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CHAPTER VI
EVERYDAY ETHIC OF JAINISM
The pr inciples which guide the Ja ins in their daily-
conduct a r e p r imar i ly based on their rel igious doct r ines . Although
the Ja ins have lived in India for over two mil lenia , non-Jains sti l l
r ega rd them as a pecul iar people. This pecul iar i ty r e s t s on the
way they worship, the ru les of conduct they observe both for the
clergy and the laity, their pecul iar dietary ru l e s , their m a r r i a g e
cus toms, their home life, their d r e s s , language and l i t e ra tu re ,
their inst i tut ions, and the manner in which they earn a livelihood
and ca r ry on their bus ines ses .
Hindus define four objectives they r ega rd as worth
striving for. These form the basis of their philosophy and general
conduct. The f i rs t , Ar tha , consis ts of m a t e r i a l possess ions or
success in this life. It includes wealth, profit, success in business
m a t t e r s , or success in pol i t ics . The A r t h s a s t r a is the authoritat ive
handbook on the subject. The second, Kama, denotes p leasure ,
enjoying the fruits of love, and in genera l all that is pleasant and
which gladdens the hea r t . All India looks up to the Vatsyayana 's
Kamasu t ra for guidance in this field. The third, Dharma, defines
the whole duty of man, m o r a l as well as re l ig ious . The king's
Dharma is to do his kingly duties well; the Brahman ' s is to follow
his caste regulations meticulously; the Kshatr iya, the Vaisya and
191
the Shudra follow unwaveringly the ru les of their respect ive castes .
Dha rmasu t r a s or Books of Law, is the authori ty on Dharma.
Finally, Moksha is salvation or l iberat ion and belongs in the
category of soteriology.
In reject ing the doctr ines of the Brahmans , Ja in i sm
changed the order of the c lass ica l four fold a ims stated above.
The fourth a im, Moksha, was made p re -eminen t . Sangave s ta tes :
The ru les of conduct a r e always designed to achieve the main a im or object in life. . . (this) is to obtain Moksha, that is freedom from the continuous cycle of b i r ths and deaths . The soul achieves r ea l and everlast ing happiness only when it can escape from s a m s a r a or t ransmigra t ion of the soul which is always fraught with sor rows and t rouble . . . The neces sa ry conditions to gain Moksha a r e samvara and n i r ja ra , that is the stoppage of influx of Karmic mat te r and falling away of existing Karmic mat te r from the soul. Thus samvara and n i r ja ra a r e the two most important mi les tones on the path to l iberation and natural ly the pr inciples of right conduct by Ja ins a r e shaped with a view to accompl ish samvara and n i r ja ra as ear ly as poss ib le . 1
The ru les of conduct for laymen and the clergy a r e laid down
prec ise ly for the achievement of moksha. They affect every
department of life.
THE JAIN WORSHIP
Jain philosophy is p lura l i s t ic , recognizing no line of
demarcat ion between the Crea tor on the one hand and the creat ion
l y i l a s Adinath Sangave, Ja ina Community, a Social Survey, (India: Popular Books Depot, 1959), p . 211,
192
on the other . The agents of creat ion a r e not in any way super ior to
the handiwork. There a r e many gods and godesses , none deserving
to be worshipped m o r e than a human being. The Ja in is expected
"to work out his own salvation, " but without the benefit of being able
to say, "because it is God which worketh in you both to will and to
do of His good p l easu re . " There is no short cut to moksha. No
amount of in te rcess ion by any higher being is helpful. Long ago
Mahavira said: "Man thou a r t thine best friend, why seekest thou
another ? "
Each Jain, however, is eager to join the ranks of those
who have a l ready become J inas (conquerors) . The objects of
contemplation a re not supreme beings, but those who have a l ready
achieved Nirvana. The by-gone saints who have attained this
ideal a r e called P a r a m e s h t h i n s .
There a r e five Paranneshthins . Siddha Pa ramesh th in
a r e believed to have obtained moksha. Ti r thankara Pa ramesh th in
have achieved al l but the last stage of l iberation; they a re still
l imited by their body which has not been totally separa ted from
their e te rna l sp i r i t . The Ti r thankaras serve as examples
through this Arahat-hood stage to the ordinary humans and their
lives act as guide posts to the achievement of salvation. There
a r e a lso l e s se r saints for the Ja ins to admire and emulate . ^
^Philippians 2:12-13, •2
Sangave, op. cit . , p . 237.
193
The Ja ins a lso worship some Hindu dei t ies . Pa r t i cu l a r
r eve rence is accorded Ganesha, Skanda, Bhairava, and Hanuman,
M r s , Stevenson observes that Svetambaras worship the Hindu
deit ies m o r e than do the Digambaras . H. V. Glassenap also
a s s e r t s that many Ja ins hold in reverence sac red an imals , t r e e s ,
p l aces , emblems , temples , idols and sac red s c r i p t u r e s . ^ Sangave
comments that with the spread of education and revival of in te res t
in Ja in rel igion, the faithful have been exhorted to keep away from
such i r re l ig ious p r ac t i c e s . "
Ja ins e rec t beautiful, e laborate temples carved out of
rocks , or e rec ted on the ground. Ja in caves a r e found in the
Bijapur as well as at EUora . The temple of Ja ins at Mount Abu
in Rajputana a t t r ac t s many foreign t r a v e l e r s each year . The idols
of the Ti r thankaras a r e found in the t emples .
The community appoints a pujari or p r i e s t in charge of
the temple . In the Digannbara temples the pujari is always a J a i n ,
while in the Svetambara temples he is normal ly a Hindu. In the
Svetambara temples the pujari pa r takes in the offerings of the idol
while in the Digambara temples , the pujari , unless he is a proper
Ja in p r i e s t , leaves it for the temple se rvan t s .
"^Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Notes on Modern Ja in i sm, (Surat: 1910), p . 94.
H. V. Glassenap, Ja in i sm, 1897, quoted by Sangave in Ja ina Community. . . p . Z3ST
Sangave, op. cit . , p . 237.
