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CHAPTER III
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC SETTINGS OF MAJULI
1.1 Introduction
Socio-economic condition of any particular region is determined by its socio
cultural factors. It plays a vital role in shaping the economic structure of the region.
Historical and demographic characteristics as well as socio-cultural activities of the
people of study area are discussed in this chapter.
1.2 Historical Background of Peopling in Majuli
Majuli Sub-division, according to the report of the last census (2011), is the
homeland of 1,65,245 people consisting of both castes and tribes, pursuing various
religious beliefs including animism, although its major belief is Vaishnavism of the
order of Srimanta Sankardeva(1449-1568).
The geographical formation and situation influence the climate and peopling in
Majuli. The environment was serene and beautiful. The picture of the Sub-division
more or less was to be found till sixties of the natural growth of the population. The
present Majuli is therefore, after half a century thickly populated area. The
geographical isolation has made it an ideal place for religious importance. This was
possibly the major reason as to why the Ahom king selected Majuli for establishment
of great satras. By the last part of 17th century, Majuli became place of numerous
satras belonging to different sanghatis into which Neo Vishnavism was parcled out in
the Post-Sankardev period. So, being geographically isolated and cut off from the
main land of Assam the island provided the secluded place of a distant locality from
the capital city at Gargaon or Rongpur.
Historical evidence shows that the prior to its occupation by the Ahom, the
area (Majuli) was under the control of the Chutyas, an aboriginal tribe of north eastern
part of India. Naturally, this area might have been peopled by members of the Chutya,
Deori and other communities. Chutyas are concentrated in the northeastern part of
Majuli centering round Ratanpur, the traditional name for the capital city of the
Chutya King Ratnadhaspal. Majuli once formed a part of the Chutya kingdom, and
some remains of the times of the Chutya (Chutiya) state are still to be seen on the
northeast at Dhakuwakhana across the Brahmaputra. Belonging to the greater
Mongoloid tribes, the Chutyas belong to the Bodos, and are akin to the Morans and the
Kacharis. In such a social complex, Srimanta Sankardeva found a fertile place for
proporgating his Vaishnavism. Historical record and social survey testify to the
settlement of Kaivartas in Majuli much earlier to whom the profession of fishing was
traditionally associated with. Kaivartas, form another numerous castes in Majuli’s
population. According to Risley, they present a distinctly intermediate one equally
removed from the extreme type of Aryan and Dravidian races found in Bengal. They
are included among the Scheduled Castes, who, according to the estimation of the year
2001, form 21,479 souls. The Kaivartas are found in almost all places in Majuli,
living in their own exclusive villages. Some of their known villages are at Salmora,
Sensowa, Kamalabari, Kamalabari, Garamur, Kharjan, Nagargaon, Dhekiajuli,
Kakarikata, Chilakala, Dakhinpat and so forth. The biographical work (Charitputhis)
of Vaishnava Saints have recorded the establishment of Mayamara Vaishnava as
Yogis or Katanis, who at present form a considerable part of Majuli’s total population
had their habitation since atleast the days of Chutyas. The Yogi or Nath of Majuli
earlier called as Katani might occupy a good status so far as their population strength
is concerned. Acoording to a recent (2011) estimation their number exceeds 20,000 in
Majuli. They spread over 20 odd villages located in the middle and southeastern part
of Majuli. The Nathas are an agricultural community in Majuli. Their traditional craft
of producing silk is no longer their vocation today. Other comparative early habitants
of Majuli the name of the Koches would also come who probably started to settle here
since long past. It is difficult to presume their strength as many of them would like to
enroll themselves as Kalita hiding their identity as Koch. The Koch belongs to one of
the aboriginal tribes of the Brahmaputra valley. Koches are the next advanced group of
people among the castes and tribes of Majuli. From the invasion of the Ahom
Kingdom in 1562 and the ruling tribe who ruled Assam from the early part of the 13th
century till the close of the first quarter of 19th century, who might have started to
settle in Majuli not later than the days of the king Suhungmung alias Dihingia Raja
(1494-1539) who conquered this part of the land and annexed it to his kingdom. In
Majuli there are two Ahom villages- Ratanpur Lahon Gaon and Chaorekia, both are
located in the extreme, southeastern part of Majuli bordering the Brahamaputra. There
is no record to know about the time of settlement of these two villages when the whole
Majuli is populated by the non Ahom communities. Be that as it may, being minority
in Majuli, the people of these two villages are developing the overall Vaisnava
character which govern the people of Majuli at large. The Misings, one of the major
plain tribes of Assam inhabitating Majuli, accounting for more than 30% of the total
population of Majuli. The Ahom records for the medieval period, which are still the
main and probably the only recorded sources to study the early history of Misings, do
not contain any references as to the period of the beginning of their settlement in
Majuli. It appears that they migrated to the north and north eastern part of Majuli from
the Suvansiri valley in the early 19th
century, first occupying the small islands on the
border and then gradually advancing towards the mainland of Majuli. Politically and
culturally the Misings are one of the best advance populations of Majuli. The Misings
are an agriculturalist community in Majuli. The Misings carried their hill culture till
they came to Majuli, so much so that many of them till the early part of 20th
century
did not know the Assamese language, and the male members used bow and arrows for
hunting and defence. But during the last one hundred years the Misings have
undergone significant changes in their socio-economic life. They have now changed
their dress, ornaments, and food habits and have adapted to the lifestyle of the plains.
