Chapter Two – Approaches to Studying Individuals & Families HHS 4M Individuals and Families in a Diverse Society

Chapter Two – Chapter Two – Approaches to Approaches to

Studying Individuals Studying Individuals & Families& Families

HHS 4M HHS 4M Individuals and Individuals and

Families in a Diverse Families in a Diverse

SocietySociety

IntroductionIntroduction Preconceptions About Individuals & Families Preconceptions About Individuals & Families

in Canada in Canada Theoretical Perspectives Theoretical Perspectives Developmental TheoriesDevelopmental Theories

PreconceptionsPreconceptions

Experiences that you have in your own Experiences that you have in your own families, the opinions they have formed families, the opinions they have formed from observing & discussing their friend’s from observing & discussing their friend’s families, and the families they have seen families, and the families they have seen portrayed in the media will affect the portrayed in the media will affect the perceptions they have of the subject. perceptions they have of the subject.

What are your preconceptionsWhat are your preconceptions??

Theoretical PerspectivesTheoretical Perspectives

Four basic questions in Social Four basic questions in Social Science: Science:

What happens? What happens? How does it happen? How does it happen? Why does it happen? Why does it happen? How can people change what How can people change what

happens?happens?

Theoretical Perspectives & Theoretical Perspectives & Development Theories Development Theories

Theoretical Perspectives:Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism Functionalism Systems Theory Systems Theory Symbolic Interactionism Symbolic Interactionism Social Exchange TheorySocial Exchange Theory Conflict Theory Conflict Theory Feminist TheoryFeminist Theory

Key Terms in Theoretical Key Terms in Theoretical Perspectives Perspectives

DisciplinesDisciplines: specific branches of learning (ex. : specific branches of learning (ex. Math, physics, psychology) Math, physics, psychology)

TheoryTheory: a framework for organizing & explaining : a framework for organizing & explaining observable evidence. Without facts, a theory is observable evidence. Without facts, a theory is just a speculation or a guess. just a speculation or a guess.

MacroMacro: large scale study of society : large scale study of society MicroMicro: small scale study of individual cases : small scale study of individual cases AnthropologyAnthropology: study of culture : study of culture EthnocentrismEthnocentrism: the tendency to evaluate : the tendency to evaluate

behaviour from the point of view of your own behaviour from the point of view of your own culture culture

SociologySociology: study of behaviour of individuals in : study of behaviour of individuals in groups, families and society groups, families and society

PsychologyPsychology: study of behaviour based on mental : study of behaviour based on mental processprocess

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective 1. Functionalism 1. Functionalism

FunctionalismFunctionalism: attempts to explain how a : attempts to explain how a society is organized to perform its required society is organized to perform its required functions effectively Also called Structural functions effectively Also called Structural Functionalism – focus on structures’ function in Functionalism – focus on structures’ function in society society

Oldest theory Oldest theory Structures are called Structures are called institutions institutions Assumes that society are stable when Assumes that society are stable when

structures function in ways that benefit society structures function in ways that benefit society Change occurs slowly to maintain Change occurs slowly to maintain equilibrium equilibrium


Examines the Examines the roles roles that individuals play that individuals play within an institutionwithin an institution

Groups within society motivate individuals Groups within society motivate individuals to act to act

StatusStatus is acquired when an individual is acquired when an individual takes a specific role in a group takes a specific role in a group

Individuals learn the appropriate Individuals learn the appropriate behaviour through the process of behaviour through the process of socialization socialization


Functionalist observe the most prevalent Functionalist observe the most prevalent behaviours as the behaviours as the normnorm

Behaviours that rarely occur are below the Behaviours that rarely occur are below the norm norm

Use a Use a macro levelmacro level of observation of observation The organization of society is based on a The organization of society is based on a

consensus about what is functional consensus about what is functional


Main Ideas: Main Ideas: Every society has an underlying Every society has an underlying structurestructure - -

religious, political, economic, educational, religious, political, economic, educational, & familial & familial

In order for the society to survive, certain In order for the society to survive, certain functionsfunctions must be done must be done

People’s behaviour is governed by laws, People’s behaviour is governed by laws, regulations, and expectations which help regulations, and expectations which help to maintain a stable societyto maintain a stable society

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective 1. Functionalism - Example 1. Functionalism - Example

Family as an Institution Family as an Institution The family has a number of important The family has a number of important

functions in society: functions in society:

1.1. Provides for Provides for physical protectionphysical protection of its of its members members

2.2. Provides for Provides for emotional well beingemotional well being of its of its members members

3.3. SocializationSocialization of new members of new members


Family Structure Family Structure The family is organized around three The family is organized around three

statuses: statuses:

1. husband/father 1. husband/father

2. wife/mother 2. wife/mother

3. child 3. child

Each of these statuses carry a set of Each of these statuses carry a set of expectations concerning suitable behaviour expectations concerning suitable behaviour so that it can function efficiently.so that it can function efficiently.


