Chapter One The March to Civilization p. 22-51 Slide 2 What is
History? Slide 3 When does human history begin? Did it begin when
the first cities were built over 5000 years go? Did it begin when
the first hunter-gatherer societies that did not leave written
records? Does it begin with the arrival of the first fully human
beings about 50 000 years ago? Human beings populated the earth
between 50 000 BCE and 10 000 BCE Slide 4 In Search of Our
Ancestors The earliest hominid biped ancestor (primate walking
upright on two feet) lived about 4 million years ago Homo erectus
replaced Australopithecus about 1.7 million years ago By 1.2
million years ago, all hominids except Homo erectus had become
extinct Slide 5 Homo erectus Continued to evolve into modern human
by developing a larger brain and rounder skull Still had thicker
skull and brow ridges By 400,000 years ago, the changes were
significant enough to reclassified from Homo erectus to Homo
sapiens (wise man) Slide 6 Homo sapiens 100 000 years ago Humans
had settled into three distinct populations In Europe and Near East
= Neanderthals (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) Africa = modern
humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) Invasion of Homo sapiens sapiens led
to the assimilation, if not extinction, of the Neanderthals Homo
sapiens sapiens inhabited all parts of the world, including
Australia (40 000 years ago), the Americas (12 000 years ago), the
Arctic (10 000 years ago), and the Pacific Islands (2 000 years
ago) Another group in Asia, but not enough fossils to get a clear
definition Slide 7 The Neanderthals Lived in between 100 000 and 40
000 years ago during the last great ice age Were named after the
Neander Valley in Germany where the first skeleton was found in
1856 Slide 8 Neanderthal appearance Heavy-set people Average height
of 160 cm Weight of 73 kg Arms and legs stubby as forearms and
lower legs are shorter than ours Heavily muscled, especially in
neck and shoulders Eyebrows were on prominently bulging, bony
ridges Nose, jaws, and teeth protruded forward Lower jaw sloped
back so there was almost no chin Eyes were sunken in deep sockets
Large and powerful hands Slide 9 The Stones and Bones of Mary
Leakey Mary Leakey was a world renowned archaeologist,
paleoanthropologist, author, and artist Set the standard for the
excavation and documentation of Paleolithic finds Began working on
archaeological digs at the age of 17 for Dorothy Liddell Met Louis
Leakey, archaeologist, and married him in 1936 Slide 10 Mary Leakey
continued Until 1959, Mary and Louis worked in Kenya and Tanzania
Discovered that Africa was the site of human evolution (not Asia as
assumed) 1948 located the first fossil ape ever found Between 16-20
million years old Not the missing link between humans and apes,
though Slide 11 Mary Leakey continued 1959 discovered the skull of
a 1.75 million-year-old hominid in Olduvai Gorge First of its
species Oldest hominid ever found 1978 found hominid foot prints
hardened in volcanic ash about 3.6 million years ago Absence of
tools led her to postulate that bipedalism (two- footedness) came
before the use of tools Believed that archaeologists should spend
more time looking for concrete evidence and less time making
hypotheses Slide 12 Neanderthal Society? Not certain if there was
any formal social relationship Life was lived on a day-to-day
survival basis Small groups thinly spread over the earth Hunting
and scavenging in small groups No permanent relationships between
men and women, and no real family units Slide 13 Neanderthal life
No formal leadership, no rules or laws Primitive religion with few
rituals Very short lives with little organization Wore wraps to
keep warm, and probably no jewelry Society a system of human
organizations that generations distinctive cultural patterns and
usually provides protection, security, and continuity for its
members Did Neanderthals have a society? Slide 14 Big Game Hunters?