194
Pious Ja in couples vis i t the temple ear ly each morning
and pay their r e spec t s to the Ti r thankara . Only after this r i tual
do they have breakfas t . Ja ins often t rave l considerable distance to
complete this daily r i tua l . The p r i e s t bathes the idol in milk and
on special occasions in the five nec ta r s or panchmrata . F lowers
a r e placed along with precious sandal wood paste on the idols •7
every day.
The monks and nuns a r e segregated in separa te dwell
ings. There is a lec ture hall in the Upas ray a where the learned
monks expound the sac red Ja in texts to the laity. Here the monks
and nuns counsel the Ja in laymen on such vi tal m a t t e r s as repentance
and forgiveness of s ins . This is known as P r a t i k r a m a n a .
The Ja in p r i e s t s a r e expected to be as proficient in
astrononay as the Hindu p r i e s t s . Ast rological knowledge is
indispensable for guiding the laity in order to a sce r t a in the mos t
auspicious moments for m a r r i a g e ceremonies and other fest ivals .
Ja ins have severa l fasts during the year ; the main one,
Paryushana , l as t s ten days. On the last day, Samvatsa r i , people
break their fast and ask forgiveness of those they may have grieved
during the y e a r . During these days, Sangave observes , Ja ins a r e
so zealous of preventing any one taking the life of an animal that
they reques t the authori t ies to prohibit the slaughter of animals
and offer to repay the loss incur red with large sums of money.
"^Ibid. , p . 245.
195
Along w i t h the H indus , the J a i n s have t h e i r own
s u p e r s t i t i o n s . They be l i eve tha t s p i r i t b e i n g s inf luence h u m a n
b e i n g s in sp i te of the fact tha t t h e s e s p i r i t s a r e t h e m s e l v e s subject
to the l aws of K a r m a . The J a i n s do not u n d e r t a k e j o u r n e y s excep t
on the a s s u r a n c e of an a u s p i c i o u s s ign . S o m e have dabb led in
m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e s . Sangave c o m m e n t s tha t J a i n s u p e r s t i t i o n s have
no r e l i g i o u s s anc t i on w h a t s o e v e r . °
SACRAMENTS O F THE JAINS
Not only i s the life of the J a i n m o n k r e g u l a t e d by v a r i o u s
c e r e m o n i e s but Sangave c o m m e n t s :
The life of a J a i n l a y m a n i s r e g u l a t e d by v a r i o u s c e r e m o n i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h he h a s to p a s s r i g h t f r o m his concep t i on up to h is dea th . T h e s e c e r e m o n i e s a r e p r e s c r i b e d by r e l i g i o n wi th a v iew tha t a l a y m a n would l e a d a life in a c c o r d a n c e w i th the r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s and a t t a i n the m a i n ainn of f inal l i b e r a t i o n . ^
Whi le the D i g a m b a r a s and the S v e t a m b a t a s p r e s c r i b e
d i f fe ren t s a c r a m e n t s for t h e i r f o l l o w e r s , the u l t i m a t e a i m i s
a l w a y s m o k s h a . E v e r y s t ep of the way of a J a i n i s u n d e r the
s c r u t i n y of the U p a s r a y a . ^^ The S r a v a k a who i s a l a y m a n of the
D i g a m b a r a s e c t i s e x p e c t e d idea l ly to p e r f o r m a s m a n y a s fifty-
t h r e e c e r e m o n i e s . In the J a i n s a c r e d book, A d i - p u r a n a , the
^Ibid. , p . 258 .
•^Ibid.
^ ^ U p a s r a y a , the l e c t u r e ha l l , r ough ly s e r v i n g the s a m e p u r p o s e a s a Q u a k e r Mee t ing p l a c e .
196
following a r e mentioned:
(1) Adhana or G a r b h a d h a n a or concep t i on c e r e m o n y , p e r f o r m e d p r i o r to the concep t ion of a w o m a n . A t the a t t a i n m e n t of p u b e r t y , the couple p e r f o r m s the p r e s c r i b e d r i t e s in the t e m p l e . Only a f t e r the c o m p l e t i o n of t h e s e r i t e s , m a y the couple cohab i t , only a t n igh t and w i t h a v iew to p r o c r e a t e - - n e v e r for the p u r p o s e s of s e x u a l p l e a s u r e . '•^
(2) P r i t i : Pe r fo rmed during the th i rd month of pregnancy. P a r t of the worship is d i rec ted towards keeping the pregnant woman happy with worshipful mus i c .
(3) Suprit i : The above repeated during the fifth month of pregnancy.
(4) Dhrti: The above repeated in the seventh month of pregnancy this t ime for the benefit of the unborn child.
(5) Moda: Writing the p r i m a r y le t t e r s
pregnant woman in the ninth month.
(6) Priyodbhava: Worship at the bi r th of the child.
(7) Nannkarma: After the twelth day fronn bir th , an auspicious day is selected. After worship, he is given one of the 1008 names of J ina .
(8) Bahiryana: The child is taken out of the house after three or four months on an auspicious day.
(9) Nishadya: The child is made to sit after duly performing a ceremony.
(10) Annaprasana: Feeding the child after proper p r a y e r s during the eighth month.
^^Due to ear ly m a r r i a g e s puberty was attained sometim after the gi r l had been m a r r i e d for some y e a r s .
197
(11) Vyushti: Worship and fast per formed at the f irs t ann iversa ry ,
(12) Kesvapa: Child 's head is shaved for the f irs t t ime .
(13) Lipisankhyanasangraha: In the fifth year after appropr ia te ceremony, the child is taught the a r t of writ ing at the hands of a learned layman.
(14) Upanti: This is the initiation ceremony per formed at the age of eight in the temple . The child wea r s the sac red thread, takes the five smal l vows, is known as a Brahmachar i or a cel ibate. F r o m now on maintains himself by begging a l m s .
(15) Vra tacharya : Keep his vows, maintain celibacy and study at the feet of his t e a c h e r s .