In some advantageous places, such as Jengraimukh and Phulani, they are also
accustomed with the other plain communities along with their socio-cultural activities.
Kacharis are one of the most well known aboriginal tribes of Assam. In Majuli there
is only one village inhabited by the Kachari people. It is called Sonowal Kachari Gaon
after the name of the clan to which they belong. This village is situated on the extreme
southeastern border of Majuli on the bank of the Brahmaputra. The Deorist form
another significant tribal population group of Majuli. There are three villages inhabited
by the Deoris. They are Majar Deori Gaon, Sriram Deoroi Gaon and Deori Pam Gaon.
According to the 2001 census report, the Deoris form less than 2% of the total
population of Mjuli, and a little less than 4% of the total tribal strength. The main
occupation of Deoris of Majuli is agriculture and they are now significantly inclined
towards Assamese Vaishnavite culture. Even in their dresses and ornaments changes
are noted. While the above is the list of indigenous inhabitants of Majuli, there are
immigrants settlers coming from other parts of the country. During the late 19th
and
early 20th
centuries a few of the trading communities from other parts of India began
to pour into Majuli exclusively for trade purposes. They included mostly Marwaries
and Telis. During the partition period, a number of Bengali speaking Hindu Sylhaty
families migrated to the peripheral areas of Majuli. Besides these, Biharis are also
found in Majuli. Recently some immigrants Muslims also have their settlement in
Majuli. These people are found in imitation of the local people. They are settled all
over Majuli, particularly in the township or in the distant peripheral areas. The major
occupation is business- in milk, fish or grocery. Most of them belong to Scheduled
Castes. The topography of Majuli provided them with ample opportunities to trade in
milk and fish, and to pursue agriculture. There are two villages of Nepali community
in Majuli. They are Sriram Devottar Nepali Gaon, and the Karkichuk Nepali Gaon-
both located in upper Majuli in the suburb of Jengraimukh and Phuloni township with
a tentative population of about 350. The two Nepali villages grew in the Post-
Independence period. They are mainly agriculturalists. Some of them maintain herds
of cows and sell milk. The Muslims (Goriya) form a small hamlet in the heart of
Majuli in the vicinity of the Kamalabari township. It is called Borhola Muslim Gaon.
It is not known how and when the Muslims came to Majuli and formed a settlement
there. They are still alien to the local situation. Their alien nature is reflected in the
nature of their settlement in a low-lying swampy place. And having no cultivable land
and more particularly in the use of some alien mood of speech in their family
communication. It is to be noted that in the beginning of 20th
century, in 1901,
Majuli’s population was some 35,000, while according to 2001 census recorded
population of Majuli was 1,53,400 and in 2011 it was 1,65,245.
The society of Majuli is composed of both castes and tribes. While the caste
fraction is composed of the Brahmins, Kalitas amd other Brahmanised communities
assuming caste rank, the tribes consist of the Mising, the Deori and the Kachari
elements. The society in Majuli consist of two distinct divisions- caste and tribe. The
immigrants communities like Bengalis, Marwaris, Biharis, Nepalis, and the Muslims
come under the caste hierarchy.