Hunted big-game such as woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros
Scavenged for food often taking bits left over from big predators
Were opportunistic hunters and scavengers Women and children stayed
close to home preparing food gathered from plants as well as food
from the hunts The gathering of food by women and children was
critical to survival Slide 15 Neanderthal religion The discovery of
burial sites has led scientists to believe that Neanderthals had
some sort of primitive spiritual beliefs Absence of grave goods
makes it seem that there were no rituals associated with death
Slide 16 Neanderthal life Most lives short and brutal Infant
mortality high Life expectancy around 40 years of age (80%) Used
physical strength to do tasks, rather than develop ways to make
their lives easier Homes were simple Food source was not stable
Slide 17 What happened to the Neanderthals? Homo sapiens sapiens
had better weapons and tools and probably wiped out the
Neanderthals After 60 000 years, became extinct because of disease,
displacement, and killing by Homo sapiens sapiens within 2 000
years No fossil evidence of inter breeding Neanderthals had a
12-month pregnancy Slide 18 The Great Leap Forward: Complex
Societies Occurred 35 000 years ago Two fundamental changes:
Development of modern anatomy Beginning of innovative behaviour
Slide 19 Advancements made Tools made of thin stone blades Spears
Needles and awls for making clothing Mortars and pestles for
preparing food Axes for cutting wood Water craft Slide 20 Weapons
developed Barbed harpoons Darts Spear throwers Bows and arrows
Allowed the hunting of large animals like: Wild pigs Reindeers
Horses bison Slide 21 Development of trade and aesthetic
appreciation Long distance trade was not only for raw materials,
but also for ornaments Personal ornaments appeared Sculpture and
painting appears Evidence of the appreciation of beauty Slide 22
Daily Life in the Upper Paleolithic Age Paleo - old Lithos - stone
Old Stone Age During this time, human societies would develop:
Social hierarchies Alliances Marriage customs Religious rituals
Sense of artistic beauty Slide 23 Roles in Paleolithic Society
RoleFunctionSphere of Influence WarriorProtectionSociety
HunterProvide food and clothingFamily unit Spiritual leaderReligion
and ritualSociety HealerMedicine and healingSociety
ArtistStorytelling, adornmentSociety GathererProvide foodFamily
Unit MentorGuidance, teachingSociety Slide 24 Upper Paleolithic
Period 50 000 to 10 000 years ago Lived in small groups about 5-10
families Nomadic or semi-nomadic Hunter/gatherers Depended on one
another to survive Slide 25 Cro-Magnons (Europe) Had relationships
with other bands over hundreds of kilometres Would usually meet in
the summer or early fall Would arrange marriages, trade goods, and
have initiation rituals Marriages were necessary to avoid
inter-marriage of bands Trade items would include sharks teeth,
shells, amber, raw materials, weapons, clothing Would spend winter
in protected valleys where they had stored food and had some
protection against the cold Slide 26 Paleolithic society Leadership
evolved Social hierarchy evident in variations in Paleolithic
graves Personal adornment is determined by status Hierarchy based
on gender, age, and experience (old men had more control) Also
wisdom and knowledge Slide 27 Role of Women and Men in Paleolithic
Societies Better hunting strategies because of cooperation,
improved speech, and better weapons Did not need to scavenge any
more Planned ahead for the winter and stored food Better weapons
and better tools for skinning and preparing food, scraping skins,
and making clothing that fit Slide 28 Paleolithic Men hunted In
Europe: Mammoths Aurochs Bison Reindeer Wild cattle Horses Red deer
In South America: Llama Giant sloth Rhea In Australia: Emu
Wallabies Kangaroos Large marsupials Slide 29 Paleolithic Hunting
Men drove the animals into a natural enclosure Drove the animals
over a cliff, or into marshes or tar pits Development of bow and
arrow about 20 000 BCE allowed hunters freedom to stalk animals
Slide 30 Paleolithic Women Food gathered by women and children
accounted for 60-70% of the food eaten Had far more success
gathering food than hunting for food Bulk of diet was vegetables
Gathered: Roots Potatoes Fruits Sweet berries Honey Shellfish Slide
31 Roles of Women Made clothing Raised children Older women would
advise younger women and pass on stories and wisdom Also hunted
small game such as reptiles, birds, and insects Accompanied men on
big hunting trips and helped by driving animals from the bushes or
paddling the canoes Slide 32 Art, Ideas, and Beliefs in the
Paleolithic Age Tools were made to be both beautiful and useful
Jewelry was made out of a variety of materials Fertility statues
were made Slide 33 Cave Paintings Cave paintings were created Most
famous in the Lascaux Caves in France Date back to 15 000 BCE Often
used irregularities in the cave walls to add a 3D effect Shows
beauty and strength of the animals, as well as movement and depth
Slide 34 Religion Paintings show that certain animals were held as
sacred Beginnings of religious beliefs The Chapel of the Lioness in
France may have been a ritual meeting place for Paleolithic hunters