(16) Vra tavatarana: About the age of sixteen, the child ceases to be a student. After proper ceremony, he launches on his own and earns his l ivel ihood--in the p r e sc r ibed manner only. Continues to be a celibate till such time as he gets m a r r i e d .
(17) Vivaha: On the advice of his teacher , the boy finds himself a bride from an approved family, and is m a r r i e d according to the ru les and regulations of the Ja in rel igion. The couple spends seven days visiting sac red places and then alone may cohabit in the ovulation per iod alone, for the sole purpose of reproduction.
(18) Varnalabha: The son leaves his fa ther ' s home for the f irs t t ime . The father endows par t of his proper ty to the son in the p resence of wi tnesses and for the f irs t t ime the son sets up his own home for the purpose of leading a good and devout life.
(19) Kulacharya: All the duties of a good householder a r e to be c a r r i e d on faithfully.
(20) Grhis i ta : Through the development of wisdom, cha rac te r , e tc . , the layman is expected to s t r ive to excell o thers .
(21) P r a s a n t i : By delegating authority to the sons, peace and quietness should be secured.
198
(2Z) Grhatyaga: At the at tainment of r ipe old age, al l proper ty should be handed over to the sons, advise the eldest son to c a r r y on the family tradit ion and depart for a p i lgr image .
(23) Dikshadya: After leaving home take up duties ot a p r e - a s c e t i c .
(24) J inarupata : Discarding al l robes become an asce t i c .
(25) Maunadhyayanavrtt i ; Complete concentrat ion upon one subject only.
(26) Tir thakrbhavana: Constant reflection upon a Ti thankara .
(27) Gurusthanabhyupagama; After due qualification, become a teacher of other a s c e t i c s .
(28) Ganopagrahana: Through word and deed, defend the m e m b e r s of the Ja in community.
(29) Svagurusthanavapti ; Delegating his duties to disc iples , become an Acharya, i . e . leader of the a s c e t i c s .
(30) Nihsangatvatmabhavana; Devote more of his t ime to meditat ion.
(31) Yoganirvanasamprapt i ; Through ext reme asce t i c i sm rea l ize the nature of the self.
(32) Yoganirvanasadhana: Discarding food and care of the body, should concentra te .
(33) Indropapada: After death becomes an Indra, i. e. king of the gods, by vir tue of his mer i t s .
(34) Indrabhikesha: Consecra ted by the gods as an Indr'a"!
(35) Vidhidana: Ascends the throne of Indra.
(36) Sukhodaya: Enjoys happiness in heaven.
(37) Indratyaga; The p leasures of heaven a r e abandone"H^
199
(38) A v a t a r a : He i n c a r n a t e s on e a r t h into a T i r t h a n k a r a .
(39) H i r a n y a j a m a t a : The soul e n t e r s the e m b r y o of a lady r e a d y to give b i r t h to a T i r t h a n k a r a .
(40) M a n d a r e n d r a b h i s h e k a : I n d r a w o r s h i p s h i m on the M e r u Mounta in upon h i s b i r t h .
(41) Gurupu jana : I n d r a w o r s h i p s the T i r t h a n k a r a d e s i g n a t e whi le he i s a ch i ld .
(42) Y a u v a r a j y a : He b e c o m e s an h e i r a p p a r e n t to the t h r o n e whi le in h is you th .
(43) S v a r a j y a : ( L i t e r a l l y : Self Ru l e ) , R u l e s over h i s own k i n g d o m .
(44) C h a k r a l a b h a : He a c q u i r e s the c h a k r a , tha t i s the n ine s t o r e s and the f o u r t e e n j e w e l s .
(45) Digvi jaya : He c o m m e n c e s the c o n q u e s t of the u n i v e r s e .
(46) C h a k r a a b h i s h e k a : His c o n q u e s t i s c e l e b r a t e d .
(47) S a m a r a j y a : He gu ides the faobles in t h e i r du t i e s t o w a r d t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
(48) Y o g a s a m m a d h a : He s e c u r e s the p o w e r t h r o u g h a u s t e r i t i e s a s w e l l a s h i s o m n i s c i e n c e .
(49) A r h a n t y a : He b e c o m e s an A r h a t .
(50) V i h a r a : The A r h a t or the T i r t h a n k a r a p r e a c h e s the t r u t h to a l l p e o p l e .
(51) Yoga tyaga : Then he d r a w s the sou l unto i t se l f . (Den ies i t s e l f ? )
(52) A g r a n i r v r t i : A c h i e v e s c o m p l e t e and f inal l i b e r a t i o n . ^^
l^Adi P u r a n a , XXXVIII, 55 -62 and 70 -3 12. See S a n g a v e , op . c i t . , p p . 259 ff.
200
The Adi-puranas from which the above is quoted date
back to the ninth century A. D. The Svetambaras have slight
var ia t ion in their ceremonia l p rac t ices and minor var ia t ions a lso
exist from province to province . On the whole the cerenaonies a r e
s imi lar to those of the Hindus.
THE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
OF THE JAINS
The Ja in community is sca t te red throughout India. Like
"the Musl ims, Sikhs and other minor i ty community m e m b e r s , the
Ja ins always use the language of the region. "^-' In Poona where
Marathi is the regional language, Ja ins speak fluent Marathi ; in
the Gujrath a rea , and hence as a ru le , they speak Gujrathi. The
founder of the sect , Mahavira, spoke Ardhamagadhi in which a
considerable amount of the Jain sac red l i t e ra tu re is to be found.
The Ja ins have enriched the l i t e ra tu re of the region wherever they
have set t led. There is a highly developed Ja in l i t e ra tu re in Hindi,
Gujrathi and Kannda. It is contended by Altekar that Jain
l i t e ra tu re did not flourish in Maharash t ra (where Marathi is the
lingua franca) before the tenth century because of the absence of
the Ja ins from the a r e a .
