are at 20 million years high and that current rate of accumulation is

unprecedented (Houghton, 2001; 2005; Pearson, et al., 2005).

The accelerating accumulation of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon

dioxide, in the atmosphere from human activities is driving climate change.

Emissions of CO2 from land use and land-use changes like clearing forests for non-

forest purposes, shifting cultivation, felling of trees for fuel and timber or

commercial and non commercial cutting of forest represent up to 20 per cent of

current CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels (Brown, 1996; Dixon, 1994;

Pearson, et al., 2005).

2.7 Carbon dioxide emission and impacts

The burning of fossil fuels transfers carbon from geological reservoirs of

coal, oil and gas. These release the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Tropical

deforestation and other forest destructive changes in land-use patterns also release

carbon to the atmosphere. The vegetation burning and dead material decays

contribute largely in releasing the carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (Diling, et

al., 2006; IPCC, 1996). IPCC (2007; 2009) and UNEP (2007) reported that the

amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from 280 ppm in the

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pre-industrial era 1750, to 285 ppm at the end of the nineteenth century, before the

industrial revolution it about 366 ppm in 1998 it is equivalent to a 28 percent

increases as a consequences of anthropogenic emissions of about 405 gigatonnes of

carbon (C) (±60 gigatonnes of C) into the atmosphere (IPCC, 2001; Herzog et al.,

2000), to 379 ppm in 2005 and to about 387 ppm in 2009. It is further increasing

by 1.9 ppm per year.

Climate models developed in the 90’s have shown that global surface air

temperature may increase by 1.4 0C to 5.8

0C at the end of the century (IPCC,

2001; Rahmstorf and Ganopolski, 1999; Samalca, 2007). It may lead to change the

climate. The impacts of climate change on coastal areas around the world are well

documented. Change in sea levels can have catastrophic effects on fertile soils and

coastal resources of regions like fishing (Kavikumar 2004). One meter rise in sea

level can lead to displace about 7 million people while 5,764 km2 of land would be

lost and some 4200 km of roads would be lost (Narain, 2007). India is one of the

most commonly cited examples of intense urban heat island effects among the

developing countries, due to its peculiar global position as well as tropical climate

(Devi, 2005). India is expected to have one of the most significant shortfalls in

water supply due to climate change. Indian cities and towns are also not untouched

by impacts of climate change. Some of the most intense heat islands are found

around Delhi and Mumbai (IPCC, 2001).

The significant impacts related to climate change can affect the intensity

tropical cyclones. It is expected to increase (Emanuel, 2005) due to climate change

and India will have to face an increasingly violent hurricane season. The flooding

of Mumbai in year 2005 resulted in deaths of close to a 1000 people and economic

losses of about Rs. 3000 crore and proved the vulnerability of coastal regions

(Narain, 2007).

2.8 Carbon dioxide emissions in India

India is the world’s second most populous nation after china with a rapidly

growing economy. Its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are growing at an

increasing rate due population growth and increasing consumerism. A significant

portion of the country’s emissions come from coal burning power plants. Carbon

dioxide is among the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gases (Houghton,

et al., 1990; Sundquist, 1993; IPCC, 2007; 2009). India’s carbon dioxide emissions

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due to consumption of energy in 2004 were 1.1 Gt., of which emissions from

combustion of coal were 0.7 Gt. in terms of carbon dioxide (EIA, 2007). Between

1990 and 2000, the overall increase in CO2 emissions was at a rate of 4.2% per

annum and was increased to 5.1% between 2000 and 2005 (Shukla 2006; Narain,

2007).

The transport in India mainly consumes non renewable fuels and

contributes to CO2 emissions. In 2004, the transport sector was responsible for

14% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and 17% of global CO2 emission

(WRI, 2008; IPCC, 2007). In 2007, India consumed 595 Mtoe energy and energy

related CO2 emissions reached 1324 Mt, ranking India the 5th

major GHG emitter

in the world (MoEF, 2009).