What This Means ? What This Means ?

The husband/father has an active, doing role and The husband/father has an active, doing role and is responsible for economic support of the family is responsible for economic support of the family members members

The wife/mother has an expressive (emotional) The wife/mother has an expressive (emotional) role and is responsible for physical and emotional role and is responsible for physical and emotional support of the family members This structure was support of the family members This structure was thought to be functional for the family as well as thought to be functional for the family as well as for the industrialized society.for the industrialized society.

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective Questions Asked by Structural Questions Asked by Structural

FunctionalistsFunctionalists

What is happening to the size of What is happening to the size of families in Canada? families in Canada?

Is the number of single parent Is the number of single parent families increasing? families increasing?

Are there adequate day-care Are there adequate day-care facilities? facilities?

What effect does education have on What effect does education have on incomes?incomes?

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective Limitations / CriticismsLimitations / Criticisms

Puts males & females into stereotyped Puts males & females into stereotyped roles regardless of individual differences roles regardless of individual differences

Families from different social classes, Families from different social classes, situations were completely ignored situations were completely ignored

Interactions within the family are also Interactions within the family are also ignored ignored

Viewed change as negative & disruptiveViewed change as negative & disruptive

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective 2. Systems Theory2. Systems Theory

Attempts to explain how groups of individuals Attempts to explain how groups of individuals interact as a system interact as a system

A micro approach A micro approach

The family is a social system because its The family is a social system because its members are INTERDEPENDENT. This means that members are INTERDEPENDENT. This means that the behaviour of one affects the restthe behaviour of one affects the rest

A system or subsystem must be studied within its A system or subsystem must be studied within its context (i.e. married couple cannot be studied context (i.e. married couple cannot be studied without the larger family context) without the larger family context)

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective 2. Systems Theory 2. Systems Theory

Organization of a System Organization of a System – HierarchyHierarchy refers to a descending order of refers to a descending order of

size complexity, and power. size complexity, and power. – SupersystemSupersystem: the Universe : the Universe – EcosystemEcosystem: Neighbourhood, City, : Neighbourhood, City,

Province, Country, World Province, Country, World – SystemSystem: The Family : The Family – SubsystemSubsystem: Husband/Wife, Parent/Child, : Husband/Wife, Parent/Child,

Siblings, the Individual.Siblings, the Individual.


Healthy Families have clear Healthy Families have clear boundaries that are openly boundaries that are openly communicated communicated

Dysfunctional Families is the result of Dysfunctional Families is the result of individual failure to fulfill role individual failure to fulfill role responsibilities, or of unrecognized responsibilities, or of unrecognized rolesroles


Think of the family as a scale or mobile. When Think of the family as a scale or mobile. When one change occurs there is a temporary one change occurs there is a temporary imbalance. Families strive for imbalance. Families strive for equilibriumequilibrium or or homeostasis,homeostasis, thus a new balance will be thus a new balance will be attempted to be found. attempted to be found.

During the strive for During the strive for homeostasishomeostasis each family each family member will react differently and each members member will react differently and each members reaction will in turn affect the system as a whole.reaction will in turn affect the system as a whole.

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective 3. Symbolic Interactionism 3. Symbolic Interactionism

Psychological theory attempting to explain Psychological theory attempting to explain how individuals choose how they will act how individuals choose how they will act based on their perceptions of themselves based on their perceptions of themselves & of others & of others

Emphasizes the importance of relationship Emphasizes the importance of relationship dynamics between and among family dynamics between and among family membersmembers

Role expectations are developed through Role expectations are developed through these interactionsthese interactions


German sociologist German sociologist Max WeberMax Weber (1864-1920) (1864-1920) Social sciences cannot be studied in the same way Social sciences cannot be studied in the same way

as the natural sciences - one simply examines data as the natural sciences - one simply examines data & draws conclusions from those facts . . . The & draws conclusions from those facts . . . The sociologist must try to get inside the mind of the sociologist must try to get inside the mind of the people to find out what their motives arepeople to find out what their motives are. .