13 Sangave, op. cit. , p . 283.
14 A. S. Altekar , Rasht rakutas and Their Times , (Poona: 1934), pp. 412-13.
201
Jain l i t e ra tu re a lso abounds in the Tamil and the
Telugu languages besides the Kannada, i. e. Ja in l i t e ra tu re is found
not only in the nor thern Indian but a lso in the southern Indian
languages. A Jainologist , Saletore , s ta tes :
One of the best c la ims of Ja in i sm at the hands of poster i ty is that it contributed to the l i t e ra tu re of all the three provinces . The Jaina t eacher s as the intel lectual custodians of the Andhradesha, the Tamil land, and Karmataka most assidously cultivated the ve rnacu la r s of the people, and wrote in them grea t works of abiding value to the country. P u r i s m was the keynote of their compositions, although a lmost al l the ear ly Ja ina w r i t e r s were profound Sanskrit s cho la r s . With them originated some of the most renowned c lass ics in Tamil , Telugu and Kannada. It has been rightly opined that the Ja inas gave to the Tamil people their didactic c lass ics like the Kural and the Naladiyara, major and minor Kavyas, and quite a number of other works as well . To the Andhradesha and Karnataka, among other precious gifts, the Ja ins gave the Champu Kavyas or poems in a var ie ty of composite m e t e r e s i n t e r spe r sed with paragraphs in p r o s e .
A good deal of l i t e ra tu re by the Jain rel igious leaders
was composed in the Acharyas , Sanskri t , P r a k r i t and Apabramsa
languages. Many Jain manuscr ip t s sti l l await t ranslat ion into
modern Indian languages. Sangave observes that along with
rel igion and e thics , the Jain l i t e ra ture deals with such subjects
as g r a m m a r , prosody, g lossary , ma themat ics , medicine, and
as t rology. Much of it deals with the his tory of Ancient India. ^"
B. A. Sale tore , Medieval Ja in i sm, (Bombay: 1938), pp. 262-63.
^"Sangave, op. cit . , p . 286,
20Z
JAIN HOME LIFE
At home the Ja ins a re requi red to follow the principle of
Ahimsa even in m a t t e r s of d r e s s . They a r e not permi t ted to wear
anything made of fur or feathers obtained as a resu l t of tor tur ing
animals or b i rd s , l ' S imilar ly no silk or woolen garments a r e to be
worn. ^° The use of leather is a lso r e s t r i c t ed . Leather goods a r e
used solely for ornamental purposes . Tiger skin, deer skin, and
substi tutes for leather a r e used whenever poss ib le . ^9
No special clothes a r e worn by the Jain, though in the
case of language the regional customs a r e followed; however, they
mus t not revea l the body contour so as to excite sexual pass ions . '^^
They must not be extravagent at any t ime. While the Ja ins have no
par t icu la r ornaments , they likely wear more prec ious ornaments
than o the r s . Sangave s ta tes :
The Ja ins a r e a comparat ively r ich community and as they deal in gold, jewels and precious stones, they put on var ious kinds of o rnaments . Like other women, Ja ina women also a r e more fond of ornaments than men. In ancient Jaina l i t e ra tu re fourteen kinds of ornaments a r e mentioned. ^^
The dietary laws of the Ja ins a r e very e labora te . The
^"^C. R. Jain, Jain Culture, (Bijnore: 1934), p. 47.
18c, Krause , Heritage of the Last Arhat , (Bhavnagar: 1930), p. 9.
^•9Sangave, op. cit . , p . 282. Frequent ly very wealthy Ja ins in India a r e found wearing canvas tennis shoes for this reason .
^^Jain, op. cit. , p . 49.
^^Sangave, op. cit. , p . 283.
203
principle of Ahimsa ru les out meat and fish; wine or any other
liqueur is a lso forbidden. No food may be par taken of which has
five or less s ense -o rgans . For this reason Ja ins a r e forbidden
the eating of Kandamulas, that i s , underground s tems and potatoes,
gar l ic , radish, turnip, ca r ro t , beetroot , or s imi lar vegetables
because they may contain a multitude of smal l insec t s . They a r e
not to eat figs; pipal (fruits) a r e the bir thplace of mobile beings.
Ja ins a r e very careful about eating their mea l s during the day since
himsa (opposite of Ahimsa) is inevitable when food is p repa red after
sunset . Those who find it impossible to do so, observe these
r e s t r i c t ions at least during Chaturmasa or the four months during
the monsoon season when insects abound. E x t r e m e precaut ionary
m e a s u r e s a r e taken to wipe al l the dishes so as to exclude any
living c rea tu re from being injured. Similar ly with great care
Ja ins s t ra in water , milk, juice or any other liquid that is consumed.
When a Ja in t r ave l s and wishes to drink water , he covers his mouth
with cloth, stoops down (fronn a s t ream) and thus drinks by
22 suction.
Wine is regarded as the bir thplace of many beings and
considered to make an individual forget piety which in turn may
cause him to commit himsa without hesi tat ion. Wine also may
arouse sex passion, anger or pr ide; therefore , it is forbidden.
Honey is forbidden because in case some t r ick is used to obtain
^^Ibid. , pp. 279-80.
204
the honeycomb and it drops down, some living c rea tu re may be
killed. Even stale butter is forbidden since it may breed living
c r ea tu r e s while fermenting. -̂
Originally the Ja ins were very broad minded and since
they disapproved s t r ic t caste r e s t r i c t i ons , ru les of commensa l i sm
were quite l ibera l . The Ja ins , for example, originally had no
objection to eating meals in the company of non-Ja ins . However,
they came under the influence of the Hindus and now inter-dining
is r e s t r i c t ed . Sangave s tates that when caste feasts a r e given,
m e m b e r s of other cas tes a r e generally not invited. However, they
a r e l ibera l in their social re lat ions and have no objections to
touching a so-ca l led member of a low cas te . This, Sangave a s s e r t s ,
is probably due to the fact that a majori ty of the Ja ins consider
themselves to be Vaisyas and there a r e pract ica l ly no Sudras among
J a i n s . ^^
RULES OF CONNUBIUM
Among the Ja ins , the br ide is always given as a gift to
23lbid. , p . 281.
