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NKWUO, FIDELIA AKUNNA
PG/M.Sc./09/54244
MAN-HOUR WASTAGES DUE TO ILL HEALTH AMONG
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN THREE SELECTED
COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE
Institute for Development Studies
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS
Webmaster
2011
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
2
MAN-HOUR WASTAGES DUE TO ILL HEALTH
AMONG AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN THREE
SELECTED COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE
BY
NKWUO, FIDELIA AKUNNA
PG/M.Sc./09/54244
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS
(UNEC) ENUGU
NOVEMBER, 2011
3
TITLE PAGE
MAN-HOUR WASTAGES DUE TO ILL HEALTH AMONG
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN THREE SELECTED
COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE
BY
NKWUO, FIDELIA AKUNNA
PG/M.Sc./09/54244
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc.) IN
DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SUPERVISOR: UMOH, B. D.
NOVEMBER, 2011
4
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project title Man-hour wastages due to
ill-health among agricultural workers in three selected communities in
Enugu State was written by Nkwuo, Fidelia Akunna, a student of the
Institute for Development Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the Masters of Science Degree in Development Studies during the
academic year, 2009/2010 under the guidance and supervision of:
…………………………….. …………….
UMOH B.D. DATE
……………………………. ………………
PROF. OSITA OGBU DATE
Director
Institute for Development Studies
University of Nigeria (UNN)
Enugu Campus
5
APPROVAL
This work was approved and carried out by Nkwuo, Fidelia Akunna
(PG/M.sc/09/54244 for the award of M.Sc. in Development Studies of the
Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.
---------------------------------- -------------- -----------
------ UMOH, B. D. PROF. OSITA OGBU
Supervisor Director
6
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty, who alone made the
impossibility possible in my life. He indeed makes a way in the
wilderness and cause waters to spring up from the desert.
7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to God Almighty, who alone saw me through
this Programme. In my weakness he manifested his strength!
This work would not have also been a success without the valuable
contributions of a large number of people. My profound gratitude
therefore goes to my able Supervisor, Mr. Umoh B.D. who painstakingly
went through the manuscripts, corrected and guided me patiently to the
end.
I also acknowledge the contributions of my lecturers whose lecture
notes formed a solid base for this piece of work. It shall be well with
them.
Friends and well wishers who offered me the encouragement,
solace and comfort which cushioned the effects of stress encountered in
writing this project given the short time allocated for submission, are not
forgotten.
I will not forget my darling husband and my siblings who offered
me their moral, financial and spiritual supports during this Programme.
Finally, I thank the librarians and the various authors whose works
were consulted. May the good Lord bless all for me.
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - i
Certification page - - - - - - - ii
Approval - - - - - - - - iii
Dedication - - - - - - - - iv
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - v
Table of contents - - - - - - - vi
Abstract - - - - - - - - ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY - - - 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem: - - - - 5
1.3 Objectives of the Study: - - - - - 6
1.4 Research Questions: - - - - - 7
1.5 Formulation of Hypothesis - - - - 8
1.6 Study Area: - - - - - - - 9
1.7 Significance of the Study: - - - - 10
1.8 Scope of the Study: - - - - - 12
1.8 limitations of the Study: - - - - - 12
References - - - - - - - - 14
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction: - - - - - - 15
9
2.2 Conceptual Analyses: - - - - - 15
2.3 Types of Illnesses suffered by the Agricultural
Workers: - - - - - - - 18
2.3.1 Pesticide Poisoning: - - - - - 18
2.3.2 Peasant Syndrome: - - - - - 20
2.3.3 Vinyl House Disease: - - - - - 21
2.3.4 Respiratory Diseases: - - - - - 22
2.3.5 Musculoskeletal Injuries/Diseases: - - - 23
2.3.6 Infectious Diseases: - - - - - 24
2.3.7 Skin Disorders/Diseases: - - - - - 24
2.3.8 Eye Injuries: - - - - - - 25
2.3.9 Snakes/Scorpion/Insect bites: - - - 26
2.3.10 Heat and Sun Exposure Disease: - - - 27
2.3.11 Psychiatric Diseases: - - - - - 27
2.4 Levels of Man-hour Wastages: - - - - 29
2.5 The Impact of Man-hour Wastages on Agricultural
Produce: - - - - - - - 32
2.6 Summary of Literature Review: - - - - 34
References - - - - - - - - 35
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design: - - - - - - 37
3.2 Area of the Study: - - - - - - 37
10
3.3 Study Population: - - - - - - 38
3.4 Sample: - - - - - - - 39
3.5 Sampling Techniques: - - - - - 40
3.6 Instruments for Data Collection: - - - 41
3.7 Validation of the Instrument: - - - - 41
3.8 Reliability of the Instrument: - - - - 42
3.9 Data Collection - - - - - - 42
3.10 Method of Analysis of Data - - - - 43
3.11 Problems Encountered in the Field - - - 43
References - - - - - - - - 45
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Social/Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 46
4.2 Common Ailments among Respondents - - 54
4.3 Test of Hypotheses - - - - - 64
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.1 Types of Illnesses Suffered by Agricultural Workers
in the Study Communities. - - - 67
5.2 Man-hour Wastages Caused by Ill Health - 69
5.3 Man-hour Wastages and Agricultural Productivity 70
5.4 Health Facilities Available to Farmers - - 71
11
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Summary of Findings - - - - - 73
6.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - 76
6.3 Recommendations - - - - - - 77
Bibliography - - - - - - - 79
Appendix I - - - - - - - - 83
Appendix II - - - - - - - - 88
12
ABSTRACT
Over the years, the rate of growth in agricultural production has
dwindled and failed to keep pace with the needs of a rapidly growing
population. It is also a common knowledge that the agricultural sector is
labour intensive and saddled with the use of crude implements which
expose the farmers to the attack of work related diseases of various
dimensions. The study sought to examine the man-hour wastage due to ill
health among agricultural workers in three selected communities in
Enugu State. The work also tried to identify types of illnesses suffered by
the agricultural workers, the burden of ill health and how these man-hour
wastages affect agricultural productivities in general. The Health
facilities available to the farmers were also examined. A total no of 388
respondents were selected, while the satisfied random sampling technique
was used to get the required sample size. Descriptive statistics which
include frequencies and percentages were used to answer the research
questions. While a one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to
test the hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis was rejected showing that
there is no difference between male and female agricultural workers in
their man-hour wastages. Findings show that majority of the crop
farmers in the study area are subsistent farmers who use crude
implements to do most of their works. It was also discovered that these
farmers suffer work related illnesses caused by the use of antiquated
crude implements as well as other illnesses which in turn cause a lot of
man hour wastages. It was also found out that there are no adequate
health facilities available for these farmers to take proper care of
themselves when they fall sick. Based on the findings, it was
recommended among other things that health facilities including mobile
clinics and modern farm implements be provided for the rural farmers
and well trained agricultural extension workers to educate them on the
proper use of pesticides.
13
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Before the advent of the Oil boom in the country in the 70s,
agriculture had remained the mainstay of the national economy providing
a means of livelihood for over 70% of the populace and also contributing
significantly to the growth in the Gross Domestic Product (Attah, 2008).
The country depended almost entirely on agricultural production for food
and agro-industrial raw materials for foreign exchange earnings through
the commodity trade. At the time of independence, over 75% of the
country’s labour force was engaged in agriculture, which provided
gainful employment and satisfactory livelihood to over 90% of the
population (NHDS, 2008).
This trend continued until the early seventies when oil became the
single dominant source of income for Nigeria. This gave rise to a decline
in agriculture as a major source of income for the country. However, the
sector still remains the major source of domestic food items. Statistics
show that Nigeria agriculture contribute more than thirty per cent of total
Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employs about sixty percent of
labour force, accounts for over seventy percent of the non-oil exports and
provides over eighty percent of the food needs of the country (Adegboye,
14
2004). Despite its importance, Nigeria agriculture has to a large extent,
not divorced itself from most of the characteristics of the peasant
economy that were present in the pre-independence period (Adewumi et
al, 2002). According to Onyenuga (1985), there is presently a shortage of
food in Nigeria. A fairly large proportion of our human population is in a
state of permanent food scarcity and starvation. Assessment of
agricultural production in Nigeria over time also reveals that the real
share of agriculture on the Gross Domestic Product declined dramatically
over the years (CBN, 2000, Jeter, 2004).