3.3 Demographic Characteristics
Socio-economic development of a region or area is to a great extent, influenced
by its demographic features. Some of the population variables like growth rate,
population density, sex ratio, and literacy, pattern of age group as well as occupational
pattern are some determinants of socio-economic well being of a society.
Keeping that fact in view, an attempt has been made here to study some of the
important demographic features of Majuli. Mention may be made that this study is
primarily based on the available data of 2001 census. However, for purpose of
comparision, some old data pertaining to the previous year census reports were taken
into account.
3.3.1 Population Size and Growth
Majuli is characterized by a population growth in many cases lower than that
of the state average. At the beginning of the last century, the population of Majuli was
31,219, which was increased to 1,35,378 in 1991 and 1,53,362 in 2001. During the
period of 1901 to 1951, the population of Majuli went up by 103.81 percent. In this
period, Assam as a whole registered a growth rate of 97.71 percent. However, between
the period of 1961 and 2001, Majuli experienced a population growth rate of 70.86
percent as against 142.04 percent in Assam as a whole. The comparatively higher
growth rate experienced in Majuli prior to 1951 might be due to immigration of people
in view of the better living in Majuli. But, after 1951, relatively slow growth of
population in Majuli may be because of out-migration of the people (particularly from
Ahataguri and Salmora Mouzas) owing to the rampage of flood and erosion.
Table 3.1: Demographic profile of Majuli, Jorhat district, Assam (2001)
Population Majuli Sub-Division Jorhat District Assam
Total 1,53,400 9,99,221 2,66,55,528
Male 79,481 517.15 1,37,77,037
Female 73,919 4,82,206 1,28,78,491
ST Population 68,198 1,23,134 33,08,570
ST Male 34,676 62,465 16,78,117
ST Female 33,522 60,669 1,63,453
Density/sq.km 366 350 340
Literacy (%) 75.40 86.89 64.28
Source: Census Report, Assam, 2001
3.3.2 Density of Population
The density of population indicates the total number of persons per square
kilometer. In Majuli, the population density is increasing day by day because of
decrease in inhabitable area owing to erosion, and constant pressure of growing
population. The density of population of Majuli according to 1901 census was 24
persons per square kilometer, which went upto 146 persons in 1991. As per 2001, the
density of population of the sub-division was 366 persons per square km. This figure
of 2001 was higher as compared to the corresponding figure of Assam as a whole.
3.3.3 Sex-ratio
Sex composition of a population is necessary to know the prevailing
demographic charactistics of a place. It is indicated in terms of sex-ratio. Sex-ratio is
expressed in terms of the number of females per thousand males.
According to 1991 census, the sex-ratio in terms of female population per
thousand males in Majuli was 923. But, it became a little favourable for the females in
2001, the figure stood at 929 females per thousand males. In case of Assam as a
whole, the ratio became 932 females per thousand males, in 2001, which in case of
India the ratio was 933 females per thousand males. Thus, it becomes evident that
female population in Majuli is marginally lower as compared to the male population
than that of Assam and the country as a whole.
3.3.4 Literacy Rate
Literacy is an important indicator of demographic study. Census of India
defines that a person aged 7 and above who can both read and write with
understanding in any language is considered as literate. A Person, who can only read
but cannot write, is not considered as literate. Thus, the effective literacy rate is
calculated by excluding the population of 0-6 years of age group.
So far as the literacy rate of Majuli is considered, it was 60.89 percent in 1991
in the Sub-division. As per 2001 census, this rate stood at 75.40 percent (85.40 percent
for males and 64.58 percent for males), which was higher than that of Assam as a
whole which was 64.28 percent (comprising 71.93 percent males and 56.03 percent
females) and all India average 65.38 percent (75.85 percent for males and 54.16
percent for females). Thus, it is apparent that the male literacy rate in Majuli as per
2001 census was higher than those of state level and national level averages.