^"^Ibid. , p . 82, One reason why the surrounding culture could not influence the Ja ins to a great extent was perhaps due to the nature of their occupations. The Ja ins being most ly merchan ts had to have social in te rcourse with people of al l cas tes and it was sheer good business policy to serve the cus tomer without respec t to colour, cas te or creed. Possibly this is the same reason why some of the bus inessmen in the Southern pa r t of the United States would prefer to serve Negroes .
205
the b r idegroom. In the absence of the father, the rules a r e
specific stating that the gir l should be given in m a r r i a g e by the
grandfather, b ro ther , uncle, a person of the same gotra, pa te rna l
grandfather, or the ma te rna l uncle. Only in r a r e cases is the gi r l
pe rmi t t ed to chose her own par tner by her own free choice.
Valavakar a s s e r t s that this is permi t ted only in cases of ex t reme
t rouble . ^^
The br idegroom is very carefully chosen. He mus t be
of a par t icu la r cas te , free from any d isease , of desi rable age,
educated, wealthy, from a proper family, and of good m o r a l
cha rac t e r . The bride likewise must be of the same cas te , but of a
different gotra, pos se s s beautiful features and good health. She
mus t be younger than the br idegroom, and from a large family.
Not only the br ide , but the br idegroom as well , is expected to be
chaste before m a r r i a g e . In ancient t imes it was believed that the
progeny of a couple where the gi r l is sixteen yea r s old and the boy
is twenty-five is bound to be very s trong.
A father is expected to find a suitable match for his
daughter when she reaches the right age for m a r r i a g e . He who did
not do so when the daughter at tained puberty was sure to go to hell
according to the ancient belief. In the ear ly days of Ja in community,
individuals chose their p a r t n e r s freely. Mar r i ages took place
frequently between Ja ins and non-Ja ins , between Aryans and
^^Ibid. , p . 147.
206
non-Aryans . However, as the caste became rigid in the majori ty
group, the Ja ins gradually found themselves drawn along. Gradually
they l imited m a r r i a g e s to within those professing Ja in i sm, Later ,
as cas tes were formed within the Ja in community, endogomy came
to be the genera l rule ra ther than the exception.
The Ja in sc r ip tu res state that m a r r i a g e may be dissolved
if the couple finds any defect in one another within a p re sc r ibed t ime;
such a m a r r i a g e is declared to be null and void. The wife is p e r
mit ted to m a r r y under the following c i r cums tances : if a husband
becomes a s inner , an asce t ic , or turns out to be impotent, dies or
is p re sumed to be dead. ^° At presen t , divorce is discouraged and
the divorced woman is permi t ted to m a r r y only among very few
Ja in c a s t e s .
THE POSITION OF JAIN WOMEN
In ancient t imes the woman was comparat ively free, much
less secluded than her descendants in the Ganges valley. Except on
r a r e occasions her authority in the home over the children and the
Dravidian servants was not subject to r e s t r a in t by her husband,
though he was reckoned the nnaster of the household. ^ ' In the
Upanishads, not only Ksha t r iyas , men of al l c l a s se s , but even
women a r e dramat ized as taking par t in the discuss ions as
26lbid. , p. 173.
27 Noss, op. cit . , p . 116.
207
readily and ably as among the Brahnaans themse lves . However,
in later t imes (about sixth century B. C. ff. ) the position of the
woman de te r iora ted . We read in the Laws of Manu or the Code of
Manu the principle followed by the men up to a lmost the p resen t
t ime:
In childhood a female mus t be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent. . .A Husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife. . . (Once he is dead) she may never mention the name of another man. (Must not m a r r y again and) never even mention the name of another man, . . ( l ea rn to have pat ience, be chaste and s t r ive to fulfill) that mos t excellent duty which is p r e s c r i b e d for wives who have one husband only. . . (The widow) who, from a des i re to have offspring, violates her duty to her deceased husband, br ings on herself d isgrace in this world . . . (such an one will fail to join her husband in the next world and) will enter the womb of a jackal . ^'
However, the Laws of Manu do have some favourable things to say
about women:
Where the women a re honoured, there the gods a r e pleased; but where they a r e not honoured, no sac red r i te yields r e w a r d s . Hence men who seek (their own) welfare , should always honour women on holidays and festivals with (gifts of) o rnaments , c lothes , and (dainty) food. ^^
28lbid. , p . 128.
29Sacred Books of the Eas t , Vol. XXV, "The Laws of Manu", t rans la ted by G. Buhler (Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1896), pp. 195 (V. 148); 196 (V. 154); 196 (V. 157, 158); 197 (V. 161, 164).
Sarvepall i Radhakrishnan and Char les A. Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy (New J e r s e y : Pr ince ton Univers i ty Press", 1957), pp. 189-190.
208
On the whole, however, the Laws of Manu as well as texts in the
Padmapurana point to the super ior i ty of the ma le . No Brahman,
therefore , may eat in the company of his wife, nor look at her
while she eats or while she d r e s s e s . The woman 's god is her
husband. She is expected to seek to please him all the days of her
life. On the death of her husband the wife was expected to burn
herself alive on the funeral pyre . ^^
The Ja in position on the status of women is far from
l ibera l compared with the t radi t ional position in the Indian society,
We read the r e m a r k s of Parshvanta in relat ion to the thoughts of
a woman:
The wise ones know how much sand there is in the Ganges, and how much water in the ocean, they know the dimensions of a great mountain--but the thoughts of a woman they cannot fathom. -"̂
The Ja in teacher Acharya Amitagati s ta tes the Ja in point
of view in these words :
(The female body being full of impuri ty, therefore
3 1 N O S S , op. cit . , p. 227-28. In many orthodox families the wife p r o s t r a t e s herself each morning. A distinguished philosopher who served as a visiting lec turer in the U. S. A. about ten yea r s ago was rudely awakened by the contras t in the position of women in Amer i ca . He vowed that upon his re turn , he would eat with his wife and thus for the f irs t t ime in many yea r s of their m a r r i e d life, make sure that there is always enough food for both of thenn. He was amazed that with al l his scholarship, he had not learnt the importance of being more careful in these m a t t e r s . Of course , India is changing and women a re gradually claiming equality with the men.