A number of factors are responsible for the downward trend in
Nigeria agricultural sector. Among which are instability of government
and policy, rural-urban migration of able-bodied youths leading to old
aged farming population in rural areas (Jetter, 2004). The consequent
mass migration of educated and able-bodied citizens to urban areas for
better life and dignified employment has resulted into the complexities of
life emanating from a poorly ordered society to the extent that streets of
some cities are disgracefully littered with beggars, sick persons and
occasionally with dead bodies. Apart from these, it is strongly believed
that man-hour wastages due to ill-health among farmers is one major
problem militating against the development of this sector and also
resulting in a decline in productivity. What then is man-hour? Man-hour
15
is the time spent by workers at a specified period of work. Since time is
our perception of duration, man-hour is therefore time measured in terms
of hours spent in a work environment for a specified period usually per
day. It is an equitable free gift of nature but most irretrievably perishable
(FGN, 2010). For a man who works in his farm from 7.00a.m. to
5.00p.m., his man-hour for a day is ten hours per day and for six working
days in a week, he would have worked for sixty hours per week. If as a
result of ill-health of one kind or the other, he could attend to his farm for
two days only, he would have lost or wasted forty man-hours for that
week due to ill-health. Consequently, this would have negatively affected
his productivity for that week.
The causes of ills-health for workers in the agricultural sector are
many. This is because the bulk of agricultural workers in Nigeria is
concentrated almost exclusively on small-holder farmers whose activities
are labour intensive and are carried out in rural areas where there is little
or no health facilities to nip their illnesses on the bud. Consequently,
these farmers are highly vulnerable to illnesses of diverse dimensions
such as malaria, typhoid, guinea worm infestations and even HIV/AIDS
pandemics. Apart from these, they are also vulnerable to such work-
related illnesses such as pesticide poisoning, respiratory diseases, skin
diseases and so on (Kwan and Hyun-Sul, 2008).
16
In the midst of all these, there is no doubt that there could be man-
hour wastages resulting from these illnesses in any agricultural
community selected for this study. It is therefore against this background
that this study would be carried out.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:
Over the years the rate of growth in agricultural production has
declined and failed to keep pace with the needs of a rapidly growing
population. Many factors are responsible for this and they include
farmers’ poor health status without adequate healthcare and non-
availability of modern techniques of farming.
In the sector under review, many workers as well as farmers are
afflicted with diverse illnesses/diseases. These diseases include: stress,
malaria, sun burn, pesticide poisoning, respiratory diseases,
musculoskeletal diseases, whitlow, and so on. Antle and Pingali (1994)
established that poor health status reduces human capacity to work and
also result in loss of man-hours. The extent to which these illnesses
account for their absence from work is still unknown.
It is a common knowledge that rural dwellers survive mostly by
subsistence agriculture. When they take ill, obviously they will not be
able to attend to their farms. When they cannot attend to their farm
17
works because of ill-health, productivity is bound to decline. According
to Hawkers and Ruel (2006), poor health reduces income and
productivities; and further causes starvation and hunger. The extent of
decline in productivity as a result of farmers ill-health needs to be
determined and the resulting impact on nutrition status of the populace
and farmers who subsist by their work also needs to be ascertained.
It is also a common knowledge that agriculture in Nigeria is labour
intensive and saddled with the use of crude implements such as hoes,
axes, jiggers and cutlasses. The use of these implements demands a lot of
energy on the peasant farmers who are not only malnourished but who
suffer from one type of ill-health or the other without adequate
healthcare. These further expose them to the attack of work-related
diseases of various dimensions. The level of attack by work-related
diseases is yet to be determined in this work.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The main objective of this work is to examine man-hour wastages
due to ill-health among the agricultural workers. In so doing, the
following specific objectives will be examined:
i. To identify the types of illnesses suffered by agricultural workers
in the selected communities.
18
ii. To ascertain the burden of ill-health among agricultural workers.
iii. To find out how these man-hour Wastages affect agricultural
produce.
iv. To ascertain the health facilities available to the farmers in the
study area.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
The following research questions will guide the study:
i. What are the types of illnesses suffered by agricultural workers
in the study area?
ii. What is the level of man-hour wastages caused by illnesses in
those communities?
iii. How do man-hour wastages affect agricultural workers in the
selected communities?
iv. What are the health facilities available to agricultural workers in
those communities?
19
1.5 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
The following hypotheses have been formulated:
1. Ho: There is no significant difference between male and female
agricultural workers in their wastages of man-hour due to ill-
health in the selected communities.
Hi: There is significant difference between male and female
agricultural workers in their man-hour wastage due to ill-health
in the selected communities.
2. Ho: There is no significant difference between man-hour wastages
caused by work-related illnesses and those of other general
illnesses in the study area.
Hi: There is significant difference between man-hour wastages
caused by work-related illnesses and those of other general
illnesses in the study area.
1.6 STUDY AREA:
This study will be carried out in three selected communities from
Enugu South Local Government Area of Enugu State. These
20
communities are: Amechi, Ugwuaji and Akwuke communities
respectively. Enugu South Local Government Area is made up of eight
communities, four of which are urban communities while four are rural.
The communities are as follows: Amechi, Obeagu, Akwuke, Ugwuaji,
Uwani, Maryland, Achara Layout and Garki. The projected population of
the Local Government Area for 2001 was 182,605, while that of the
selected communities was 33,195 (NPC, 2001). Crop farmers in the
selected communities are 13,278, all of which are subsistent farmers.
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:
This study examines whether or not farmers’ absenteeism from
work due to ill-health decrease agricultural productivity in the study area.
It is hoped that the study will help to proffer solutions to agricultural
problems of Enugu South Local Government Area in particular and the
Nigerian society in general. A lot of benefits would be gained from this
work by various groups if this project is successfully completed.
Secondly, policy makers in the agricultural sector will have access
to information on types of illnesses that mostly attack agricultural
workers and the level of health facilities available in the selected
communities. This would help them make policies geared towards the
provision of health facilities and drugs capable of combating the diseases.
Also, the nagging problems of constant breakdown of the agricultural
21
workers could be pacified by adequate government intervention in the
sector.
Thirdly, agricultural workers in the selected communities and the
general public at large will also benefit because the knowledge of a
problem is a half way solution to that problem. They would have
discovered how they could combat or prevent these illnesses so as not to
occasion wastages of man-hours thereby improving the standard of living
of the populace.
Fourthly, prospective agricultural workers will have known the
occupational hazards involved in the agricultural activities in these
communities. This will help them decide whether to join them or to look
for a healthier environment to work for a living. It will also help the
farmers develop the right attitude towards farming.
Finally, future researchers in related field will use this work as a
veritable source of reference,
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study will be restricted to three communities. Samples will be
drawn from crops farmers only and issues involving availability of
healthcare facilities, modern farm implements, sicknesses/diseases
22
attacking farmers are all within the scope of this work. For time
constraint and meager resources, the researcher will not go beyond this
scope.
1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
A lot of work has been carried out in the field of agriculture, but
most of them are not related to man-hour wastages due to illness. That is
to say that there is dearth of information in the field of the study. This
problem posed a limit to the study. However, the researcher tried to solve
these problems by way of transfer of knowledge and information from
other fields. Apart from this, the selected communities being rural areas
were difficult to transverse given the poor road network and the meager
resources of the researcher. The commercial motorcyclists however were
found indispensable in this regards.
23
REFERENCES
Adegboye, R. O. (2004): Agriculture and Food Security in Nigeria.
Faculty Lecture delivered at the University of Ilorin, Faculty of
Agriculture.
Adewumi, M. O. et al (2002): An Analysis of Small Rural Households in
Kwara State, Nigeria Rural Dev. 25, pp 201-211.
Attah, A. A. (2006): Banks’ Contribution to Agricultural Development;
The Central Bank of Nigeria Microfinance Newsletter
Volume 6.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2010).Specialized Mandatory Training
Programme for Federal Civil Servants, Abuja: OHCSF/OSSAP
MDGs Capacity Building Project.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008): Nigeria Demographic and Health
Survey Abuja: National Population Commission.
Jetter, H. F. (2004): How to Retrieve Nigeria’s Agricultural Sector.
Vanguard (Lagos),
http.//allafrica.com/stories/200403040476htm\.