2.9 Importance of Carbon for Life

Carbon is found in all living organisms. It is the major building block for

forming the bodies of living creatures giving rise to the life on Earth. All living

tissues have carbon atoms in their composition. The cycle of carbon is basically the

cycle of life in our planet. In a nut shell, carbon is the foundation of life. It exists in

many forms, predominately as plant biomass, soil organic matter, and as the gas

carbon dioxide (CO2) in the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and in hydrosphere

in dissolved form in seawater. Therefore, carbon cycle involves the soil and all

vegetation and animal life on earth.

Fig. 2.1: Molecule of CO2

(Source: http://wikipedia.org/image:CO2)

Plant biomass constitutes a significant carbon stock, serving as the main

conduit for CO2 removal from the atmosphere primarily through photosynthesis

(Vina, 2004; Hairiah, 2009; Chavan and Rasal, 2010). Plants absorb carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere and through photosynthesis, capture for energy and

build up of structural components. Part of this carbon returns to the atmosphere

soon after being processed through respiration and remaining parts stay as standing

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biomass for some time and return to the cycle when organisms die and decompose.

Some of the standing biomass like grasses, shrubs or herbs will eventually be eaten

by animals, with half of it exhaled immediately, the other returned as bodily wastes

to the soil later. Once it reaches to soil, microorganisms in soil metabolize them,

returning part to the atmosphere, or leaching out as carbonates through the soil

(Nakane, 1995).

2.10 Carbon sequestration and carbon capture

Understanding the concept, factors and processes driving and influencing

the cycle of carbon in a particular ecosystem is critical to achieve proper

management of the aboveground biomass in plants and organic matter in soil, both

for reducing greenhouse gas emissions or improving soil quality. Carbon

sequestration is a generalized term for the common process involving the long term

storage of carbon in oceans, soils, vegetation (especially forests), and carbon

capture is in the geologic formations. The oceans store most of the Earth’s carbon

(Bass, et al., 2000; Negi, et al., 2003). The soils contain approximately 75% of the

carbon pool on terrestrial region three times more than the amount of carbon stored

in living plants and animals. Therefore, soil plays a major role in maintaining a

balanced global carbon cycle in the nature.

2.11 Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystem is the major rout for the

absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis (Bass, et al., 2000;

Mathews, et al., 2000; Gorte, 2009). Carbon sequestration is the process of carbon

capture and secure storage that would otherwise be emitted to or remain in the

atmosphere. Trees in the forests, vegetation as well as forest products, are primary

responsible for carbon sequestration mechanisms (Hairiah, 2009; Bass, et al.,

2000).

Carbon sequestration through forestry is based on two premises. First, that

carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas that circulates globally; consequently, efforts

to remove greenhouse gases (GHG's) from the atmosphere which will be equally

effective whether they are based next door to the source or across the globe.

Second, green plants take carbon dioxide gas out of the atmosphere in the process

of photosynthesis and use it to make sugars and other organic compounds used for

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growth and metabolism. Long lived woody plants store carbon in their wood. The

other tissues until they die and decompose at which time the carbon in their wood

may be released to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide or

methane, or may be incorporated into the soil as organic matter (Anderson and

Spencer, 1991; Pedro, 1996).

2.12 Carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-e)

Carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2-e) provide a universal standard of

measurement. The impacts of releasing or avoiding the release of or actively

sequestering of different greenhouse gases can be evaluated on carbon equivalent

basis. Every greenhouse gas has a Global Warming Potential (GWP). It is a

measurement of the impact that a particular gas has on 'radiative forcing' in

comparison with the carbon dioxide; that is, the additional heat or energy which is

retained in the Earth's atmospheric system through the addition of this gas to the

atmosphere. It means, the GWP of a given gas describes its effect on climate

change relative to a similar amount of carbon dioxide. Thus, the base unit carbon

dioxide is 1.0 (Jonson and Coburn, 2010). This allows the greenhouse gases

regulated under the Kyoto Protocol to be converted to the common unit of CO2-e

(http://www.ieta.org). The carbon sequestration benefit from reforestation is

determined by the difference in average carbon stock between the previous land

use and the newly grown and managed forest or plantation.