3.3.5 Occupational Pattern
The scenario of the overall economic development of a region can best be
understood by looking at the proportion of its total population engaged in different
economic activities (i.e. work participation ratio). The classification of the work force
of Majuli according to occupational pattern shows that, as per 1971 census, 84.06
percent of the total working population was engaged in primary sector, 5.84 percent in
secondary sector and remaining 10.1 percent in tertiary sector. The percentage of the
working force engaged in tertiary sector was increased to 14.22 percent as per the
census of 1991. However, the percentages of working force engaged in primary and
secondary sectors have marginally declined in 1991. Yet, more than 80 percent of the
working force was engaged in primary sector of which about 78 percent was
cultivators. Thus, agriculture and its allied activities is still the prime source of
livelihood of the inhabitants of Majuli. The engagement of as low as 4.41 percent
(1991 census) of the working force in the secondary sector reflected the grim picture
of industrial activities in the sub-division. Out of 14.22 percent of the working
population engaged in the tertiary sector, workers engaged in trade and commerce,
transport, storage and communication together accounted for more than one fourth of
the total workers engaged in this sector.
3.4 Economic Set Up in Majuli
Economy of Majuli sub-division, till a few decades ago, was a continuum of
the medieval system, self-sufficient and subsistence in nature, and it has been still
continued to a certain degree. The system had its root in the Paik system of the Ahom
days and was dependent on the local geographical conditions.
Villages were organized in terms of either profession or caste. Since one caste
followed on was made to follow a certain profession, there was combination of caste
and profession, and a village could be marked from the same name itself which either
spoke of the caste or of the profession of its people. Thus, even now anyone finds in
Majuli, villages like Katani gaon, Patiya gaon, Kamar gaon, Kumar gaon, Kanrhal
gaon, Tanti gaon, Pohardiya gaon, Yogi gaon, Sonariati gaon, Sonowal Kachari gaon
etc.1 The present economic activities of the people of Majuli are as shown below
3.4.1 Agriculture
Agriculture has always been the mainstay of economy in Majuli, and is based
on its geographical situation. It has been stated earlier how the climate and its soil
system have been conductive to an agrarian economy since known past. Its climate
being moist and the soil being alluvial throughout, Majuli has always been suitable for
cultivation of various crops.
Table 3.2: Classification and Utilization of Agricultural Land in Majuli,
(Ref. Year 2009-10)
Item Area (in Hect.)
Total cropped area 50,010.00
Net area shown 45,421.00
Area shown more than once 4,589.00
Land put to non-agricultural uses 3,452.10
Barren and uncultivable land 2,119.00
Permanent pastures and other grazing land 10,779.53
Land under misc. tree, crops and groves not included in net area 30,164.10
Cultivable waste land 15,387.47
Fallow land other than current fallow 10,590.22
Current fallow 2,608.14
Forest land 0
Social forestry 49.79
Water logged land 820.32
Land under still water 3,120.33
Source: Deputy Director of Economics & Statistics, Jorhat
Different Agricultural Land Categories of Majuli
Fig 3.1
In the naturally fertile soil of Majuli, both food and cash crops are grown in the
crop-seasons, viz, rabi and kharif. The main kharif crops are autumn (Ahu) pady,
winter (Sali and Bao) pady along with different summer vegetables, whereas the Rabi
crops include summer rice, wheat, oilseeds, pulses, potato and other vegetables. Rape
and mustard is the main oilseeds grown in the sub-division. Recently, sunflower is
also cultivated in some areas successfully. Among the various pulses cultivated in the
sub-division, black gram, green gram, peas and lentil are important. Sugarcane is an
important annual crop grown in the sub-division. According to Agriculture
Department of Majuli cropping pattern of the Sub-division in the year 2010-2011
0.00
10,000.00
20,000.00
30,000.00
40,000.00
50,000.00
60,000.00
Area (in Hact.)
indicates that the paddy is dominating the cropping pattern covering about 55 percent
of the gross cropped area. Among the three varieties of paddy cultivated in the sub-
division, winter paddy is gaining ground occupying 64.76 percent of the total area
under paddy and 35.57 percent of the gross cropped area. In recent years, cultivators of
Majuli have started cultivating different varieties of high yielding paddy like Joya,
Pusha, I.R.-8, I.R.-38, culture-1, Lachit, Kolong, Hybrid-6201 and 6444. Besides, they
cultivate autumn (Ahu) paddy as it is generally considered flood-free season crop.