Kwan, L. E. E. and Hyun-Sul L. I. M. (2008): “Work-Related Injuries
and Diseases of Farmers in Korea”. Industrial Health Vol.46;
pp. 424-434.
Onyenuga, V. A. (1985): Keynote Address on Agricultural Productivity.
Makinda (Ed), Agricultural Productivity In Nigeria, pp. 10-12.
24
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, attempt has been made to review books, magazines,
journal publications, articles obtained from internet and other relevant
materials relating to the subject of study. The review is organized
according to the following sub-heads:
1. The conceptual analysis.
2. Types of illnesses suffered by agricultural workers.
3. Levels of man-hour wastages.
4. The impact of man-hour wastages on agricultural produce.
5. Summary of Literature review.
2.2 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS:
According to New International Webster’s Comprehensive
Dictionary of English Language (2010), man-hour is a unit of measure
equal to the amount of work one man can do in one hour. One equal
resources given to everybody on earth is time. The difference lies on how
each man manages his own time. In America for instance, time is money,
the past is history and the present a moment to be lived and worked at to
produce a better tomorrow (Lan Fleming, 1994).Time is a wasting asset
25
and of immense value. It is the stuff life is made up of and cannot be
increased or decreased by any man. It is perishable. Farmers are great
time managers but when they fall sick, the reverse seems to be the case.
If an administrative/staff nurse falls sick, he/she can still manage to go to
work but a farmer who uses cutlasses/hoes cannot go to the farm when
sick. Man-hour is therefore time measured in terms of hours spent in a
work environment for a specified period usually per day. It is an
equitably free gift of nature but most irretrievably perishable (FGN,
2010).
Wastage as explained by the Webster’s Dictionary (2010) is that
which is lost by leakage, wear, waste and so on; cast aside as worthless or
of no practical value; worn out; discarded. It also means failure to use or
take advantage of an opportunity. Man-hour wastage due to ill-health
therefore means failure to make use of man-hours as a result of illness.
According to English Dictionary (2010), illness is the state of being
out of health or falling sick, an ailment, a sickness. The importance of
health in promoting economic development cannot be over-emphasized.
Different specialists measure health status in different ways. World
Health Organisation defines health as the state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and
infirmity. Gossman, (1972/1999) also viewed health as a durable capital
26
stock that yields an output of healthy time. Individuals inherit an initial
amount of this stock that depreciates over time and can be increased by
investment. By investing in health, household expects to increase the
stock of available healthy time which will increase the amount of time
available for earning income or for producing consumption goods
(Cropper, 1977). Health as a capital good can either improve or reduce
household’s productive ability. Poor health will result in a loss of days
worked or in reduced worker capacity, which , when family and hired
labour are not substitutes or when there are liquidity constraints, is likely
to reduce output (Antle and Pingali, 1994). For instance, prolonged
exposure to pesticides could cause cardiopulmonary problems,
neurological and hematological symptoms, and adverse eternal effects
which could significantly hamper farmer’s work capacity in the field and
reduce his management and supervision abilities (Spear, 1991). This is
more pronounced in the field of agriculture where physical strength is
most required. Agriculture according to English Dictionary is the
cultivation of the soil, the raising of food crops, breeding and raising
livestock, tilling and farming. It is the science that treats the cultivation
of the soil. Assessment of agricultural production in Nigeria over time
reveals that the real share of agriculture in the Gross Domestic Product
declined dramatically over the years (CBN, 2000, Jeter, 2004). Again, a
number of factors are responsible for the downward trend in the Nigeria
27
agricultural sector. Among which are instability of government and
policy, rural urban migration of able-bodied youths leading to old aged
farming population in rural areas, death and illness of farmers (WORDA,
2003, Adewala et al, 2004).
2.3 TYPES OF ILLNESSES SUFFERED BY THE
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS
Different kinds of illnesses attack farmers and as a result keep them
away from their respective farms. According to Cole, (2006), a study of
women farmers in mixed cropping system proved that vast majority
suffered from intense muscular fatigue, heat exhaustion, skin disorders,
forcing them to take days off from attending to their crops. It is very
difficult to understand the current status of work-related diseases in
farmers (Kwan Lee & Lim, 2008). However, various work-related
diseases occur, including pesticide poisoning, peasant syndrome, vinyl
house disease, respiratory diseases, malaria, infectious diseases, skin
diseases, musculoskeletal diseases, heat and sun burn, eye injuries,
HIV/AIDS, whitlow, stomach upset, typhoid, cuts, snake/scorpion bites,
back pain, and others. These are briefly explained below.
2.3.1 Pesticide Poisoning:
The term pesticide encompasses herbicides, fungicides, and various
other substances used to control pests. During their daily work, farmers
28
are often exposed to pesticides, which include substances that prevent,
destroy or repel pests. Because some pests have systems similar to
human system, some pesticides also can harm or kill humans. Farmers
frequently encounter pesticides through direct contact with the chemicals,
contact with pesticides residue on treated crops or equipment, and drift of
pesticides into untreated areas. They can also transport pesticides from
the fields into their homes through residue on their clothing, boots and
skin. This puts their entire family at risk, especially because pesticide
residue in the home is not degraded by the sun or rain (CDCP, 2006).
A 2006 study on farm-workers in California revealed that acute
effects of pesticides exposure include: headache, nausea, eye irritation,
muscle weakness, anxiety and shortness of breath. The study also
indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with chronic health
problems such as:
Respiratory problems
Memory disorders
Dermatologic conditions
Cancer
Depression
Neurologic deficits
Miscarriages and infertility, and
29
Birth defects
In severe cases, pesticide exposure can lead to convulsions, coma and
eventual death.
2.3.2 Peasant Syndrome:
According to Kumagai (1943), peasant syndrome refers to all the
symptoms of mental and physical impairment observed in farmers that
are related to work. The etiologies include stress and accumulated
external tension, nutritional deficiency, infection, parasites and cold
injury, and this can all result in rheumatism, hypertension,
nephrosclerosis and myocardial damage. Peasant syndrome has eight
symptoms, including shoulder stiffness, lumbago, prosthesis of the hand
or foot, nocturia, breathlessness, sleeplessness, dizziness and abdominal
discomfort (Nam, 1976).
2.3.3 Vinyl House Disease
Kim (1999), explained that most vinyl houses in Korea are small
and are built as a narrow semicircle dome and are not well ventilated, so
that farmers working in them usually have to bend their backs to work,
thus aggravating any existing condition of lumbago or arthritis.
Dehydration can also occur when farmers work in a closed and humid
environment, and these farmers are prone to catching cold when they go
30
outside into the cold immediately after working in a hot vinyl house, and
various symptoms are expressed when workers’ physiologic balance is
lost (Lee, 2006). According to Lee, fatigue is another important factor
that can contribute to the development of vinyl house disease. Symptoms
are expressed when these farmers overwork during the farming season
without sufficient nutritional intake and rest and lack of regular diet. The
vinyl house disease was so named in Japan, where farmers working
invinyl houses first complained of experiencing sweating, lumbago,
dizziness, headache, heaviness, skin itching and rashes, cold, skin
darkening, dyspnea, nausea and hemorrhoids. He further explained that
farmers who work in vinyl houses for long frequently took painkillers and
sedatives for relief of those symptoms and that these symptoms seem to
be more prevalent in women than in men.
2.3.4 Respiratory Diseases
Dust, spores, pollen, poisonous substances and gases develop
during the process of farming and the presence of these in the farming
environment could induce rhinitis, bronchial asthma, hypersensitivity
pneumonitis, pulmonary edema and chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (Lim, 1998). Because agricultural work takes place in rural areas,
farmers are exposed to organic and mineral dusts, animal and plant dusts,
toxic gases, molds and other respiratory irritants. Farmers’ lung and
31
allergy-related disease, is caused by breathing in dust from moldy hay,
straw, corn, silage, grain or even tobacco. It is a disease of both the upper
and lower respiratory system. The disease can be a sudden attack or slow
progressive disease that can cause permanent lung damage, physical
disability and even death. Farmers who work in areas like: dusty fields
and buildings, moldy hay, grain, corn, tobacco, silos, or feed; working
around bird droppings or dust from animal hair, fur or feathers are most at
risk for respiratory illnesses.
