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Theory of structure one: Lecture notes on Loads on structures Page 1
Chapter two: Loads on structures
Introduction
It is necessary to determine the loads the structure must support. So once the dimensions of the structure
are defined, the actual design begins with those elements that are subjected to the primary loads the
structure is intended to carry and proceeds in sequence to the various supporting members until the
foundation is reached. Thus a building floor slab would be designed first followed by the supporting beams,
columns, and last the foundation footings. In order to design a structure, it is therefore necessary to first
specify the loads that act on it. The design load for a structure is often specified in codes. Ethiopian
Building Code Standards one(EBCS-1) gives details of the loading on structures.
2.1. Dead loads
Dead loads consists of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any objects that
are permanently attached to the structure. Hence for building, the dead loads include the weights of
columns, beams, and girders and floor slabs, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures and
other miscellaneous attachments. For a highway bridge, the dead load consists of the main supporting
trusses or girders, the floor beams and stringers of the floor system, the roadway slabs, the curbs,
sidewalks, fences or railings, lampposts and other miscellaneous equipment.
Since the dead load acting on a member must be assumed before the member is designed, one should
design the members of a structure in such a sequence that to as great extent as practicable the weight of
each member being designed is a portion of the dead load carried by the next member to be designed.
2.2. Imposed loads (Live loads)
Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights of objects
temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles or natural forces. It is sometimes convenient to classify
live loads as moving loads and movable loads. Movable loads are those that can be moved from one
position to another on a structure ,such as the contents of a storage buildings. Moving loads are those that
move under their own power such as railroad train or a series of trucks. They are usually applied rather
rapidly and therefore exert an impact effect on the structure.
The live load for highway bridges consists of the weight of the applied moving loads of vehicles and
pedestrians. The live load for railroad bridges consists of locomotives and cars that cross it. The live load
for each track is usually taken as the live load corresponding to two locomotives followed by a uniform load
that represents the weight of the cars. Live loads for buildings are usually considered as movable
distributed loads of uniform intensity. The intensity of the floor loads to be used depends on the purpose
for which the building is designed.
Impact loads
Unless a live load is applied gradually, the deformation of the structure to which the live load is applied is
greater than it would be if the live load were considered as a static load. Since the deformation is greater,
the stresses in the structure are higher. The increase in stress due to live load over and above the value
that this stress would have if the live load were applied gradually is known as impact stress. Impact
stresses are usually associated with moving live loads. For purposes of structural design, impact stresses
are usually obtained by multiplying the live load stresses by a fraction called the impact fraction, which is
specified rather empirically.
Theory of structure one: Lecture notes on Loads on structures Page 2
Wind loads
Wind loads are particularly important in the design of large structures, such as tall buildings, radio towers
and long span bridges, for structures such as mill buildings and hangars that have large open interior and
walls in which large opening may occur. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density and
velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure and the
roughness of ground surface. Wind action fluctuate with time and act directly as pressures on the external
surfaces of enclosed structure because of porosity of the external surface, also act indirectly on the
internal surfaces. They may also get directly on the internal surface of open structures. Pressures act on
areas of the surface resulting in forces normal to the surface of the structure or individual cladding
components .Additionally when large areas of structure are swept by the wind, friction forces acting
tangentially to the surface may be significant. The wind pressure acting on the external surface of the
structure We shall be obtained as We = q ref Ce(Ze)Cpe and on the internal surface W i = qref Ce(Ze)Cpi where
qref = ρ Vref2/2 where ρ is the density of the air, Vref is the reference wind velocity.
Vref = CdirCtempCalt Vref,o. Vref,o is the basic value of wind velocity taken as 22 m/s. Cdir is the direction factor
taken as 1. Ctemp is seasonal factor taken as 1 and Calt is altitude factor taken as 1. Vref is defined as the 10
minute mean wind velocity at 10m above ground of terrain category II having an annual probability of
exceedence of 0.02. Ce(Ze) is the exposure coefficient accounting the effect of terrain roughness(whether
the structure is located near sea, lakes, clear land, farmlands or urban city) and topography(whether hills,
escarpment etc).Cpe is external pressure coefficient accounting the variation of wind velocity along the
height of the structure. The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the difference b/n the pressure on
opposite surfaces taking due account of their signs. Pressure directed towards the surface is taken as
positive and pressure directed away from the surface is called suction and is negative. Examples are
shown below.
Theory of structure one: Lecture notes on Loads on structures Page 3
Earthquake loads
Important structures located in regions subjected to severe earthquake are often designed to resist
earthquake effects. During an earthquake ,structural damage may result from the fact that the foundation
of the structure undergoes accelerations. Such accelerations are largely horizontal and vertical
components are usually neglected. In active earthquake zones, the maximum rate of horizontal
acceleration of the foundation may reach having magnitude b/n 0.5 and 1 times gravity(9.81m/s2).The
seismic base shear force, Fb acting at the base of the structure causing movement for each main
direction(two orthogonal axis)is determined from
Fb = Sd(T1)W
where Sd(T1) is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1. T1 is fundamental period of vibration of
the structure for translational motion in the direction considered. T1 = C1 H3/4
where H is the height of the
building above the base in meters. C1 is coefficient accounting the frame type whether steel or reinforced
concrete frame. W is the seismic dead load.