^^M. Winternitz, Vol, II, History of Indian L i te ra tu re (Calcutta: 1933), p . 575.
209
is) the t r ea su ry of all sufferings, the bolt ba r r ing the city of heaven, the path of the dwelling of hell , . . the axe for the pleasant grove of piety, the hoar - f ros t for the lotus of v i r tues , the root of the t ree of s ins , the soil for the c reeper of deceit . ^^
Sangave feels that the more balanced position acceptable
to the Ja ins is that stated by Acharya Somadeva, who felt that
women a r e neither good nor bad; they a r e , like the c ream of milk,
the source of poison as well as nec tar , and that women have
nei ther any innate m e r i t nor blemish, but they become just like
their husbands, as r i v e r s a s sume the charac te r of the ocean in
which they merge themse lves . ^^ Fur the r , Sangave comments that
r e m a r k s such as "Striyo hi v ishmam Visham" -̂ (i. e. , women a r e
the wors t of poisons) a r e made in order to advise the asce t ics to
avoid the company of women, a lso as a precaut ionary m e a s u r e
called Rajraksha (i. e. , for the protect ion of the kings lest they be
deceived by wicked women, ) °
Opinion has been divided among the Ja in scholars upon
the status of women. At least some of the Ja in teachers have
permi t ted women to join the ranks of a sce t i c s along with the men,
33ibid. , pp. 562-63.
•^"^Sangave, op, cit. , p . 179.
Acharya-Gunabhadra , "Atmanusasana", The Sacred Books of the Ja inas , Vol, VII, pp, 135, 129-31. Ed. hyT.^^. Ja ini , T72FI Cited by Sangave.
K. K. Handiqui, Yasast i laka and Indian Culture (Sholapur: 1949), p . 106. Cited by Sangave, op, cit. , p. 179,
210
According to the Kalpa Sutra, three thousand female a sce t i c s , i . e .
Sadhvis, joined an order under the leadership of Neminantha, the
twenty-second Ti r thankara , s imi lar ly during the per iod of Parsvantha
(the p r edeces so r of Mahavira) and thus were emancipated and found
Moksha. Both male and female m e m b e r s had to beg and lead a
s t r ic t monast ic life. ^° The nuns were placed under the more
r igorous routine. They were forbidden to study the chapters of
Mahapari jna, Arunopapata and the Drsht ivada. This was because
of the magical formulae contained in the Drshtivada which were
supposed to be somewhat dangerous since women were regarded as
being fickle-minded. ^ F u r t h e r m o r e , nuns were to ask for a lms
only when led by an experienced monk.
Female infanticide could not possibly exist in the Jain
community because it violated the principle of Ahimsa, or non
injury to any living c r ea tu r e . Excellent provis ions a r e made for
the maintenance of unmar r i ed daughters as well as s i s t e r s . Jain
law accords them an allowance out of the family income. ^^
The insti tutions of the family, church, school, and state
Hermann Jacobi , "The Kalpa Sutra" , Sacred Books of t_he Eas t , VII, Vol. XXII.
M. A. Irdra, Status of Women in Ancient India, (Lahore: 1940), p . 303.
39 A. S. Altekar , Posi t ion of Woman in Hindu
Civilization (Benaras : 1938), p. 247. 40 C. R. Jain, Jain Law (Madras: 1926), pp. 95, 130.
211
have served as agents for the spread of education of Ja in women
in India. A Ja in gi r l is expected to be proficient in sixty-four a r t s
including: dancing, painting, mus ic , medicine and domestic science.
Many Jain women his tor ical ly have entered the teaching profession
which enabled them to remain unmar r i ed so that they could be free
to develop spir i tual ly.
However, female education declined around 300 B. C. at
the t ime child m a r r i a g e was introduced. Today the male l i teracy
is five t imes that of the female in the Ja in community.
Not only infanticide but the dreadful Hindu prac t ice of the
widow being thrown on the funeral pyre of the husband was absent
from the Jain community because of the pr inciple of the Ahimsa.
The Ja in widows have fared bet ter than the Hindu widows and have
engaged themselves in nnany tasks at home. "̂ Unlike Hindu
widows, those of the Ja ins were never tonsured. Very r a r e ly have
Ja in women adopted the system of wearing purdah, a veil , while
visit ing friends or r e la t ives .
The widow, according to the Ja in law, automatical ly
acqui res the proper ty left by her husband. Being at the mercy of
^^D. C, Dasagupta, Ja in System of Education (Calcutta: 1942), p . 58. Cf. "The unnnarried woman care th for the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and in spir i t : But she that is m a r r i e d care th for the things of the world, how she may please her husband." I Corinthians 7:34.
'^^Sangave, op. cit . , pp. 184, 188.
212
the mother , the son therefore behaves himself. This, Sangave
bel ieves , is one reason why the r a t e s of juvenile delinquency a r e
so low among the J a i n s .
JAIN CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS
Ja in chari table insti tutions a r e not l imited to the Ja in
community. Some exist for the benefit of the community at large
and some for the Ja in community exclusively.'*'* Ja ins a r e very
^^Ibid. , pp. 192-93.
Evidence of the proverbia l nature of Jain chari ty in ancient India is given by the following ancient s tory.
"After Visakha, Migara ' s mother , had been roused, rejoiced, gladdened, delighted by the Lord with talk on Dhamma, she asked him to consent to accept a mea l from her on the morrow together with the Order of monks . The Lord consented by becoming silent. Then towards the end of that night heavy rain poured over the 'continents . ' . . .