2.3.5 Musculoskeletal Injuries/Diseases
Given the fact that farm labour consists of constant bending,
twisting, carrying heavy items, and repetitive motions/activities during
long work hours, farmworkers often experience musculoskeletal injuries
(Guilia, 2003). This disease is characterized by shoulder pain, arms, and
hands. The most common injuries that cause farmers to miss work are
sprains and strains, accounting for man-hour wastages (CDCP, 2001).
The most common musculoskeletal risk factors among farmers are
repetitive activity, bending at the waist and sequences of rapid
movements that are always made in the same order. According to a study
done in Korea, there was a prevalence of knee osteoarthritis in women
above forty years of age. Farmers complain of musculoskeletal pain with
32
the most prevalent site affected being the lumbar back, followed by the
shoulder and the upper extremities.
2.3.6 Infectious Diseases
Work-related infectious diseases due to microbes, parasites and their
toxic byproducts are prevalent in farmers. These include: parasitic
infections (which is due to soil-transmitted helminthes such as ascaris,
lumbricoides, trichuris trichiura and hook-worms appear to have
decreased significantly due to decreasing use of human waste but the
prevalence by food-transmitted parasites such as chlonorchis sinensis has
not changed and the relative proportion of these parasites remains quite
large) zoonosis, tsutsugamushi, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome,
leptospirosis, authrax, rabies and tularemia.
2.3.7 Skin Disorders/Diseases
According to the information contained in Bureau of Labour Statistics
(2004), then agriculture industry has the highest incidence of skin
diseases when compared with all other industrial sectors. Skin disorder
risk factors that are characteristic of farm work include wet working
conditions, hot and humid climates, and exposure to hazardous chemical
and plants. It is known that farmers suffer from various skin diseases due
to plants, chemical products and pesticides. The common dermatoses
33
were tinea pedis, onychomycosis, xerosis, seborrrheic keratosis,
chlosasma, pruritis, hand eczema, contact dermatitis, lentigo and
seborrheic dermatitis in order of frequency among rural residents. The
skin disease due to animals usually come from raising or handling
animals professionally, and they are mainly due to mechanical skin injury
by animals, allergic reaction to animals’ hair, secretions and excretions,
and skin injury due to animal poison. Among the major zoonoses are
many skin diseases. Apart from the transmission of the skin diseases
themselves, there are many cases in which pathogenic microbes invade
humans through the skin after coming into contact with an animal.
2.3.8 Eye Injuries
Agricultural workers experience eye injuries and illnesses at a high
rate. They encounter multiple eye irritants in their work environments,
including dust, sand, tools, branches, allergenic agents, pesticides, wind,
sun, water, and insects. These foreign objects can cause infections,
allergic reactions, eye irritants and corneal and other eye trauma. Chronic
irritation and sun can cause cataracts, a clouding of the eye lens, and
pterygium, a growth that obstructs the cornea (Luque and John, 2007).
34
2.3.9 Snakes/Scorpion/Insect Bites
Animals and insects frequently bite farmers, with snake bites being
the most typical wound. Bites by pit vipers are the most common
occurrence since these snakes live at the base of mountains and in field
levees, and so they often come into contact with people. Pit vipers appear
in the late April and go into hibernation in mid-November, so that most
snake bites are seen in the summer time when the snakes are most active
(Yun and Chon, 2001). These people who grow or raise animals risk
being bitten by ticks, with the most typical occurrence being stings by
grain mites. In some cases, tick stings can result in Lyme disease. Other
possible bites are from mosquitoes, bees, centipedes, poisonous moths
and the paederusfuscipes and pachycondyla species (Bae, 1999).
2.3.10 Heat and Sun Exposure Disease
Farmers work under the sun’s harsh and hot rays for ten to twelve
hours a day, often with little access to shade or water. Heat stress occurs
when hot weather and muscle activity cause body heat to rise. This
condition can lead to dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, neurological
impairment, multi-organ failure, and death (Rao, 2008). In the 2005
National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS), twenty percent of the
farm-workers were reported to have no access to drinking water and cups.
35
Working under the sun also exposes farmers to long hours of ultraviolet
radiation, which puts them at a higher risk for developing skin cancer.
2.3.11 Psychiatric Diseases
Hwa-Byung (also known as Wool-Hwa-Byung) is a disease known
throughout the world and the origin is to be found inn Korean people’s
almost obsessive compulsion to hold in their anger with this internal
anger eventually turning into a disease. Many who are affected by this
disease have to live in poor conditions and yet they need to hold in their
anger. Hwa-Byung is a Korean folk syndrome that literally translates into
English as “anger syndrome” and it can be attributed to the suppression of
anger. The symptoms include: insomnia, fatigue, panic, and fear of
impending death, dysphoric affect, indigestion, anorexia, dyspnea,
palpitations, generalized aches and pains and a feeling of a mass in the
epigastrium.
The effects of diseases/illnesses such as whitlow, malaria, stomach
upset, typhoid, and other communicable diseases like chicken pox,
tuberculosis, are however, likely to have more impact on labour
availability since farmers may have to stay away from work for at least a
day for treatment. Farmers suffer from lumbago due to their bent over
posture in fields, from headaches due to carrying things on their heads
36
and from skin diseases that are the result of cutting weeds, but treatment
they often get places them at the risk for drug abuse.
2.4 LEVELS OF MAN-HOUR WASTAGES
Ill-health is said to be the commonest causes of absenteeism among
the farmers with malaria contributing 67.5% of these medical causes.
Luz and Green (1997) had indicated that medically certified absence
accounted for sixty to seventy percent of work absenteeism among
workers. Other studies have also identified the role of illness in
absenteeism among agricultural workers. It is not surprising therefore
that malaria contributed over two thirds of the reported cases of absences
due to illness among farmers. This is understandable in view of its
indemnity in Nigeria. Foster and Leighton (1995), estimated the value of
malaria-related loss in production to be between two and six percent of
Kenya’s gross domestic product and between one and five percent for
that of Nigeria. The World Health Organization estimated an equivalent
of ten working days of lost labour to malaria. Pregnant women and
children are the most vulnerable groups in malaria endemic regions and
they need care by the economically viable, who take time off and spend
their meager financial resources to provide this care. The health care
sector is also affected as it expends both financial and human resources
on this preventable illness, which is a source of huge economic burden to
37
the nation. Absenteeism has been shown to result in loss in man-hours,
productivity, finance, jobs and in the health sector, of lives.
As pointed out by the World Bank (2007), illness and death from
HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and other diseases reduce agricultural
productivity through the loss of labour, knowledge of productive adults,
and assets to cope with illness. For Lipton and Kadt (1988), the lack of
coordination of policy making between agricultural and health
undermines efforts to overcome ill health among the rural poor farmers
and gives short shift to agriculture’s role in alleviating many of the
world’s most serious health problems. Compared to non HIV positive
puckers, HIV-positive workers used between 19.9 and 11.8 more casual
leave days. On the average, sickness led to a loss of thirty-three person-
days of farming activity per year. Because a household member was ill at
critical periods of farming activity, 17.8 percent of the households
experienced output loss. HIV/AIDS pandemic results in reduction in
labour hours on agricultural activities, reduced number of working adults
in households. HIV/AIDS led to abandonment of agricultural activities,
much to the detriment of the households. It has also transformed the
households’ demographic structure by increasing the number of female
headed households and orphans. By reducing the productivity of small-
holder farming households, HIV/AIDS related morbidity and mortality
38
could limit the prospects of the nation to achieve food security, reduce
poverty and foster national economic growth and development. FAO and
UNAIDS (1999), showed that the adverse effect of HIV and AIDS on
both agricultural production and food security were more pronounced
among rural women than men. The study indicated that widows with
dependents children became entrenched in poverty as a result of socio-
economic pressures related to HIV/AIDS. Widows lost access to land,
labour, inputs, and credit, and support services. Stigmatization also
compounded their situation further, as assistance from the extended
family and the community, their main safety net, was severed.