2.13 Terrestrial Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration refers to the transfer of atmospheric CO2 into lived

terrestrial pools like biotic, the soil, so that CO2 sequestered is not immediately

released into the atmosphere. Three predominant components of terrestrial Carbon

(C) sequestration include soil, biota and biofuel. The increase in Soil Organic

Carbon (SOC) pool must be assessed to the depth up to 2m as significant

management induced changes in SOC pool those can occur deep in the subsoil

(Lorenz and Lal, 2005; Hairiah, 2009). Any increase in SOC pool is assessed in

terms of either fixed soil depth or on equal soil mass basis for major land use and

soil management systems (Mathews et al., 2000; Lal, 2007).

Trees use photosynthetic process for absorbing carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere. The carbon from this carbon dioxide is sequestered and used to grow

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leaves, stems, bark, roots and other plant parts. While the system with the tree parts

that are growing and sequestering carbon is termed a carbon sink. The rate at

which trees grow and sequester carbon is influenced by site productivity local

characteristics such as climate, topography and soils. For a typical tree plantation,

tree growth tends to be slow in the early years as the trees establish themselves by

adapting the surrounding. The sequestration rates peak in many areas when trees

are of about 10 to 20 years old as earlier in faster-growing species and then slow

down or get loosen (Wardlaw, 1990; Vina, 2004; Gorte, 2007; Lal, 2007; Ugle, et

al., 2010).

A carbon sequestration rate at different periods in the life of a tree depends

on number of factors. Thus the carbon sequestration of a forest ultimately depends

on the number of trees planted per hectare, climatic factors, soil type, the quality of

site preparation and management to ensure seedling survival and ongoing

protection from fire, pests and disease (McCarty, 2002; Lal, 2007; Deo, 2008). If

trees are not harvested after maturity, they will continue to sequester carbon at a

declining rate. The age of maturity of trees varies from species to species,

generally at around 100 or 200 years. During the stage of maturity the tree growth

is balanced by decay with no net carbon assimilation (Bellamy, 2009;

Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008).

The common activities sequestering the carbon include the planting of

trees, changing agricultural tillage or cropping practices and re-establishing

grasslands (Pearson, et al., 2005). Soil is the largest reservoirs of carbon. It

accounts for 2011 GtC, or 81% of the total carbon in the terrestrial biosphere

(WBGU, 1998; Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008). The net long term CO2 sink

dynamics of forests or urban areas change through time as trees grow, die and

decay. In addition, human activities influence on forests. These further can affect

CO2 sink dynamics of forests through factors such as fossil fuel emissions and

harvesting of biomass (Nowak and Crane, 2002). As the tree biomass grows, the

carbon held by the plant also increases as carbon stock. The rate of carbon storage

increases in young stands, but then declines as the stand ages (Jana, et al., 2009;

Chavan and Rasal, 2011a, b).

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2.14 Forest and carbon sequestration

Forests play an important role in the global carbon cycle. The growing

forests not only have a significant impact on climate change, but also influence the

ecosystem productivities, nutrient cycling and environmental sustainability with

stability. The temporal carbon dynamics are characterized by long periods of

gradual build up of biomass acting as sink and alternated with short periods of

massive biomass loss as source. Forests thus switch between being a source or a

sink for carbon (IPCC, 1995). It is believed that the goal of reducing carbon

sources and increasing the carbon sink can be achieved efficiently by protecting

and conserving the existing forests as carbon pools (Brown, et al., 1996b). The

destruction of forests can be serious sources of greenhouse gases due to enhancing

rates and quantities of organic decay. The forests through their sustainable

management they can be important sinks of the same gases. It has been proved

that the lands where the stocks are highest had the highest stocks of soil organic

carbon in comparison to other land use systems (McCarty, 2002; Singh, 2005; Deo,

2008).

The forests act as a natural storage for carbon at the global scale,

contributing approximately 80% of terrestrial aboveground, and 40% of terrestrial

belowground carbon storage, in addition to various goods and services being

provided to human beings (Kirschbaum, 1996). Overall, forest ecosystems store

20–100 times more C per unit area than croplands. Therefore, they play a critical

role in reducing ambient CO2 levels, by sequestering atmospheric C in their growth

forming woody biomass through the process of photosynthesis and thereby

increasing the SOC content (Brown and Pearce, 1994).