"When the time for the mea l had come, Visakha sent a servant woman to the monas te ry to announce the t ime . She saw the monks, their robes laid as ide , letting their bodies get wet with rain, but she thought they were Naked Ascet ics (i. e. , the Ajivikas, an important sect contemporary with Buddha, not monks . . . When Visakha had served and satisfied the Order of monks with the Buddha at i ts head w^ith sumptuous food, solid and soft, she sat down at a respectful distance, and spoke thus to the Lord:
" 'Lord, I ask for eight boons from the Lord. '
" 'Visakha, Tathagatas a r e beyond granting boons. '
" 'Lord, they a re allowable and b l ame les s . '
" 'Speak on, Visakha . '
" 'I, Lord, for life want to give to the Order clothes for the r a in s , food for those coming in (to monas te r i e s ) , food for
213
tolerant of other rel igions and, i r r espec t ive of caste or creed,
throw open their chari table institutions for the benefit of al l . Every
layman is expected to give some gift to o the rs . The gifts a r e of
four kinds: ahara -dana , food; abhaya-dana, protection; aushadha-
those going out, food for the sick, food for those who nurse them, medicine for the sick, a constant supply of conjey (porridge), and bathing cloths for the Order of nuns, '
" 'But, having what special reason in mind do you, Visakha, ask the Tathagata for the eight boons? '
" 'Lord, my servant woman told me there were no monks in the monas tery , but Naked Ascet ics were letting their bodies get wet with the rain. Impure, Lord, is nakedness , it is objectionable. It is for this special reason that for life I want to give the Order cloths for the r a in s . '
" 'And again, an in-coming monk, not accustomed to the roads or r e s o r t s for a lms , still walks for a lms when he is t i red . But if he eats my food for those conaing in, then when he is accustomed to the roads and r e s o r t s for a lms he will walk for a lms without getting t i red .
" 'And again, an out-going monk, while looking about for food for himself, might get left behind by the caravan, or, setting out t i red on a journey, might a r r i v e at the wrong time (the wrong t ime for eating is after noon until sunr ise the next day) at the habitation where he wants to go. But if he eats my food for those going out, these things will not happen to him. . . And, again, Lord, if an ill monk does not obtain suitable medic ines , either his d isease will get very much worse or he will pass away. But this will not happen if he can use my medicine for the sick. " . . .
II n 'It is very good that you, Visakha, a r e asking these eight boons. ' Then the Lord, on this occasion, having given reasoned talk, addressed the monks, saying: 'I allow, monks, cloths for the ra ins , food for those coming in, medicine for the sick, a constant supply of conjey, bathing-cloths for the Order of nuns. ' "
F rom Buddhist Texts Through the Ages, Edward Conze, ed. , with I. B. Horner , t). Snellgrove, A~r~Wiley, The Royal India, Pakis tan , and Ceylon Society, Brunno C a s s i r e r , Oxford, Vinaya-Pi taka I, 290-94, pp. 26, 28.
214
dana, medicine; and sas t r a -dana , learning. Keeping this in view,
the Ja ins in their own way have contributed in al l the four fields.
In every big town or place of p i lgr image, Ja ins have
opened Dharmasa las or r e s t houses where the weary t rave le r may
re f resh himself. These a r e provided with simple ameni t ies such
as bedding and u tens i l s . Most a r e provided free with few exceptions
where a nominal fee is charged. In the province of Gujrath alone,
there a r e two hundred and s ixty-six r e s t houses belonging to the
Svetambara sect . '*^
Sangave observes that beast as well as man is welcome
to this protect ion. Animal r e s t houses a r e known as Panjarpolas ,
Lame, use less and aged animals a r e sent to the Panjarpolas and
often these animals a re purchased by the Ja ins in order to save
them from their inevitable fate at the hands of the butcher . In
Gujrath there a r e sixty-five Panjarpolas . '*° Some a re exclusively
for the insec ts which a re collected carefully from the s t r ee t s and
fed gently.
Human suffering is al leviated through d ispensar ies and
hospi ta ls . Here little or no charge is made for medicine and
t rea tment . In a majori ty of the cases the t rea tment is Ayurvedic.
AC
Jaina Svetambara Directory Vol. I and II, p. 522.
46ibid. Sangave, op. cit. , pp. 287-88. Ayurvedic is the
c lass ica l Indian medicine, handed down since the f irs t century A. D. Through contact with the Greeks , the development of medicine was
215
There is some evidence that in ancient t imes medicine
and food, as well as education, were furnished in the Jain Mathas 48
Today the Ja ins a r e very l ibera l toward helping the cause of
education and they either build educational institutions completely
endowed with Ja in funds or contribute large sums to a l ready existing
public inst i tut ions. The Ja ins have contributed large sums to
famine s t r icken a r e a s . ^ Sangave observes that there is no human
i ta r ian cause which does not get sympathetic help from the J a i n s .
Ja in institutions of a purely religious charac te r include
Ja in l i b r a r i e s called Grantha-Bhandaras ( l i teral ly, t r e a s u r e house
of books). These a r e indeed t r e a s u r e houses , in that they usually
considerably enhanced. Growing use of m e r c u r i a l drugs along with opium and sa r sapa r i l l a is found after the influence of the A r a b s . Most ideas were s imi lar to those held by the ancient medieval Europeans . Bone setting was done with some skill . P las t i c surgery was bet ter than anywhere e l se . The Eas t India Company surgeons consulted the Indian surgeons . Because of taboo on contact with dead bodies, the p r o g r e s s of physiology and biology was impeded. The doctrine of ahimsa encouraged the development of ve te rna ry p rac t i ce . See A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India (New York: Grove P r e s s , 1954), pp. 4 9 9 ^ 5 M ;
48 Journa l of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiat ic
Society, Vols . I and II, p . 522. Cl. The Jewish Synagogue, it served as a communal assembly , because the focus of the rel igious, social , and intel lectual life of the J ews , also served as an e lementary school, law court , and even hostelry for s t r a n g e r s .