2.5 THE IMPACT OF MAN-HOUR WASTAGES ON
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
It needs to be emphasized that agriculture is affected by HIV/AIDS
in several ways. The most obvious is the direct drain on the agricultural
labour force, both skilled and unskilled. This occurs in two levels: firstly
as a result of the loss of the victim’s labour and secondly through labour
time dedicated to care for the sick. The pandemic has been observed to
lead to grave consequences for agricultural estates such as increased
operational costs due to increased absenteeism owing to sickness,
substantially reduced productivity and higher overtime costs as other
workers replace the sick colleagues. It is also important to note that by
striking people at their prime stage of working and parenting lives, AIDS
39
hinders knowledge and experts from being passed on to subsequent
generations. Antle and Pingali (1994) opined that poor health results in a
loss of days worked or reduced worker capacity, which, when family and
hired labour are not perfect substitutes or when there are no liquidity
constraints, is likely to reduce output. According to Spear (1991),
prolonged exposure to pesticide could cause cardiopulmonary problems,
neurological and hematological symptoms, and adverse dermal effects;
which could significantly hamper farmers’ work capacity in the field and
reduce their management and supervision abilities.
For Lipton and Dekadt (1988), the lack of coordination of policy
making between agriculture and health undermines efforts to overcome
ill-health among the rural farmers and gives short shift to agriculture’s
role in alleviating many of the world’s most serious health problems. As
pointed out by Hawkers and Ruel (2006), in agricultural communities,
poor health reduces income and productivity; further decreasing people’s
ability to address poor health and inhibiting economic development.
Oshaug and Hadded (2002) were also of the view that higher agricultural
productivity affects family earnings and nutrition, which in turn improves
labour productivity and results in better health and well-being.
Kim, et al (1997) analysed the impact of Onchocercal Skin Disease
(OSD) on productivity at a coffee plantation in South-East Ethiopia.
40
Their results revealed that permanent male employees, the core of the
plantation labour force, suffer significant losses in economic productivity
in the form of lower daily wages earned as a result of OSD. Depending
on the severity of the OSD, and controlling for such factors as age, daily
wages were ten to fifteen percent lower among those exhibiting skin-
related problems.
2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW
From the review, it is discovered that eminent scholars agree that
illness significantly impede agricultural efficiency.
The review also shows that there is a relationship between nutritional
quality and agricultural productivity. Work-related diseases of
farmers include: pesticide poisoning, peasant syndrome, respiratory
infections, malaria, typhoid, whitlow, sun borne diseases and many
other illnesses that keep farmers away from their farms.
The review further identified levels of man-hour wastages by
farmers and the impact of it on agricultural produce.
41
REFERENCES
Antle, J. M., and P. L. Pingali (1994): Pesticides, Productivity, and
Farmer Health: A Philippine Case Study, American Journal of
Agricultural Economics 76, pp. 418-430.
Central Bank of Nigeria (2000): Annual Report and Statement of
Accounts; pp.136.
Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2001): Simple Solutions:
Economics for Farmworkers Available on line at
http/w.w.w.ede.gov/niosh/pdfs/01- 111.pdf Accessed Sep.5,
2008.
Cole, D. (2006): Occupational Health Hazards of Agriculture.
Understanding the Links between Agriculture and Health for
Food, Agriculture and the Environment, 2020 Focus 13,
International Food Policy Research Institute.
Earle, R. G. et al (2003):Occupational Injury and Illness among Migrant
and Seasonal Farmworkers in New York State. Pilot Study of a
New Surveillance Method, American Journal of Industrial
Medicine; pp 37-45.
FAO and UNAIDS. Sustainable Agricultural/Rural Development and
Vulnerability to AIDS Epidemic. Joint Publication, UNAIDS
Best Practice Collection.
Grossman, M. (1999).The Human Capital Model of the Demand for
Health. Journal of Political Economy; pp. 223-255.
Kim, A. A. T. and Hailu, A. (1999). Health and Labour Productivity:
Economic Impact of Onchocercal Skin Disease. Policy Research
Working Paper 1836, World Bank.
Lee, J. J. and Yang, J. H. (2006).Farmers’ Syndrome and its Risk Factors
of Vinylhouse and Non-Vinylhouse Farmers in Gyeongbuk
Province Rural Area. Korean J. Occupational Environment
Med.18, 146-155.
Lim, H. S. and Kim, D. H. (1998, Respiratory Symptoms Occurring
among Mushroom Farmers.Pp.259-689.
42
Luque, J. (2007). Implementation Evaluation of a Culturally Competent
Eye Injury Prevention Programme for Citrus Workers in a Horida
Migrant Community Progress in Community Health
Partnership 1-4, pp.359-369.
National Demographic and Health Survey (2003). National Population
Commission, Nigeria. National Population Census Report.
Oshaug, A. and Haddad (2002).Nutrition and Agriculture. A Foundation
for Development: Administrative Committee on
Coordination/Sub-Committee on Nutrition.
Spear, R. (1991):Recognised and Possible Exposure to Pesticides,
Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology: Vol.1, General
Principles. New York, Academic Press.
West African Rice Development Agency (2003).System Wide Initiative
on HIV/AIDS and Agriculture.
http/w.w.w.warda.egiar.org/swtha/linkage.htm.
43
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter explains the research methods adopted for this study.
It specifically states the research design, area of study, population, sample
and sampling method, Instrument for data collection, validation of the
instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and
method of data analysis.
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN:
For the purposes of this study the survey and descriptive research
design was adopted. This is because; the researcher sought for and
obtained data from a sample of farmers on man-hour wastages due to
illnesses in the selected communities.
3.2 AREA OF THE STUDY:
The study was carried out in three selected communities, all from
Enugu South Local Government Area. These communities are Amechi,
Ugwuaji and Akwuke. Enugu South Local Government Area is made up
of eight communities; four of which are urban communities while four
are rural. They are as follows: Amechi, Obeagu, Akwuke, Ugwuaji,
Uwani, Maryland, Achara Layout and Garki. According to National
Population Commission (2001), the projected population of the Local
44
Government Area for 2001 was 182,605, while that of the selected
communities was 33,195. Crop farmers in the selected communities are
13,278, all of which are subsistent peasant farmers.
3.3 STUDY POPULATION:
The population for the study consisted of 13,278 crop farmers who
reside and carry out their crop farming in the selected communities. They
are distributed as follows:
Community Population of farmers
Amechi 7,164
Akwuke 1,772
Ugwuaji 4,342
Total 13,278
Source: (Enugu State Agricultural Association, 2010).
3.4 SAMPLE:
The sample for the study was determined by the use of Yaro Yemeni
(1964) formular as follows:
N n = 1 + N(e)2
45
Where n = sample size
N = Population
e = Tolerable error
The sample size therefore equals:
13278
1+13278(0.05)2
= 13278
34.195
= 388.3
Sample size therefore:. = 388
3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
The researcher identified twenty clusters of farmers in the three
selected communities. These clusters allies with the villages that made
up the selected communities. While a few of the clusters cultivates yam
and cassava as single crop farmers, some cultivate only grains. A greater
majority are multiple crop formers.
By random sampling, eight clusters representing these crop types
and the villages were selected and a total of 388 crop farmers were
46
interviewed from the eight clusters. The numbers of respondents
interviewed in each community is proportionate to the number of clusters
or villages the community has. The sample distribution below shows the
details:
COMMUNITIES
CLUSTER CLUSTERS
SELECTED
SAMPLE
DRAWN
AmechiUwani 10 4 194
Ugwuaji 6 2 97
Akwuke 4 2 97
TOTAL 20 8 388
Table 1: Sample Distribution
In Amechi Uwani, two clusters got 49 questionnaires while the
other two got 48. The two clusters in Ugwuaji all got 49 questionnaires,
while those of Akwuke got 48 questionnaires each.
3.6 INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION:
A structured and closed-ended questionnaire was designed and
used for the study. The questionnaire has two sections. Section A tried
to elicit social and demographic information, while section B sought for
information that are necessary for answering the research questions. All
the items require the respondents to tick into a box to indicate a chosen
option(s).
47
3.7 VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT:
The instrument was subjected to face and content validation by two
experts from the Department of Institute for Development Studies who,
independently examined the instrument and certified them as capable of
eliciting the required information.
3.8 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT:
The instrument was tested for reliability. Twenty copies were
reproduced and administered in each of the two different but homogenous
communities. These were subsequently retrieved, presented and analysed
using correlation co-efficient analysis. The result yielded 0.85
correlations and hence the instrument was regarded as being reliable.
3.9 DATA COLLECTION
The questionnaires were personally administered between June 1 – July
by the researcher who by virtue of her origin to one of the communities,
was able to reach the respondents easily and got her questionnaires
completed. The other two communities were also within her reach as
they are not too far from her own community. The researcher had to go
round these communities several times in order to retrieve the completed
48
questionnaires. In each cluster, questionnaires were issued to crop
farmers until the required number were got.