A cave lion engraved on a stalagmite shows signs of being
repeatedly struck, as if to kill it symbolically Slide 35 The
Neolithic Revolution Neo - new New Stone Age 9 000 BCE Ground and
polished stone tools primarily used People began to farm Planted
crops and domesticated animals Slide 36 Why/How the Move to
Farming? By the end of the last ice age, people had learned a lot
about plants and animals By observing animals at watering holes or
tending for sick animals, people decided to corral some of them
Women may have decided to try to grow some of the wild grains they
gathered People learned they could control the food supply Slide 37
End of the Ice Age End of the ice age lead a warmer and wetter
climate Abundance of wild grasses Population increased Led to
competition for land Hunter/gatherers used 16 km 2 but 100 farmers
could use the same amount of land Slide 38 Animals Domesticated
Cattle Sheep Pigs Goats Cattle provided Meat Leather Milk
(butter/cheese) The entire body was used for food Slide 39 Grains
Raised Weeds also harvested and thrown into the soup Barley was
used to make beer Mead was made from fermented honey and water,
flavoured with wild fruit and herbs Slide 40 Agricultural
Inventions The sickle allowed a family to harvest wheat efficiently
Axes helped clear land quicker The hoe allowed tilling of the soil
Copper used for Sharper knives Drinking vessels Spits Buckets
Cauldrons Slide 41 Changes in Society People built permanent towns
and cities Some left agriculture to specialize in various crafts
Society became more hierarchical as people began to have a choice
in occupations As people didnt need to worry about where their next
meal would come from, there was further development of: Art Music
Sports Leisure activities Slide 42 Further Changes to Society
Established more complex religions Society could now afford a
priestly class that made no real material contribution to society
Building of permanent cities and complex religion led to the
building of elaborate religious sites and tombs Slide 43 The Urban
Revolution Characterized by large, densely populated settlements
that were socially and economically diverse Specialization in
occupations Ruler Trader Metal smith Scribe Farmer Fisher Herder
Priest Slide 44 Characteristics of a Civilization Centralized
government Agricultural intensification Specialization in
occupations Class structure Merchants and trade Development of
science and writing State religion Slide 45 Centralized Government
Before centralized government, individuals took it into their own
hands to correct a wrong that a family member or clan member had
suffered Warfare was on a small scale mostly raids Slide 46 Early
Governments Power became concentrated in a small group of people
that was recognized as having the right to rule over others
Initially, a citizens assembly was guided by a group of elders
Decisions were made on a consensus basis Majority rule not known
When the society was in crisis, there was usually a dictator
Different types of leadership developed, including monarchies
Kingships democracies Government took on the role of adjudicator of
disputes and rectifiers of wrongs Warfare was an organized response
of the sate to external threat Internal conflicts between citizens
were settled by the government Slide 47 Agricultural
Intensification Early governments were involved in such
agricultural decisions as: Planning and coordination of irrigation
projects Building of dikes to reclaim land Development of a
calendar to plan planting and harvesting of crops All this lead to
increased food production Lead to an increase in leisure time Slide
48 Specialization in Occupations With a stable, abundant food
supply, society was able to support people who did not farm
Specialists were needed for the centralized government, including:
Tax collectors Record keepers Judges Slide 49 New Occupations
Developed Weavers Carpenters Coppersmiths Goldsmiths Tanners Bakers
Brewers Teachers Also people to spend time pursuing the arts Poets
Artists musicians Slide 50 Class Structure With the evolution of
centralized government, individuals lost equal access to land The
concept of private ownership of land developed Led to the desire to
own more land Hire more workers to work on the land Eventually,
slavery was developed to carry out manual labour Private land
ownership led to an uneven distribution of wealth In early
civilizations, there was the no real middle class The wealthy
nobility began to monopolize government positions Slide 51
Merchants and Trade Before the development of centralized
government, trade was generally between bands and was usually raw
materials With the development of trades, trade shifted mostly to
manufactured goods, including luxury goods Rare dyes Ivory carvings
Precious stones Slide 52 Merchants Development of a merchant class
that produced nothing, but facilitated trade Led to shops and
markets Bartering more complex Led to currency Long distance trade
meant movement of people from place to place Slide 53 Development
of Science and Writing Important inventions Metallurgy The wheel
Baked bricks Mortar Simple machines Specialized tools Slide 54
Evolution of Writing Developed because of the need to keep track of
food surpluses How much grain was available? Who owned the cattle?