2.15 Trees in Urban areas

2.15.1 Environmental Benefits of trees

Trees constitute major part of vegetation on the earth. Vegetation can

provide many environmental benefits. It creates wildlife habitats, provides food

and shelter for many organisms including birds (Huang, et al., 1992; MacDicken,

1997a; Chavan and Rasal, 2011). Trees are used as source for firewood in rural

area for domestic energy needs. The vegetation is responsible for nutrient recycling

in all ecosystems, beside providing food, fruits, fibers, fuel and fertilizers to

agriculture and commercial products to the human society (Chavan et al., 2010;

35

Chavan and Pawar, 2010). In addition, vegetation helps in rainwater infiltration

into the ground that can lead to higher water tables by ground water recharging.

The well grown vegetation reduces the flow of water into storm sewers (Dwyer, et

al., 1992). These effects reduce the possibilities of flooding and the collection of

pollutants in streams and rivers (Bolund & Hunhammar, 1999; McCarty, 2002).

Urban trees can provide some relief from the problem of air pollution by reducing

air pollution, increasing energy savings and causing the wind reduction by acting

as wind barriers (Kenney, 2000). They serve as wind breakers and reduce winter

heating needs by 4 to 22 %. Recent studies have shown that urban trees provide net

benefits to communities through reducing atmospheric CO2 concentration,

improving air and water quality, and increasing real estate values, as well as

providing many social and other benefits for residents (Dwyer, et al., 1992;

McPherson, et al., 1997, 1999, 2003).

2.15.2 Pollution Removal Benefits

Air pollution is a major problem in many urban areas which can cause and

aggravate many health-related diseases (Nowak, 1994; Narain, 2007). Dominant

air pollutants in urban areas are carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide

(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and small particulate matter (PM10). Local weather,

leaf surface area and concentrations of local pollutants determine the rate of

pollutant removal by trees (Nowak & Dwyer, 2000). Trees remove various gaseous

pollutants and airborne particles from the atmosphere (Kenney, 2000). These

pollutants either cling to the tree’s surface or are absorbed through openings in its

leaves (Smith, 1981). It is important to maintain, to as great an extent as is

possible, an urban forest of large, healthy trees. Large trees have been shown to

remove 60 to 70 times more pollution per year than small trees (Deo, 2008;

Nowak, 1994a).

The urban trees are 15 times more important in reducing CO2 buildup than

rural trees (Wisniewski, 1993). Many studies show that urban trees can also reduce

atmospheric CO2 concentrations by affecting energy usage (Rowntree and Nowak,

1991; Nowak, 1993; McPherson, 1998). Strategic planting of shade trees in

cities with substantial air conditioning requirements can reduce energy use and

fossil fuel CO, emissions (DeWalle, 1978; Akbari, et al., 1988). When trees are

close to buildings they directly affect energy usage by shading or blocking wind

36

and indirectly influense energy savings through climatic effects; they keep cities

cooler in the summer due to shade and transpiration and warmer in winter by

blocking wind (McPherson and Simpson, 2000; Jo and McPherson, 2001). Urban

trees, especially those on city property, are managed and easily assessed as the

carbon is assimilated by these trees. Estimating reduced emissions associated with

climate related energy saving is more difficult to measure, but if in question can be

considered a supplementary benefit (McHale, et al., 2007).

2.16 Tree Biomass

Sun is the main source of energy. After the sun, the biomass is probably our

oldest source of energy (Brown, 1997) which is derived from the sun through

photosynthesis. Biomass is a renewable energy source as it gets replenished with

time by plants and its supplies are not limited. Biomass is any organic matter like

as wood, crops, animal wastes that can be used as an energy source. Biomass is the

total amount of aboveground living organic matter in trees expressed as oven-dry

tons per unit area that reduces the concentration from atmospheric concentration of

carbon dioxide (Brown, 1997; Chavan and Rasal, 2011; FORDA and JICA, 2005;

Samalca, 2007; Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008). Biomass can be divided into

above-ground and below-ground biomass. The above-ground biomass consists of

living plants like as stems, branches, bark, leaves and debris like as dead stems,

fallen branches, and litter. The below ground biomass consists of live plant roots

and root debris.