3.10 METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF DATA
Data collected were presented in frequency tables and simple
percentage analysis was used. The following formular was used:
F x 100
n 1
Where f = frequency of response
n = sample size
For testing of the hypothesis, a one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
was used. The Ho was tested and the results of the test determined
whether the hypothesis was rejected or accepted at 0.05 level of
significance.
Decision Rule
The null hypothesis was rejected if the calculated F ratio is greater
than the table value of otherwise, it is accepted.
3.11 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE FIELD
Some of the farmers were always in the farm. The researcher had
to meet them at times in the farm. They were always unwilling to leave
49
their work and attend to the researcher notwithstanding the fact that she is
known by most of them.
A part from this, the researcher spent too much time trying to
educate the respondents on the relevance of the research before they
could listen to her. Some of them demanded for financial reward before
they could accept to complete the questionnaire. This, the researcher
could not afford but continued to persuade them until they yielded to her
request.
50
REFERENCES
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008) Nigeria Demographic and health
Survey Abuja: National Population Commission.
Enugu State Agricultural Association (2010)
51
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
In this chapter, data are presented and analyzed to show man hour
wastages due to ill-health in three selected communities in Enugu State.
The data were gathered through the use of questionnaires administered to
three hundred and eighty-eight (388) crop farmers in the selected
communities. These were all retrieved and the analyses are based on the
data derived from it.
4.1 SOCIAL/DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESPONDENTS
4.1.1 Sex Distribution of Respondents
Respondents were grouped on the basis of sex (table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents according to Sex
Respondents Freq. %
Male 220 57.7
Female 168 43.3
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.1 shows that there are more male respondents than females.
4.1.2: Age Distribution of Respondents
Respondents were grouped according to age.
52
Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents
Respondents Freq. %
18 – 25 years 51 13.1
26 – 45 years 83 21.4
46 – 65 years 190 49.0
66 and above years 64 16.5
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
From the above result it is seen that those between 54 years and above are
greater in number followed by those between 26 and 45 years; while
those that are above 66 and those between 25 years are in the minority.
4.1.3: Respondents’ Marital Status
Respondents were also distributed according to their marital status.
Table 4.3 Marital Status of respondents
Marital Status Freq. %
Married 210 54.1
Single 15 3.9
Divorced 28 7.2
Widow/widower 135 34.8
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
53
Table 4.3 shows that greater number of the respondents are married;
followed by widows/widowers, divorced and the singles.
4.1.4 Distribution of Respondents by Household Size
Attempts were made to categorise respondents on the basis of household
size (table 4.4).
Table 4.4: Respondents according to Household Size
No. of Respondents in Household Freq. %
One 25 6.4
Two 33 8.5
Three 128 33.0
Four 93 24.0
Five and above 109 28.1
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
From the above table, it is seen that the majority of the households are
made up of four persons while those of them that are single households
are on the minority.
54
4.1.5 Distribution of Respondents by Religion
Respondents were classified according to their religious inclinations.
Table 4.5: Response on Religion
Respondents on Religion Freq. %
Christianity 323 83.2
Islam - -
African traditional religion 65 16.8
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
The above table shows that Christians are five times more than the
Moslems in the selected communities.
4.1.6 Distribution of Respondents by Tribe
Respondents were also grouped on the basis of tribe.
Table 4.6: Distribution of Respondents by Tribe
Response on Tribe Freq. %
Igbo 388 100
Hausa - -
Yoruba - -
Others - -
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
From the above table, it is seen that all the respondents are of the Igbo
tribe.
55
4.1.7 Duration of Stay in the Community
Information on how long respondents have lived in the present
community was ascertained (table 4.7).
Table 4.7: Number of Years Lived in Present Community
No of Years Lived in Present Community Freq. %
Below 1 – 5 years 21 5.4
6 – 10 years 40 10.3
11 – 15 years 62 16.0
16 + above years 265 68.3
Total 388 100%
Source: Field work, 2011
Table 4.7 shows that 21 (5.4%) of the respondents have spent up to five
years, while 40 (10.3%) have spent between 6 – 10 years. Up to 62
(16%) of them have spent in their present community between 11 to 10
years, while 265 (68.3%) have lived there for sixteen years and above.
4.1.8 Academic Qualification of Respondents
Respondents were grouped according to their educational qualifications.
56
Table 4.8: Highest Education Acquired
Highest Education of Respondents Freq. %
No education 38 9.8
Primary 13.5 34.8
Secondary 170 43.8
Colleges/Polytechnic 26 6.7
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
The above table shows that 38 (9.8%) of the respondents are illiterates,
while 135 (34.8%) of them have acquired primary education. Secondary
education scored up to 170 (43.8%) of the respondents, while only 19
(4.9%) of them posses university education.
4.1.9 Major Occupation of Respondents
Respondents were divided according to their major occupations.
Table 4.9: Response on Major Occupation
Major Occupation of Respondents Freq. %
Farming 255 65.7
Business 31 8.0
Public servants 78 20.1
Others 24 6.2
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
57
Table 4.9 shows that 255 (65.7%) of the respondents have farming as
their major occupation, 31(8%) combine farming with business, while 78
(20%) are public servants who also engage in farming, others are 24
(6.2%) who also engage in farming.
4.1.10 Distribution of Respondents by Average Income Per Month
Table 4.10: Average Income per Month
Respondents Level of Income Per Month (N000) Freq. %
0 – 20 72 18.6
21 – 49 181 46.7
41 – 60 90 23.2
61 – 80 28 7.2
81 + above 16 4.1
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
From the above table, it is seen that 72 (18.6%) of the respondents earn
an income of up to N20,000.00, while 181(46.7%) of them earn between
N21,000.00 to N40,000.00 per month. Ninety (23.2%) earn between
N41,000.00 to N60,000.00 per month, 28 (7.2%) make up to N60,000 to
N80,000 per month. Only 16(4.1%) earn N81,000.00 and above per
month.
58
4.2 COMMON AILMENTS AMONG RESPONDENTS
4.2.1 Distribution of Respondents by Common Ailments
Experienced
Attempts were made to inquire from the respondents the commonest
ailment experienced by them.
Table 4.11: Common Ailment Experienced
S/No Work related ill-health ever
experienced (1 year)
Yes % No %
1 Muscular fatigue 358 92.3 30 7.7
2 Heat exhaustion 337 86.9 51 13.1
3 Skin disease 363 93.6 25 6.4
4 Pesticide poisoning 206 53.1 182 46.9
5 Head ache 346 89.2 42 10.8
6 Musculoskeletal disease 362 93.3 26 6.7
7 Heat and sun burn 371 95.6 17 4.4
8 Eye injuries/irritation 328 84.5 60 5.5
9 Whitlow 303 78.1 85 21.9
10 Snake/scorpion bite 296 76.3 92 23.7
11 Back pain 371 95.6 17 4.4
12 Arthritis 357 92.0 31 8.0
13 Waist pain 374 96.4 14 3.6
Source: Field Work, 2011
59
Table 4.11 shows that 358 (92.3%) of the respondents agree that
they have suffered from muscular fatigue, while 337 (86.9%) gave
positive response to heat exhaustion. Skin disease scored 363 (53.1%),
while pesticide poisoning was suffered by 206 (53.1) of the respondents.
Headache scored 346 (89.2%) while musculoskeletal disease got 362
(93.3%). Heat and sunburn got 371(95.6%) while eye injuries/irritation
have a positive response of 328 (84.5%), whitlow got 303(78.1%),
snake/scorpion bite 296 (76.3%), back pain 371(95.6%) while arthritis
and waste pain got 357(92%) and 374(96.4%) respectively of the
respondents.
4.2.2 Identification of Non-Work Related Ailments
Attempts were made to extract information of non-work related illnesses
farmers suffered within one year interval.