American sociologist American sociologist George MeadGeorge Mead (1893-1931) (1893-1931) Stressed that humans are able to interact & Stressed that humans are able to interact &

cooperate with each other because they share a cooperate with each other because they share a common set of symbols – language. Without this common set of symbols – language. Without this common foundation socialization would not be common foundation socialization would not be possible. possible.


Three Basic Concepts: Three Basic Concepts: Individual has two parts Individual has two parts ““me”me” – objective (tall, male, student) – objective (tall, male, student)

1. “I” – subjective awareness of self based on how 1. “I” – subjective awareness of self based on how feedback from others is interpreted feedback from others is interpreted

2. People must be able to anticipate what the other 2. People must be able to anticipate what the other person will do (role-taking). By anticipating person will do (role-taking). By anticipating others reactions, one can formulate their own others reactions, one can formulate their own behaviour behaviour

3. Language is the means by which individuals give 3. Language is the means by which individuals give meaning to their experiences It is a useful micro meaning to their experiences It is a useful micro theory for observing people within groups theory for observing people within groups


Limitations: Limitations: Because the researcher “interprets” what Because the researcher “interprets” what

he/she sees & hears there is room for he/she sees & hears there is room for misreading the intent & meaning of the misreading the intent & meaning of the message message

This approach does not recognize the This approach does not recognize the individual’s/family’s connection with the individual’s/family’s connection with the larger society Each situation is isolated & larger society Each situation is isolated & general conclusions cannot be assumed or general conclusions cannot be assumed or applied applied

Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Perspective 4. Social Exchange Theory 4. Social Exchange Theory

Is another psychological theory that attempts to Is another psychological theory that attempts to explain the social factors that influence how explain the social factors that influence how individuals interact within reciprocal individuals interact within reciprocal relationships. relationships.

Although individuals are constrained by role Although individuals are constrained by role expectations, they act within each role to expectations, they act within each role to maximize the maximize the benefitsbenefits they will receive and to they will receive and to minimize the cost to themselves. minimize the cost to themselves.

Basically, individuals interpret their experiences Basically, individuals interpret their experiences of self & others to determine the of self & others to determine the benefits & costsbenefits & costs. .

These These benefits & costsbenefits & costs are not facts, but are are not facts, but are perceptions formed by the individual perceptions formed by the individual


CostsCosts BenefitsBenefits

CharlesCharles Needed to end Needed to end relationship with relationship with Camilla Parker-Camilla Parker-

BowlesBowles

Diana’s beauty, Diana’s beauty, fertilityfertility

ensures healthy & ensures healthy & attractive heir attractive heir

Public favour Public favour

Noble blood, Noble blood, socialized for public socialized for public lifelife

DianaDiana

(The costs were (The costs were greater than the greater than the rewards!)rewards!)

Restrictions placed on Restrictions placed on her by the royal her by the royal family Husbands family Husbands affairaffair

Wealth, luxurious Wealth, luxurious lifestyle & lifestyle & opportunity to opportunity to become queen become queen

Produce two sonsProduce two sons


Relationships are stable when the benefits that each Relationships are stable when the benefits that each individual received balance the costs of the relationship individual received balance the costs of the relationship

– Benefits – meet perceived need, physical or emotional Benefits – meet perceived need, physical or emotional security, access to goods & services & social approval security, access to goods & services & social approval

- Costs – actions that meet the others needs, such as - Costs – actions that meet the others needs, such as providing providing the list above the list above

Social scientists use the social exchange theory Social scientists use the social exchange theory to explain how individuals make to explain how individuals make decisionsdecisions in in relationships that might not make sense to others relationships that might not make sense to others

Some people are offended by this theory since it Some people are offended by this theory since it assumes all individuals are motivated to serve assumes all individuals are motivated to serve their intereststheir interests

5. Conflict Theory 5. Conflict Theory

Conflict Theory is social and political theory Conflict Theory is social and political theory that examines how that examines how powerpower holds a society holds a society together. together.