FAO (2004a) defined biomass as “organic material both above-ground and

below-ground, and both living and dead, that includes trees, crops, grasses, tree

litter, roots etc”. Human society uses four types of biomass today wood and

agricultural products, solid waste, landfill gas and biogas, and alcohol fuels. We

always grow trees and crops, and therefore, waste will always exist in different

forms of biomass (Bellamy, 2009; Gorte, 2009). In terms of atmospheric carbon

reduction, trees in urban areas offer the double benefit of direct carbon storage and

maintenance of climatic conditions by its bio-geo-chemical processes (Chavan and

Rasal, 2009).

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2.17 Carbon Sink and Source

Carbon sink is a process or an activity that removes greenhouse gases from

the atmosphere and sequestered in the carbon pools. Within the carbon cycle a sink

is any location where carbon is stored like vegetation or soil (Brown, 1997;

Chavan and Rasal, 2010). A source is any location in the carbon cycle where from

carbon in any form is released or made available for chemical reaction. Some

examples of carbon sinks are forests, soil, and the ocean. Carbon sinks can turn

into carbon sources like fossil fuels. These are sinks buried in the Earth’s interior

and hence, clear that wood is act as a sink. When the fossil fuels or wood are

burned, carbon is released into the atmosphere and it is now referred as a carbon

source. Trees, act as a sink of atmospheric carbon, as they grow in process they

absorbs more CO2 and store (Chavan and Rasal, 2010; 2011; Killey, 2008; Jana, et

al., 2009). Number of urban trees have potentiality to reduce the accumulated

atmospheric carbon and can contribute in maintaining the equilibrium by reducing

atmospheric CO2 (Bellamy, 2009; Chavan and Rasal, 2009).

2.18 Carbon Pools

The flowing of carbon through the different reservoirs such as Above-

ground biomass, Below-ground biomass, dead wood, litter, and soil organic matter

are the major carbon pools in terrestrial ecosystem (FAO, 2005; IPCC, 2003;

IPCC, 2006; Chavan and Rasal, 2012).

2.18.1 Above-ground biomass (AGB)

According to IPCC (2006), above-ground biomass consists of all living

biomass above the soil including stem, stump, branches, bark, seeds, and foliage.

Above-ground biomass is the most important and visible carbon pool and the

dominant carbon pool in forests and plantations. Above-ground biomass is the

most important carbon pool for all land-use systems and involves trees, and is

likely to change frequently, even annually, much faster than other carbon pools for

all projects involving tree planting. Above-ground biomass has been given the

highest importance in carbon inventory and in most mitigation projects

(Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008). It is the most important pool in afforestation

and reforestation through CDM projects under the Kyoto Protocol as well as any

inventory or mitigation project related to forest lands, agroforestry and shelter belts

38

in croplands. Above-ground biomass is commonly the expressed as tones of

biomass or carbon per hectare.

The methods and models for measuring and projecting above-ground

biomass are also well developed as compared to other carbon pools. In non-forest

land-use systems such as cropland and grassland, biomass predominantly consists

of non-woody perennial and annual vegetation. It makes up a much smaller part of

the total carbon stock in the ecosystem than that in forests lands.

2.18.2 Belowground biomass (BGB)

According to IPCC (2006), belowground biomass consists of all living

roots excluding fine roots of sizes less than 2mm in diameter. Roots of terrestrial

vegetation play important role in the carbon cycle as they transfer considerable

amounts of carbon to the ground, which may be stored for a relatively long period.

Belowground or live root biomass is expressed as tones of biomass or carbon per

hectare. Although roots can extend to great depths, the greatest proportion of the

total root mass is confined to the top 30 cm of the soil surface. Carbon loss and

accumulation in the ground is intense in the top layer of the soil profile, which they

indicate that this should be the focus in sampling (Ponce-Hernandez, et al., 2004;

Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008). In many land-use systems like grasslands and

croplands this pool may not be important. The below-ground biomass in grassland

and cropland under crops is part of the annual carbon cycle, and need not be

measured.