60
Table 4.12: Non-Work Related Ailments Suffered
S/No Non- work related ill-health ever
experienced (1 year)
Yes % No %
1 Malaria 350 90.2 38 9.8
2 Infectious diseases 290 74.7 98 25.3
3 HIV/AIDS 48 7.4 360 92.8
4 Stomach upset 373 96.1 15 3.9
5 Typhoid 368 94.8 20 5.2
6 Nausea/Vomiting 298 76.8 90 23.2
7 Cancer 0 - 388 100
8 Miscarriage/Ante-natal/Postnatal
diseases
156 40.4 212 59.8
9 Hypertension 329 84.8 59 13.2
10 Abdominal discomfort 317 81.7 71 18.3
11 Asthma 17 4.4 371 95.6
12 Pneumonia 167 43.0 221 67.0
13 Psychiatric diseases 0 0 388 100
Source: Field Work, 2011
From the above table, it is seen that 350 (90.2%) of the respondents
has ever suffered from malaria, while 290 (74.7%) gave positive response
to infectious diseases. HIV/AIDS has a positive response of 28 (7.2%)
while 373 (96.1%) of them have suffered from stomach upset. Typhoid
fever was suffered by 368 (94.8%0 while nausea/vomiting got a positive
response of 298 (76.8%) of them. Ant-natal/post-natal problems were
suffered by 156 (40.2%) of the respondents. Hypertension scored 329
61
(84.8), while abdominal discomfort scored 317(81.2%) of the
respondents. Asthma got a positive response of 17(4.4%), while
pneumonia was suffered by 167 (43.0%) of the respondents.
4.2.3 Health Facilities Patronized
Health facilities available and patronized most by the respondents were x-
rayed (table 4.13).
Table 4.13: Health Facilities Patronized by Respondents
(N – 388)
Health Facilities Patronized by
Respondents
Yes % No %
Hospital 150 38.7 238 61.3
Health centre 211 54.4 177 45.6
Maternity home 113 29.1 275 70.9
Pharmacies 80 20.6 308 79.4
Mobil clinic - - 388 100
Patent medicine stores 363 93.6 25 6.4
Traditional medicine 70 18.0 318 92.0
Traditional berth attendants 55 14.2 333 95.8
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.13 shows that 150 (38.7%) of the respondents have
patronized hospitals; 211 (54.4%) has patronized health centres.
Maternity home got 113(29.1%), while 80(20.6%) patronized
pharmacies. Patent medicine stores were patronized by 363(98.6%) of
62
the respondents; traditional medicine men were patronized by 70(18%) of
them. Only 55(14.2%) of them patronized the traditional birth attendants.
4.2.4 Number of Visits to Health Institutions
Attempts were made to get information on number of visits respondents
made to the health institutions.
Table 4.14: Last Visit to Health Institutions
N – 388
Respondents Last Visit to H/L Yes %
1 – 6 months 261 67.3
7 months – 1 year 117 30.2
1 year -1½ years 10 2.6
1½ - 2 years - -
2 + above - -
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.14 shows that 261(67.3%) of the respondents attended
health institutions for the past six months; while 117(30.2%) of them paid
their last visit to health institutions seven months to one year ago. Only
10(2.6%) of the respondents attended health institutions last for the past
one year and above.
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4.2.5 Distribution of Respondents by Period of Admission
Efforts were made to find out whether respondents were ever admitted in
a hospital (table 4.15).
Table 4.15: Period of Admission in the Hospital
Respondents’ Period of Admission Frequency %
1 – 5 days 32 8.2
6 – 10 days 53 13.7
11 – 15 days 12 3.1
16 days and above - -
None response 291 75.0
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.15 shows that 32 (8.2%) of the respondents were admitted
in hospital from one to five days, while 53(13.7%) of them stayed from
six to ten days while only 12(3.1%) of them stayed from eleven to fifteen
days.
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4.2.6 Days Spent at home During Ill-Health
Table 4.16: Duration of Stay in Hospital
Respondents’ Days at
Home while Sick
Frequency %
1 – 5 days 169 43,6
6 – 10 days 102 26.2
11 – 15 days 13 3.4
16 + above 7 1.8
None response 97 25.0
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.16 shows that 169 (43.6%) of the respondents who were
sick but stayed back at home for treatment from one to five days, while
102 (26.2%) stayed for a period of six to ten days, thirteen (3.4%) of
them stayed from eleven to fifteen days; while 7(1.8%) stayed for sixteen
days and above.
4.2.7 Proximity of Health Facilities Available
The proximity of the available health facilities was examined.
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Table 4.17: The Distance of Health Facilities from the
Respondents
Distance of Health Facilities from
Respondents
Yes %
0 – ½ a km 153 39.4
½ - 1km 111 28.6
1 – 1½ km 124 32.0
1½ - 2 km - -
2km and above - -
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.17 shows that 153(39.4%) of the respondents agree that health
facilities are within half a kilometer from where they live; while
111(28.6%) of them says that they are between ½ to 1km. Also
124(32%) of them says that they live within 1km to 1½km away from any
health institution.
4.2.8 Impact of Man Hour Wastages on Agricultural
Productivity
Information on the impact of man hour wastages on agricultural
productivity was gathered.
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Table 4.18: Effect of Man Hour Wastage on
Agricultural Productivity
Response on Agricultural Produce Frequency %
Reduction of productivities 160 41.2
Reduces income of agricultural workers 91 23.5
Increases poverty among them 102 26.3
Makes them to lose their job - -
Causes hunger and starvation 35 9.0
Increases operational cost - -
Reduces nutritional capacity of Agric workers - -
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.18 shows that 160 (41.2%) of the respondents agree that
man hour wastages due to ill-health reduces their productivities, while
91(32.5%) of them agree that it reduces their income. Increase in poverty
level among them scored 102 (26.3%) while on 35(9%) of them agree
that it causes hunger and starvation.
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Table 4.19: Whether Ill-Health Affect Level of Crop Farmers’
Income
Response on Loss of Income Frequency %
Yes 91 23.5
No 30 7.7
Undetermined 267 68.8
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.19 shows that 91 (23.5%) has suffered loss of income as a
result of ill-health. While 30 (7.7) did not. Those who could not
determine the actual loss of income due to ill-health are 267 (68.8%) of
the respondents.
Table 4.20: Level of Income Loss due to Ill-Health per Annum
Response on Loss of Income
per Annum
Frequency %
0 – 10,000 60 15.5
11,000 – 20,000 10 2.6
21,000 – 30,000 18 4.6
31,000 – 40,000 2 .5
41,000 + above - -
None 287 76.8
Total 388 100%
Source: Field Work, 2011
Table 4.20 shows that 60 (15.5) of the respondents lost between 0 to
N10,000 annually as a result of ill-health, while 10 (2.6%) of them lost
between N11,000 to N20,000 per annum. About 18 (4.6%) of them lost
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between N21,000 to N30,000 annually, while 2 (.5%) lost between
N31,000 to N40,000 per annum. None response equals 287 (76.8%) of
the respondents.
4.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESES
The two hypotheses formulated in this study were tested at a 0.05
level of significance using one way ANOVA. The details of the
calculations are attached as Appendix II.
Hypothesis I:
There is no significant difference between the male and female
agricultural workers in their man-hour wastages due to ill-health.
The null hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance using
one way ANOVA. The ANOVA summary table is presented below in
table 4.3.1.
Table 4.3.1 ANOVA Result of Difference between the Male
and Female Agricultural Workers in their Man-
Hour Wastages due to Ill-health.
Source SS df Ms f-cal f- cri P
Between group 1.47 1 1.47 0.12 3.92 0.05
Within group 3722.3 298 12.49 - - -
Total 3723.77 299
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The result in table 4.3.1 shows that the calculated f ratio (0.12) is less
than the critical value of F (3.92) at 1 and 298 degrees of freedom and at
0.05 level of significance. The result indicates that there is no significant
difference between the male and female agricultural workers in their
man-hour wastages due to ill-health. The implication therefore is that we
fail to reject the null hypothesis since the observed differences are merely
due to sampling error. There is therefore no gender difference in man
hour wastages caused by ill-health in the reference area of study.
Hypothesis II:
There is no significant difference between man-hour wastages
caused by work related illnesses and those of other general illnesses.
The null hypothesis was equally tested at a 0.05 level of
significance using none-way ANOVA. The summary table is presented
below:
Table 4.3.2: ANOVA result of difference between man-hour
wastages caused by work related illnesses and those caused by non-
work related illnesses.