Sd(T1) = αβγ
α is the ratio of the design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration of the gravity, g and is given as
α=αoI
where I is the importance factor which depend on the size of the building, on its value and importance for
the public safety and possibility of human losses in case of collapse. αo is the bedrock acceleration ratio of
the site.
The parameter β is the design response factor for the site and is given by
β=1.2S/T2/3
.
The factor S is the site coefficient for the soil characteristic on which the structure is founded. T is the
period considered.
The behavior factor γ account the energy dissipation capacity of the structure when the structure is under
earthquake load.
γ=γo kD kR kW ≤ 0.70,
γo is basic value of the behavior factor dependent on the structural type.
kD is factor reflecting the ductility class, kR -factor reflecting the structural regularity in elevation, kW -factor
reflecting the prevailing failure mode of structural system with walls.
The base shear force shall be distributed over the height of the structure as Fb = Ft +∑Fi The concentrated
force Ft at the top which is in addition to Fn shall be determined from Ft = 0.07T1Fb
Theory of structure one: Lecture notes on Loads on structures Page 4
The remaining portion of the base shear shall be distributed over the height of structure including level n
according to the following formula,
∑=
−
=n
i
ii
iitb
i
hW
hWFFF
1
)(
Hydrostatic and soil pressures
When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular material, the pressure developed by these
loading is important criterion for their design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams,
ships, bulkhead and retaining wall. The law of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the
intensity of the loading on the structure.
Non-directional loads include thermal loads, shrinkage, fabrication error and support settlements
Thermal load
Changes in temperature cause strains in the members of a structure and hence produce deformations in
the structure as a whole. If the changes in shape due to temperature encounter restraint, as is often the
case in a statically indeterminate structure, stresses will be set up within the structure. The forces set up in
a structure as a result of temperature changes are often called thermal forces. In addition to considering
the forces set up by changes in temperature, it is important to take into consideration the expansion and
contraction of a structure, particularly in connection with support details.
Shrinkage
Among the widely used materials, concrete is most susceptible to shrinkage. A length L of freshly poured
concrete shortens an amount sL as it sets. The coefficient s is called shrinkage ratio. Most specifications
prescribe a constant value for s. For concrete, on the average, s =0.0003. During shrinkage ,if a structural
resistance occurs, internal stresses will develop. In fact this is the case in statically indeterminate
structures.
Fabrication errors
Owing to the lack of appropriate quality control, the elements of a structure may have different dimensions
and shapes than their design dimensions and shapes. The difference is called the actual fabrication error.
In indeterminate structure these fabrication errors cause stresses.
Support settlements
If a structure is supported in a statically indeterminate manner and the supports settle unevenly, then
stresses will develop. Since the internal stresses will be large when the differential settlements are large, a
designer need to be refrained from using statically indeterminate support states in sites where the
expected differential settlements are large.
Theory of structure one: Lecture notes on Loads on structures Page 5
2.3. Factor of safety
Whenever a structure is designed, it is important to give consideration to both material and load
uncertainties. To account these uncertainties and the structure to be safely carry loads, factor of safety is
included. According to EBCS-1, the design value of material property is generally defined as
Xd = Xk/γm
where Xk is the characteristic strength value of material. The characteristic strength is the material strength
below which, not more than a prescribed percentage of the test result fall. For example, EBCS-2 specifies
the characteristic compressive strength of concrete as the strength below which 5% of all possible strength
measurement is expected to fall. Where γm is the partial safety factor for the material for product property
which covers a) unfavorable deviations from the characteristics values, b) inaccuracies in the conversion
factors c) uncertainties in the geometric properties and resistance model.
The load considered for design is obtained from characteristics load multiplied with safety factor, γF
Fd = γFFK .
The characteristic load FK and is defined as the value of load which has an accepted probability of not
being exceeded during the life span of structures. γF is the partial safety factor for the action considered
taking account of the possibility of unfavorable deviations of the action, the possibility of inaccurate
modeling of the action and uncertainties in the assessment of effects of action.
2.4. Load combinations
The many types of loads discussed previously can occur simultaneously on a structure, but it is very
unlikely that the maximum of all these loads occur at the same time. For example, the load combination for
assuring against failure by strength criteria for structural design of building is given in EBCS-1 as follows
combination one :Dead load and one live load
Fd =1.3(dead load) +1.6(live load)
Combination two: Dead load and two or more live loads
Fd =1.3(dead load) +1.35(∑(live load))
Combination three: Dead load, dominant of live loads and accidental (earthquake)load
Fd = dead load + dominant live load + earthquake load
In all these cases, the combination of loads is thought to provide a maximum yet realistic loading on the
structure.
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