2.18.3 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)

According to IPCC (2006), soil carbon sequestration is an important

strategy of enhancing soil quality, increasing agronomic productivity, reducing

risks of soil erosion and sedimentation, decreasing eutrophication and

contamination of water, reducing net CO2 emission by off-setting those due to

fossil fuel combustion, and mitigating the climate change (Lal, 2004). According

to IPCC (2006) Soil organic matter is the organic carbon in mineral soils to a

specified depth. The generic term for all organic compounds in the soil is particles

that are not living roots or animals. As dead organic matter is fragmented and

decomposed, it is transformed into soil organic matter. There are wide varieties of

materials that differ greatly in their residence time in soil. Some of them are easily

39

decomposed by microbial organisms and return the carbon to the atmosphere.

Some of the soil organic carbon is converted into recalcitrant compounds as

organic-mineral complexes that decompose slowly and may remain in soil for

decades or centuries or even longer. Fires often results in the production of small

amounts. These are called black carbon. The inert carbon fraction with turnover

time have span of several thousand of years (IPCC, 2006; McDicken, 1997a).

Management practices and other forms of disturbances can alter the net

balance carbon input and carbon losses from the soil (Nakane, 1995). Input to soil

carbon stock can balance between carbon input and carbon losses from the soil.

Input to soil carbon can come from higher plant production. When native grassland

or forest land is converted into cropland, 20-40% of original soil carbon stock can

be lost (Davidson and Ackerman, 1993; Ogle, et al., 2005; Ravindranath and

Ostwald, 2008). Both organic and inorganic forms of carbon are found in soil. The

land use and management typically has larger impacts on organic form of carbon.

Since most of the soil carbon is in the form of organic matter, management

practices that promote an increase in soil organic matter have a positive carbon

sequestration effect (Dixon, et al., 1994; Johnson, 1992; Lugo and Brown, 1993).

Removing crop residue can have adverse impact on soil quality, water

quality, agronomic production and also cause depletion of soil carbon pool

(Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008). The soil C sequestration is not an universal

remedy for all environmental issues, it is certainly a step in the right direction to

restore degraded soils, increase agronomic yields, improve water quality, reduce

erosion along with suspended and dissolved loads, reduce anoxia in coastal

ecosystems, and is useful to mitigate climate change through reduction in net

anthropogenic emission of CO2 into the atmosphere.

2.19 Carbon pools quantification

Land use and forestry projects are generally easier to quantify and monitor

than national inventories, due to clearly defined boundaries for project activities,

relative ease of stratification of project area, and choice of carbon pools to measure

(Brown, et al., 2000b; Brown, 2002). Criteria affecting the selection of carbon

pools to inventory and monitor are the type of project, size of the pool, its rate of

change, and its direction of change, availability of appropriate methods, cost of

40

measurement and attainable accuracy and precision in the measurements

(MacDicken, 1997a, b; Brown, 2002).

Forest biometricians have developed measurement and statistical methods

to determine the total quantity of biomass in various forest ecosystem components,

such as standing timber, woody debris, and the shrub, forbs, and grass layers

(Brown, 1996; McDicken, 1997a; Negi, 2003). Additional relationships exist

between aboveground biomass and belowground biomass that allow for reasonably

accurate estimation of root mass. These are (mainly) non-destructive techniques

that can generally detect changes in forest biomass and biomass carbon within a 5

or so year time increment (McDicken, 1997a, b).

The amount of carbon sequestered by a tree increases substantially over the

time as the greater the leaf area of the tree and the greater photosynthetic capacity.

The process of carbon sequestration is dynamic process. It is commonly used

approach to estimate carbon pools stored within a tree over time using empirical

data available for various tree components.

The Procedures for calculating the carbon sequestered by trees aim to

provide a simple and cost-effective method for measuring carbon stocks in

environmental plantings. For achieving this it is not necessary to measure every

tree and biomass. Instead, trees in small representative areas are measured.

Compared with plantations, environmental plantings are often very patchy. To

sample this patchiness adequately, two kinds of plots are used: fixed area plots to

sample trees and the point to plant plots to sample patchiness as tree stocking

(Brown, 1996; McDicken, 1997a; Deo, 2008).