"̂ M. B. Jhavery , His tor ical Fac t s about J a in i sm (Bombay: 1925), pp. 17-18.
50 Sangave, op. cit. , p . 288. Frequent ly the Ja ins a r e
accused of being humanitar ian out of selfish r ea sons . It is felt that w e r e it not for rel igious reasons they would not indulge in such large scale char i t i e s . The motive is often questioned but never the fact that they a r e a very chari table people.
216
contain well p r e s e r v e d ancient manusc r ip t s wri t ten on parchment
or p a l m - l e a v e s . Besides manusc r ip t s , pr inted books a r e a lso
p r e s e r v e d . Such l ib ra r i e s abound wherever the Ja ins a re found,
In Gujrath alone there a r e fifty-six Gran tha-Bhandaras . ^^
However, although the Ja ins have p re se rved a vast
amount of l i t e ra tu re pertaining to Jain his tory , it has been
available for t rans la t ion and study only in recent t imes . As early
as the beginning of this century, the Ja ins were opposed to putting
into pr int any of their sac red books from the Gran tha-Bhandaras .
Today, the policy is to make this l i t e ra tu re available freely, and
52 many institutions have been establ ished to c i rculate the books.
Apar t from publishing rel igious books, there a r e
insti tutions called Pa thasa las or rel igious schools . The Digambaras
and the Svetambaras have their separa te Pa tha sa l a s . Learned men
ins t ruc t the Ja in laymen in rel igious doctr ines , e tc . In ancient
t imes institutions known as Bhat tarakas were found in many p laces .
Even today there a r e some of these in Gwalior, Ja ipur , Nagpur,
Kolhapur, Hyderabad in the Mysore d is t r ic t and in Kanchi.
Bhat tarakas were founded to encourage the Ja in laymen to continue
in the faith in spite of the surrounding Muslem r u l e r s who were
displeased with the Jain pract ice of nudity.
Last ly, there a re insti tutions which a r e of a social
^ ^Jaina Svetambara Directory, op. cit. , p . 523.
5 9
Sangave, op. cit . , p . 289.
217
nature and have the welfare of the Ja in community exclusively in
mind. Associa t ions such as the Bombay Yuvaka Sangha, a youth
organizat ion and Bharata Jaina Mahamandala, a general organiza
tion, a r e examples of insti tutions which cater solely to the Ja ins ,
There a r e a lso Ja in newspapers and journa l s . Finally, there a r e
cooperat ive societ ies for helping Ja ins provide themselves with
bet ter housing at reasonable p r i c e s . These a r e sec tar ian , and
membersh ip is r e s t r i c t e d to caste m e m b e r s .
SUMMARY
The set of pr inciples which guide the Ja ins in their
daily conduct a r e re la ted to their religious doct r ines . Non-Jains
find the Ja ins very peculiar because of the form of worship, their
rel igious philosophy, and the s t r ic t ascet ic conduct of both monks
and laymen. The rules of conduct a r e always designed to achieve
the main aim or object, Moksha. This is t rue not only of the
monks but a lso of the laymen. For the laymen, the ru les a r e as
p r e c i s e as for the monks . They touch every depar tment of life.
The Ja ins a r e p lu ra l i s t s believing that there a r e many
gods and godesses , none super ior to any hiiman being. The objects
of contemplation a r e the Ti r thankaras who have a l ready achieved
Nirvana. The life of the Jain layman is regulated by var ious
ce remonies through which he pas ses from cradle to g rave . Each
step is taken in order to lead toward the achievement of Moksha.
The Ja ins a r e sca t te red throughout the length and
218
breadth of India where they have adopted the regional languages.
They have enriched the l i t e ra tu re of the region in which they
se t t le . This l i t e ra tu re deals with a var ie ty of subjects including
religion and ethics , as well as g r a m m a r , prosody, mathemat ics ,
medic ine , and as t ro logy. A large proport ion of it a lso deals with
the his tory of ancient India.
At home the Ja ins a r e requi red to follow the principle
of Ahimsa even in m a t t e r s of d r e s s . They a r e not permi t ted to
wear anything made of furs or fea thers . Use of leather is a lso
severely r e s t r i c t ed . Conservat ive styles a r e favoured although the
style in clothing is usually that of the region. However, since
many Ja ins a r e merchan t s and deal in gold and s i lver , Jain women
a re permi t ted to wear o rnaments . The dietary laws a r e very
e labora te . The principle of ahimsa ru les out any meat , fish, wine
or other l iqueur. Po ta toes , onions, gar l ic , r ad i shes , c a r r o t s ,
beetroot or any vegetable which may contain a multitude of smal l
insects a r e forbidden. Meals may be eaten only during the day
since it is difficult to avoid himsa at night. All liquids a r e
s t ra ined or f i l tered. The meals a r e taken only in the fellowship of
the acceptable m e m b e r s of the community.
Mar r i ages a r e a r r anged by the e l d e r s . Mar r i age can be
dissolved within a p r e sc r ibed per iod. Remar r i age of the g i r l s under
cer ta in c i r cums tances , is permi t ted . The Ja in woman, on the whole,
has fared well in spite of the t radi t ional belief that a woman is the
root of al l evil . Some of the Jain women have been permi t ted to
219
join the ranks of the a sce t i c s . Neither female infanticide nor the
p rac t ice of Sutee ever existed among the J a i n s . Many Jain women
have entered the teaching profession which has permi t ted them to
remain single and thus grow spir i tual ly . The widow, according to
the Ja in law, automatically acquires all p roper ty left by her
deceased husband.
Ja in chari table institutions extend succor to both the Ja in
and non-Ja in . Every layman is expected to contribute something
toward the be t te rment of his neighbour. Many hospitals have been
opened by the J a i n s . Jain schools and colleges have helped hundreds
to obtain education. Ja in insti tutions, purely of a rel igious
cha rac te r and l imited to the J a i n s , include l i b r a r i e s , rel igious
schools, newspapers , journa ls , and cooperative societ ies with the
specific purpose of helping with the housing problem.