Next to paddy, rape and mustard are the second import crops grown in the sub-
division. They covered 23.14 percent of the total cropped area of the sub-division in
2010-2011, which is much higher than that of Assam. Similarly, percentage of area
under pulses is also higher in Majuli as compared to the state’s average. The three
other important crops, viz, wheat, pulses and potato occupy 1.90 percent, 6.15 percent
and 3.16 respectively of the total cropped area. The individual allocation of area under
other crops is very negligible. Mention may be made that although the allocation of
area under sugarcane too is not significant, yet it appears to be one of the most viable
cash crops which can be grown successfully in the sub-division, particularly in the
char-chapori areas.2
Table 3.3: Production of Principal Crops in Majuli, 2009-10
Crops Area (Hectares) Production (in tonnes) Yield (Kg/Hect).
Autumn Paddy 2300 4747 1053
Winter Paddy 15500 33193 1762
Summer Paddy 3820 4192 1079
Wheat 88 282 1312
Pulses 10698 3276 436
Rape & Mustard 9987 6463 647
Matikalai 7120 1955 419
Potato 1428 2568 1543
Sugarcane 449 8722 31833
Peas 1418 590 447
Source: District Statistical Hand Book, Jorhat
Principal Crop Production
Fig 3.2
3.4.2 Fisheries
Besides agriculture, fishery is an important allied activity profitably running in
Majuli. A section of SC and ST communities primarily depends on the fishing
occupation. The fisheries are completely natural. Majuli Sub-division has
approximately 21,321.54 Hec. Of water for fisheries which produce approximately 10
MT. of fish per day. There are than 150 wetlands, which are good source of fish. The
fishing occupation is traditional and the catch is mostly for domestic consumption. In
Majuli, where the caste specific occupation structure still exists, only the Schedule
Castes and Schedule Tribes engage in this activity. The right to fishing in such
fisheries is put to auction by the government and is settled with the highest bidder
usually for a period of three years. The auction sale of lucrative fishes is often keenly
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000P
rod
uct
ion
(in
To
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Production
(in tones)(in Tonnes)
contested. Though no fish processing industry exists in Majuli, the curing of fish is
done by the local people. Small dried fish is one of the delicacies to almost all the
tribes in Majuli. The small fish is cured on prepared simply by drying them in the
sunlight. In the market, fishes are sold to commission agents who in turn sell them to
retailers. Fishes were found to be sold in various daily, weekly and bi-weekly markets
spread throughout the Sub-division and surplus of fishes are generally exported to
Jorhat and Sivasagar towns.
3.4.3 Animal Husbandry
Natural environment gives impetus for rearing livestock as well as poultry in
Majuli. On the other hand dairy business of Majuli is also famous in outside. The
abundance of left green grasses in wet lands and in the char-chapories of Majuli is
suitable for rearing buffaloes, cows and goats. Besides these, among the tribal
communities almost all farm families rear pigs traditionally and earn substantial
income. Next to piggery, goattery farming appears to be second viable as well as
profitable occupation in Majuli. Moreover, small fishes, snails, earth-worms, water-
born insects and other plants usually found in the natural swamps make the duck
farming easy in this sub-division. These rearing food staffs not only fulfill the
domestic demand of the Sub-division but also can export to surrounding districts of
Majuli.3
3.4.4 Sericulture and weaving
Sericulture and weaving have been playing an important role in generating
subsidiary income to a section of the people of Majuli. Especially for tribal and non-
tribal female population, weaving is a main source of additional earning. A large
section of the women engage themselves in weaving various kinds of Silk, Endi and
Cotton cloths. The products are generally concentrated in Ratanpur Miri, Jengraimukh,
Rangachahi, Borgoya, Rawanapar, Phumora and some parts of Namoni Majuli. The
tribal women weave various attractive handloom products. Ribi Gasheng, Mibu Galok,
Mirijim, Gamosa, Endi Chador etc. All these handloom Cotton and Endi items have
market potentiality within and outside the state.4
In view of the suitability in producing sericulture item, government has taken
some steps in the sub-division. According to a government report of sericulture, in
Kamalabari (Majuli) around 7079 numbers of families are engaged in producing Endi,
Muga and Silk of different quantities and 151 numbers of villages are considered to be
the sericulture village. The Endi Concentration Centre at Rawanapur, Collective
Mulberry Garden of Sonariati and Muga Food Plantation Centre at Luhitpar have
extended facilities to the rearers for their economic upliftment.