2.20 Carbon Inventory

Tree measurements include species, diameter, height, and location. An

alternative is to base belowground biomass estimates on data from literature

documented data based on earlier studies (Whittaker and Marks, 1975;

Santantonio, et al., 1977). Santantonio and others (1977) have tabulated root

biomass estimation equations after conducting a large number of studies. They

have also provided a figure with individual data points showing the relationship

between tree DBH and root mass, on an estimation equation for root mass from

forest that was based on aboveground mass, and from an estimation equation based

on diameter (Santantonio, et al., 1977; Perala and Alban, 1994).

41

The following three carbon pools can be inventoried using the methods outlined in

this guide:

1. Above-ground biomass

2. Below-ground biomass (tree roots)

3. Soil carbon

2.21 Tools and techniques available for measuring carbon inventory

The relevant information includes a land-cover or land-use map of the

study area, identification of pressures on the land and its resources, history of land

use in the study area, the climatic factors mainly temperature and rainfall, soil

types, topography and socio-economic activities (Brown, et al., 1999; Houghton, et

al., 1997). Preliminary sampling of the identified strata is also needed to determine

their variability in carbon stocks. This information is then used to determine the

number of plots needed in each stratum to achieve desired precision levels based

on sampling error (Houghton et al. 1997). Such detailed information is useful to

outline relatively homogeneous forest strata containing forest type, soil type,

topography, land use for designing the measuring and monitoring sampling

scheme, improving baseline projections and developing guidelines for leakage

avoidance.

Several methods exist for accounting for the storage of long-lived wood

products (Winjum, et al., 1998). The IPCC Expert group for the Land Use and

Forestry sector of the Guidelines for GHG inventories. There are some completed a

reports that describe and evaluate the approaches available for estimating carbon

emissions or removals for forest harvesting and wood products (Houghton, et al.,

1997; Brown, et al., 1999; Lim, et al., 1999).

Measuring change in soil carbon over relatively short time periods is more

problematic. But this pool need not be measured in most projects. In cases where

changes in soil carbon are included, rates of soil oxidation under different land

uses are available in the literature (IPCC, 1997; Houghton, et al. 1997).

2.22 Estimating the area and the boundary for carbon inventory

The information and maps available for the land-use category area

describing the land-use and cover features, vegetation status and latitude and

longitude are used to estimate area. For some locations efforts were made to define

42

the involved the area and boundary depending on the available preliminary

information.

Two broad methods are for land area measurement and boundary marking as

described elsewhere (McDicken, 1997a; Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008).

1. Ground methods

a. Physical measurements

b. GPS approach

c. Participatory rural appraisal

2. Remote sensing methods

a. Aerial photography

b. Passive and active satellite imagery

Study area estimation and boundary marking was the first step in study.

Estimation of the area coverage as well as tree composition, was carried out

irrespective of whether it comprises of a single unit or multiple units, for

estimating the total carbon stock gains.

The approaches to selecting involved the following steps as described by

(Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008):

Step 1: The land-use category or land-use systems were identified and the location

was fired and the size of tree portion and trees was measured.

Step 2: All the maps available for the fixing location were obtained such as a

topographical map, soil map and land-use map.

Step 3: Information related to current and historical land-use patterns, land tenure,

human settlements, live stock grazing locations, source of fuel wood and timber

and locations were collected and areas of implementation of different programmes

such as afforestation, soil conservation and grassland reclamation were convert.

Step 4: Detailed information on proposed activities such as area planned for

afforestation, soil conservation and forest protection and phasing of these

activities, particularly in the area at study locations.

Step 5: Evaluate all the currently available maps and information as well as the

details of the activities along with the resources available for monitoring were

evaluated to take a final decision on the method to be adopted for measurement.

43

Ground Methods

Ground methods refer to methods involving deployment of field personnel

on the ground in the area that is investigated. Ground methods or field surveys can

produce accurate and detailed data, which is their strength. Thus these methods are

suitable for smaller area and require intensive preparation for detailed

measurement of area and other features (Rosillo-Calle et al., 2006). These methods

are used combination to increase the accuracy of the estimation of land area

(Ravindranath and Ostwald, 2008).

44

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