Conflict exist between groups because of Conflict exist between groups because of inequalities in powerinequalities in power – groups compete with – groups compete with each other each other

Power inequalities among family members Power inequalities among family members can cause dysfunctioncan cause dysfunction

MacroMacro level theory that basically explains level theory that basically explains inequalities inequalities

It is used to It is used to criticizecriticize, not explain society, not explain society

Conflict Theory Conflict Theory

An example:An example:– Karl MarxKarl Marx – describe the class system in 19th – describe the class system in 19th

century century – BourgeoisieBourgeoisie – wealthy, control means of production. – wealthy, control means of production.

Small group in society, but had massive amount of Small group in society, but had massive amount of control control

- - ProletariatProletariat – working people – working people

Marx predicted that the gap between the rich and Marx predicted that the gap between the rich and working would widen. working would widen.

Many people believe that inequality is a natural Many people believe that inequality is a natural state of human society state of human society

Marx believed that this inequality should be Marx believed that this inequality should be eliminatedeliminated

Conflict Theory Conflict Theory Another example: Another example: Friedrich EngelsFriedrich Engels – the division between sexes in – the division between sexes in

marriage not only paralleled the division between marriage not only paralleled the division between classes, but also were necessary to maintain classes, but also were necessary to maintain class distinctions of capitalism class distinctions of capitalism

Men wielded economic power within the Men wielded economic power within the household, which came from working for a wage. household, which came from working for a wage.

Wage was linked to capitalism. Capitalism will Wage was linked to capitalism. Capitalism will continue to create conflict. continue to create conflict.

Therefore, in this example, conflict theory Therefore, in this example, conflict theory describes the relationship between men & women describes the relationship between men & women as one of exploitation & oppression. as one of exploitation & oppression.

It analyses power & authority within the familyIt analyses power & authority within the family

6. Feminist Theories 6. Feminist Theories

Developed in the second half of the century Developed in the second half of the century Explained the impact of sex & gender on behaviour Explained the impact of sex & gender on behaviour Also, consider human behaviour from the specific Also, consider human behaviour from the specific

view of women Root in conflict theory, but separate view of women Root in conflict theory, but separate gender from class gender from class

AndrocentricityAndrocentricity – a bias that assumes male – a bias that assumes male experience is human experience & therefore experience is human experience & therefore applies to women. Often doesn’t include gender in applies to women. Often doesn’t include gender in researchresearch

Double StandardDouble Standard – are biases that apply a different – are biases that apply a different standard for evaluating the behaviour of womenstandard for evaluating the behaviour of women

Change is required so that the needs of all people Change is required so that the needs of all people are metare met

6. Feminist Theories 6. Feminist Theories

Attempt to explain social inequalities between Attempt to explain social inequalities between men & women from a female perspective men & women from a female perspective

Liberal feminismLiberal feminism – argues discriminatory policies – argues discriminatory policies force women into an inferior class, restricting force women into an inferior class, restricting their right to fully participate in society. They try their right to fully participate in society. They try to change policy through political meansto change policy through political means

Socialist feminismSocialist feminism – challenges capitalism & the – challenges capitalism & the patriarchal model of the family. Inequality is patriarchal model of the family. Inequality is rooted in the sexual division of paid & unpaid rooted in the sexual division of paid & unpaid labour labour

Radical feminismRadical feminism – male-female relationships can – male-female relationships can be explosive. A separate female culture could be explosive. A separate female culture could correct this correct this

Developmental Theories Developmental Theories Developmental theories attempt to describe Developmental theories attempt to describe

patterns of growth & change patterns of growth & change throughout the throughout the human life spanhuman life span

Challenges that individuals experience are called Challenges that individuals experience are called development tasksdevelopment tasks

They describe They describe predictable changespredictable changes in the in the behaviour of individuals or familiesbehaviour of individuals or families

They explain how a personal or family systems They explain how a personal or family systems adapts in response to internal or external stimuli adapts in response to internal or external stimuli

Developmental Theories Developmental Theories These theories examine These theories examine biological, biological,

psychological, social & culturalpsychological, social & cultural factors that factors that influence development influence development

The The Family Life CycleFamily Life Cycle demonstrates demonstrates predictable stages, marked by predictable stages, marked by normative normative eventsevents – such as marriage, birth of child, child – such as marriage, birth of child, child leaves home, etc. leaves home, etc.

At each stage, the family faces specific At each stage, the family faces specific developmental tasks. developmental tasks.

Not all stages will fit all families Not all stages will fit all families Non-normative eventsNon-normative events create unique create unique

challenges challenges

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Chapter Two – Approaches to Studying Individuals & Families HHS 4M Individuals and Families in a Diverse Society