Source SS Df Ms f-cal f. cri P
Between group 69.02 1 69.02 1.19 4.26 0.05
Within group 1388.49 24 57.85 - - -
Total 1457.51 25
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The result in table 4.3.2 above indicates that the calculated f ratio (1.19)
is les than the critical value of f (4.26) at 1 and 24 degrees of freedom and
at 0.05 level of significance. The result also shows that there is no
significance difference between man-hour wastages caused by work
related illnesses and those of non-work related illnesses. The implication
therefore is that we fail to reject the null hypothesis since the observed
differences are merely due to sampling error. Work related illnesses
therefore do not differ from non-work related illnesses in their cause of
man-hour wastages of the agricultural workers in our reference area of
study.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.1 TYPES OF ILLNESSES SUFFERED BY AGRICULTURAL
WORKERS IN THE STUDY COMMUNITIES.
Information was gathered on common ailments suffered by the
farmers. Among the ailments suffered, waist pain, back pain and heat
and sun burn top the list with 96.4%, 95.6% and 95.6% respectively;
scorpion/snake bite and whitlow were least with 76.3% and 78.1%
respectively. The result is not surprising given the fact that crude
implements are still being used for cultivation by crop farmers of our
reference. These type of pains are associated with the use of these crude
implements and hence such a high percentage score. In the same vein,
snake/ scorpion bite and whitlow are not so common but still have high
rate of occurrence among farmers. In all, the result shows that thirteen
work related diseases have high percentages of occurrence among our
reference group. This agrees with Cole (2006), Kwan Lee and Lim
(2008) who also identified all these illnesses as the kind of disease that
attack farmers.
Similarly, the agricultural workers are not by this fact exempted
from the general ailments that attack people in the society. It was also
discovered that non-work related illnesses also attack the agricultural
workers of our reference. Top on the list also are stomach upset, typhoid
and malaria which have percentage scores of 96.1%, 94.8% and 90.2%
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respectively. Malaria and typhoid are known to be rife in African
countries. Luz and Green (1997) have indicated that 60% - 70% of work
absenteeism among agricultural workers is caused by malaria. The high
percentage got from this work justifies this assertion more especially
among agricultural workers who are peasant and live in areas that are not
known for their high good environmental status. Stomach upset is also
associated with filthy environment. In all the thirteen items investigated,
seven of them have percentage scores that are more than fifty and so are
regarded as being among the non work related illness suffered by
agricultural workers of our reference. All these illnesses pose a cog on
the wheel of progress of agricultural workers of our case study.
5.2 MAN HOUR WASTAGES CAUSED BY ILL HEALTH
The result of this objective was presented in tables 4.2.5 for man
hours lost by farmers while in hospital admission and 4.2.6 for days lost
at home by them while suffering from illness. Those who lost six to ten
days in hospital admission were fifty-three in number having the highest
percentage of 13%. In all 25% of the respondents had varying degrees of
man hour loss resulting from illnesses that led to hospital admission,
while about 75% lost several days attempting to treat themselves at home.
In this category, 43.6% lost one–five days to top the list. This seems to
confirm that self medication is the other of the day among crop farmers of
our reference. This is in consonance with Luz and Green (1997) who
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discovered that ill-health is the cause of absenteeism among farmers with
malaria contributing 67.5%.
Result also shows that gender differences does not exist as males
and females suffer these diseases alike and loss of man-hours resulting
from these illnesses are not different. A test of hypothesis of difference
between males and females on their man-hour wastages resulting from ill-
health could not reject the null hypothesis. ANOVA shows a sum of
square of 1.47 and 3722.3 for between group and within group, and a
mean square of 1.47 and 12.49 respectively. The f ratio of 0.12 could not
reject the null hypothesis at 1 and 298 degrees of freedom and at 0.05
level of significance. In all no gender differences was observed.
In like manner, a test of differences between man-hour wastages
due to work related diseases and non-work related diseases was
conducted, and no such differences was discovered. The mean squares of
69.02 and 57.85 and F ratio of 1.19 which was not good enough to reject
the null hypothesis. In other words, non work related disease cause as
much havocs to agricultural workers as work related diseases.
5.3 MAN-HOUR WASTAGES AND AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIVITY
The result shows that 4.2% of the respondents indicated that their
productivities are adversely affected, while 26.3% also indicated that it
increases poverty among them.
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Reduction of income and the eventual result of hunger and
starvation were also indicated. This is in line with Kin et al (1997) and
hawkers and Ruel (2006) who also discovered that in their various
environment that poor health condition gave rise to not only decrease in
productivity but also engenders poverty through decrease in income. No
wonder, the income of 65.5% of our respondents are between 0 – 49
thousand naira per month (table 4.10). This shows that majority of crop
farmers of our reference group are below poverty level and as such can
only do subsistence farming.
5.4 HEALTH FACILITIES AVAILABLE TO FARMERS
Information gathered shows that 93.6% of the respondents gave
positive response to the availability of patent medicine stores while at
varying degrees and percentages all the eight items were indicated as
being present at the area of the study. But table 4.2.6 shows that only
25% of them patronize hospitals while the rest patronize others. This also
reveals that home medication is rife among the agricultural workers who
choose to obtain treatment of their ailments from patent medicine stores
(75.0%). Self medication is drug abuses which can exacerbate the impact
of the illness and as such result in more man-hour wastages. The result is
suggestive that government effort in providing health care services to the
masses still needs more to be desired. No mobile clinic was indicated and
hospitals are not located near their farms. This means that they had no
75
choice than to patronize those ones that are readily available at every
nook and cranny of the area of study. Availability does not always mean
existence. The question is: are the services affordable? With the low
income observed among our respondents, it is not difficult to understand
while many of them do not go to hospital when they are sick. They rather
stay at home and manage their illnesses with whatever drugs given to
them by patent medicine dealers.
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CHAPTER SIX; SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The main aim of this work is to examine the man-hour wastages
due to ill-health among agricultural workers in three selected
communities in Enugu State. To achieve this aim, data were gathered
through a structured questionnaire which was validated, reproduced and
administered to a sample of 388 crop farmers. These were duly retrieved
and data derived thereof were presented in frequency tables and analyzed
using percentage techniques, hypotheses were also tested. From these,
findings were made: a summary of these findings are presented below:
6.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Analysis reveals that majority of crop farmers in the area of study
are subsistent farmers who cultivate mainly to provide food for
themselves and for their dependents. Most of them are Igbos, Christians
and resident in their communities for very long time, using crude
implement to do most of their works.
On the type of ailments suffered by farmers, it was discovered that
work related ailments include muscular fatigue, heat exhaustion, and skin
disease. Pesticide poisoning, head ache, musculoskeletal diseases, heat
and sunburn, eye injuries and irritation, whitlow, snake and scorpion bite,
back pain, arthritis and waist pain. Most of these work related illnesses
are cause by the use of antiquated crude implement which requires high
77
level of energy for their use. While non-work ailments include malaria,
infectious disease, stomach upset typhoid, nausea and vomiting, ante-
natal and post-natal diseases, hypertension, abdominal pains, and
pneumonia.
It was equally discovered that as a result of these illnesses, a lot of
man-hours were lost by agricultural workers of our reference. These
range from one to five days, while some lost up to ten days and many
others from eleven to sixteen days per year. These were days some of
them (25%) spent in hospital, while about (75%) of them stayed at home
managing their illnesses by themselves thereby losing more man-hours.
A test of hypothesis was carried out to find out whether there is a
significant difference between the males and females in their man hour
wastages due to ill-health. The result shows that no such differences exist
since male and female agricultural workers do not differ in their man-
hour wastages due to ill-health.
Similarly, a test of hypothesis was also conducted to find out
whether there is significant difference between the man-hour wastages
caused by work related illnesses and those of other illnesses. The result
also indicates that no such differences exist as the result was not good
enough to reject the null hypothesis.
On the availability of health facilities to help them whenever they
are ill, it was discovered that there are very few hospitals and health
78
centres located about one to one and half kilometers away from farmer’s
place of work. The health facilities readily available to them (93.6%) are
the patent medicine stores which they always go into and obtain their
treatment. The patent medicine dealers most often are not experienced
medical personnel and hence effective treatment of ailments is derived.
This makes farmers to stay at home longer than necessary while trying to
treat their ailments thereby wasting more man-hours.
The impacts of this are discovered to include reduction of the
productivities of the farmers, reduction of income and increased poverty
among farmers. It may also expose them to hunger and starvation.
6.2 CONCLUSION
From the findings summarized above, the following conclusions
are drawn.
1. Those agricultural workers suffer not only general illnesses but
also work related illnesses. These illnesses include muscular
fa