How many cows were there? What was the rate of chickens/sheep per
cow? Need to measure goods lead to the development of weights and
measures Writing also used for recording of laws and religious
texts Slide 55 State Religion Strong link between religion and the
authority of the centralized government Religion legitimized the
government The government protected and promoted the religion While
the religions did support the government, it did express the
beliefs and spiritual needs of the society Slide 56 Rivers and
Civilizations Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China all developed
along river valleys Mesopotamia Tigris and Euphrates Egypt Nile
India Indus China Yellow Rivers provided: Steady source of water
Fertile soil Fish to eat Served to help communication and trade
Slide 57 Mesopotamia: The Cradle of Civilization Mesopotamia - land
between two rivers Between the Tigris and Euphrates In present day
Iraq Developed: Codified laws Concept of kingship Building of
places to worship gods Writing The wheel Slide 58 Creation of
Babylonia Southern area known as Sumer Northern area known as Akkad
Two regions united into Babylonia Slide 59 Climate/Geography
Alluvial plain Little rainfall for crops Hot and dry Soil is arid
and sterile if not cared for properly Soil has no minerals Almost
no stone Almost no timber During the winter, stormy south winds
brought downpours that turned the river valleys into mud Spring run
off from the snow lead to flooding Slide 60 Why Live There Then?
The natural levees along the Euphrates River made this area livable
The levee sloped gently downward away from the river The highest
and safest ground was along the levee adjacent to the river The
levee was fertile, and was a good place to grow crops Also a lot of
swamps with fish, waterfowl, and reeds Reeds were used to feed
sheep and goats and were used as a building material The levees
needed irrigation and better drainage to live up to their potential
Slide 61 The People Four distinct ethnocultural groups Sumerians
Arrived from central Asia around 3 000 BCE Akkadians and Amorites
Semitic-speaking peoples from the Syrian deserts around 2 600 BCE
and 2 200 BCE The Luvians and Hittites Indo-Europeans who arrived
around 2 000 BCE Hurrians Arrived from the Caucasus around 1 800
BCE Slide 62 The Growth of the Empire For most of its history,
Mesopotamia was a collection of independent states Unification came
very late Early towns were democratic A bureaucracy was developed
to look after the increasingly complex society Government built
roads and canals, enforced laws, and settled disputes During times
of war, appointed one of their warriors to lead Sumerian title for
king was lugal big man Frequency of warfare led to a decline in
democracy and a growth in hereditary and autocratic monarchies
Slide 63 Sumerian Society Dominant between 2 900 and 2 400 BCE Four
main classes Nobility king, his family, chief priests, and high
palace officials The king was thought to be divinely ordained
Nobility owned the most and best land Free clients men and women
who worked for the nobility in exchange for use of the land
Commoners free citizens who owned their own land and were not
dependent on the nobility Included merchants, artisans, government
workers Slaves Slide 64 The Akkadians Social, economic, and
intellectual framework of Mesopotamia was established by the
Sumerians, but they were never successful in uniting with the lower
Mesopotamia. This was done by a Semitic chieftain named Sargon in 2
331 BCE Established his capital at Akkad Unified Mesopotamia and
established the culture throughout the Fertile Crescent By 2 200
BCE, the Akkadians fell Slide 65 The Babylonians Mesopotamia was
reunited by the Babylonians Used their central location to dominate
trade King Hammurabi came to the throne in 1 750 BCE Conquered
Akkad and Assyria Developed a law code which was inscribed on a
stone pillar set up in public for all to see Slide 66 Hammurabi
Hammurabi is seen as receiving his authority from the god Shamash
The laws were seen as divinely inspired and were clearly written
out Punishments were designed to fit the crime e.g. an eye for an
eye Members of the nobility were given more lenient penalties Slide
67 The Assyrians Invasion of the Hurrians was one of the events in
the next 700 years of turmoil In the tenth century BCE, Assyria
became dominant, led by Assurnasirpal II who reunited Mesopotamia
The Assyrians became the most feared army in the Near East By
seventh century BCE, had established an empire from the Persian
Gulf to Syria, Palestine, and Egypt Slide 68 Assyrians forever?