3.4.5 Some Existing Cottage Industries in Majuli
Cottage industries are small-scale-industries which the workers carry on in
their own homes with simple and cheap tools and with a small capital. The goods
produced by them, are not only satisfied the needs of local people but are also sent to
domestic and foreign markets. They provide work during spare hours to the villagers
and can hold to their income. So cottage industries can play a significant role in case
of creating livelihood and employability among rural masses for rural development.
From very past Majuli is one of the most important floors for cottage
industries. It has evergreen forests, seasonal crops, paddy fields, wetlands with
varieties of virgin waterborne plant species. As we know the cottage industry is an
important socio-economic activity which is now recognized as a grassroot industry
generating a number of social as well as economic benefits for rural people. In many
places in the world it is the prime source of income of indigenous people. So far
Majuli is concerned; it is a land of various ethnic groups with colorful traditional
culture. It is also famous as the nerve centre of Vaishnavite Assamese cultural
heritage.
The almost tribal and non-tribal people and inmates of most of the satras keep
themselves engaged with some specific cottage industries. These industries not only
give the identity of its own community but also give the special identity of Majuli
among the world communities. These are earning source of some indigenous
communities of Majuli. They have been doing these traditionally, generation after
generation.5 Although Majuli is not developed in the sphere of industrial activities a
few important units of cottage industry still exist occupying a significant place not
only within the sub-division but also in the entire state. A brief account of the
handicraft activities, practiced by the people of Majuli, has been given in the chapter
seven relating to the Rural and Ecotourism.
3.4.6 Transport and Communication
The Majuli sub division is connected to the district headquarters Jorhat and
with other parts of the state by road and water ways. Rail and air transport is totally
out of service in the sub division. On the other hand Majuli is almost surrounded by
water. There are about 10 ghats (Ferry services) in Majuli as shown in the table 3.3
which have connected the sub division with Sivasagar, Jorhat and Lakhimpur districts.
Table 3.3: Name of the river ghats with ferry services
Ferry Service In between Number of Services
Kamalabari - Neemati Majuli – Jorhat 3 times
Dakhinpat – Neemati Majuli – Jorhat 2 times
Aphalamukh – Neemati Majuli – Jorhat 1 times
Phulani – Neemati Majuli – Jorhat 1 times
Salmora – Neemati Majuli – Jorhat 2 times
Chumaimari – Neemati Majuli – Jorhat 1 times
Namoni Majuli – Bodoti Majuli – Bihpuria More than 10 times
Luhit – Khaboli Majuli – Lakhimpur 10 times
Phulani – Dikhowmukh Majuli – Gourisagar 1 times
Sikari – Dikhowmukh Majuli – Gourisagar 1 times
Source: SDO Office, Majuli
According to PWD Office, Garamur, the sub division has a total length of
646.015 km PWD road with 10 Concrete (RCC) bridges. Out of which only 100 km is
black topping. Besides these, 124.164 km gravel road and 503.737 km village road
(Kutcha) are in Majuli. It is worth mentionable that there is no national and state
highway connectivity.
3.5 Conclusion:
Peculiar geographical formation, location as well as geographical isolation and
suitable climatic elements not only influence peopling in Majuli but also Socio-
economic setup of the Majuli Sub-division. In other words effects of the above
geographical parameters on transport and communication, agriculture, fisheries animal
husbandry as well as traditional handicraft sector of Majuli are very significant. In the
next chapter the researcher will discuss about the causes of flood.
Reference:
1. Nath, D. (2009), The Majuli Island Society, Economy and Culture,, ANSHAH,
Publishing House Delhi.
2. Saikia, D. & Borah (2013), Traditional Handicrafts in Majuli Sub-Division: In:
Nath, R. (Ed), Souvnier Chinaki, Pubished by Golden Jubilee Celebration
Committee, R.T.N.H.S. School, Majuli, pp. 107-108.
3. Hazarika, C. K. (2010-11), The Treasure Trove: A resource book on Majuli,
the mid-river delta, National printers, Kalapahar, Guwahati.
4. Nath, B.K. (2012), Potentiality of Rural and Ecotourism for Rural
Development in Majuli, MRP Report, UGC, New Delhi.
5. Ibid.
*****
PHOTO PLATE I
Rice Cultivation at Major Chapori Area
Mustard Cultivation in Bali Chapori Area
Potato and Vegetable Cultivation in Bhakat Chapori Area
Source: Collected by researcher