Because the Assyrians ruled through fear and overextended
themselves, their empire started to revolt in the late seventh
century BCE By 539 BCE, Mesopotamia was part of the Persian empire
which was from the Indus River to the Mediterranean Sea Slide 69
The Persians Cyrus the Great replaced fear with tolerance and
fairness Differences in religion okay Taxes were fair Local
government officials retained This lead to the Persian empire
surviving for over 800 years Slide 70 Invention of Writing Allowed
for the passing along of ideas Codification of laws Keeping of
records Written language developed by the Sumerians and known as
cuneiform wedge-shaped A scribe pressed a wedge-shaped stylus into
a slab of soft clay Slide 71 Before Cuneiform Writing was only used
for record keeping Only used nouns such as ox, sheep, and grain
Eventually, signs used for homonyms Eventually abstract thoughts
Spread to Persia and Egypt and was the only international script
Slide 72 Science and Technology Variety of tools and techniques
developed to allow for a prosperous living based on agriculture
Wheel Allowed oxen to pull three times as much weight as before
Seeder-plow Pick axe Slide 73 Beliefs Oldest religion in the world
for which written records exist Polytheistic religion with over 3
600 gods and demigods Five most important gods Enlil supreme god
and god of the air Ishtar mother goddess of fertility and lire An
god of heaven Enki god of the underworld and the water Shamash sun
god and the giver of law Slide 74 Mesopotamian Creation Myth The
creation of the universe was a story created by people for people
to explain how the universe came about Four gods planned and
created the main parts of the universe and then delegated each part
to their children to rule: An - heaven Enlil - air Enki - water
Nammu - earth Slide 75 The History of the Imagination: Myths and
Legends Gilgamesh and Enkidu Gilgamesh was a real king in Uruk in
Babylonia about 2 700 BCE Said to be beautiful, strong, courageous,
and a large physical presence Was 2/3 divine and 1/3 human His
people suffered under his overzealous leadership and his belief he
could control everything Slide 76 Enkidu The gods heard the peoples
moaning, so they created Enkidu, who looked like Gilgamesh, but was
shorter and broader Lived with the animals until he was found and
seduced into human contact by a temple courtesan and taught human
ways Taken to a brides home where Gilgamesh was to visit, and he
blocked Gilgameshs way The two fought until they embraced and began
an epic friendship Slide 77 Friends forever? The gods were made
angry by Gilgamesh and Enkidus exuberance Enkidu was killed
Gilgamesh journeyed through the Underworld crying, Death and life I
wish to know. Slide 78 Significance of Myth Written on 12 clay
tablets that were not found until 1853 in Nineveh (northern Iraq)
It is the first known work of great literature It is the first
known epic poem The tablets provide the name of the earliest known
author Sin-leqi-unninni It mentions a great flood within a story
similar to the one about Noahs Ark Slide 79 Ziggurats: Temples to
the Gods Gods had to be honoured by religious ceremonies performed
by priests in sacred temples Temples were made of mud bricks which
had to be placed on platforms to avoid flooding Temples got larger
and larger led to ziggurats A stack of platforms creasing in size
from bottom to top Ranged from one to seven platforms and were
decorated Slide 80 Tower of Babel One of the most famous ziggurats
was the Tower of Babel one of the wonders of the ancient worlds The
temple was over 100 m above the ground Rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzer
Slide 81 Mesopotamias Lasting Legacy This is where people first
abandoned their nomadic life and began to build cities Developed:
Kingship City-states Writing Astronomy (including the seasonal
equinoxes) Written legal code The wheel Slide 82 Evaluating
Civilizations How do we judge a civilization? Should a civilization
be judged on the grandeur of its monuments? Should it be judged on
its science, technology, and arts Is it judged by its size? What
about quality of life? Slide 83 History Continues to Unfold Some
anthropologists are focusing their research on the evolution of the
human mind and human consciousness Current scientific research into
the brain is helping us to understand our ancestors as well as
ourselves
