CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHRONICALLY UNEMPLOYED

IN RELATION TO READING RETARDATION

by

RAYMOND J. CONDRElNl, B.A.

A DISSERTATION

IN

PSYCHOLOGY

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Apprc^v^

May, 197 2

901 T3

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my deep gratitude to the Chairman

of my committee. Dr. Robert P. Anderson, for his continued

encouragement, inspiration and assistance. I also wish to

thank Drs. Beatrix Cobb, Charles Halcomb, and Charles

Chandler, v.-hose encouragement and guidance have contributed

so much.

I would also give special thanks to the staffs of

the Veterans Administration Hospital, Northport, New York,

and the Sulfolk County Department of Labor, New York; for

without their assistance and cooperation this dissertation

would not have been possible.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES V

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose and Scope 1

Background Literature 3

Related Unemployment Literature 3

Related Learning

Disability Literature 6

Objectives of Present Study 13

II. METHOD 15

Subjects 15

Test Instruments 19

Procedure 27

III. RESULTS 32

General Results 33

Specific Statistical

Interpretations 42

IV. DISCUSSION 44

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 59

REFERENCES 64

APPENDIX 69

A. PERSONAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . 70

B. MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS 71

111

iv

c. M::GUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS:

GENERAL CONVERSION TABLE 75

D. EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH WAIVER FORM 76

E. MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS: CONVERSION WEIGHTS 77

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Design of the Short Form Sccile, WAIS . . . . 21

2. MAT, Motivational Systems 25

3. Psychometric Tests and Variables Studied 29

4. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests of Gates-MacGinite Reading Test 34

5. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests of Wide Range Achievement Test 35

6. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Values of Written Story Test 37

7. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Values of Motivational Analysis Test 38

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Purpose and Scope

The high level of unemployment in the United States

is one of the most critical problems that our society faces

today. It is not an arm-chair problem which can be dis­

cussed on an intellectual plane, but it is a real problem

concerned with human suffering and misery.

The causes of unemployment are varied and complex.

A considerable amount of attention has been given to under­

standing these causes and their interrelationships. Investi­

gators have examined the problem from the standpoint of

economic and social-psychological factors (Tiffany, Cowan &

Tiffany, 1970). Economic cycles of depression and recessions

have been a major cause of unemployment; seasonal movements

into and out of the labor force also affect unemployment

(Wolfbein, 1964). To combat the social crisis created by

unemployment, the Federal Government and state governments

disburse millions of dollars for scientific research each

year, particularly in the area of Vocational Rehabilitation.

The basic goal of Vocational Rehabilitation services,

provided by State Vocational Rehabilitation Commissions

and Agencies, is to return handicapped individuals to the

mainstream of society as productive workers. The

chronically unemployed worker is generally considered to

have a handicap by virtue of his apparent inability to

function on a job with a degree of stability. A possible

contributing factor to chronic unemployment is the basic

inability to read and communicate effectively in written

language. The basic purpose of the present study was to

study the relationships between reading retardation and/or

learning disabilities and chronic unemployment.

A series of related studies carried out at Texas

Tech University have been concerned v/ith identifying the

psychometric variables associated with reading retardation

and/or learning disabilities (Bean, 1967), (Bell, 1969),

and (Lewis, 1969). These investigations were concerned

with adolescent male populations. The present investigation

was designed to extend the study of reading retardation

and/or learning disabilities to ar adult population likely

to be affected by a lack of readir.g skills. In addition,

an effort was made to determine if chronically unemployed

persons had the same pattern of personality characteristics

as a population of adolescent readers studied by Bell

(1969). An attempt was also made to determine whether

reading retardation and/or learning disabilities have an

adverse affect on the success or failure of an individual

in the area of gainful employment.

Background Literature

Related Unemployment Literature

It was not within the scope of this study to

delineate all the factors related to unemployment. Thus,

the review of the literature related to economic factors

is brief. The study was limited to those individuals who

could be classified as being chronically unemployed.

The chronically unemployed person was defined as

an individual who had accepted three jobs and left them

for reasons that could not be explained by physical handi­

cap, sickness, training, education and/or dismissal from

the place of employment in the prior calendar year.

A major source of authoritative statistics related

to unemployment is prepared by the United States Department

of Labor. These categories includ: the following:

(1) workers who left one job to look for another;

(2) workers who entered the job market for the first time

or after a period of being outside the labor force, and

(3) those who were laid off or lost their jobs.

It is very difficult to find statistics that list

or enumerate those individuals who would be categorized

as chronically unemployed. To arrive at any figure that

could be classified as representing the chronically

unemployed, one would have to make inferences from the

statistics presented by the Department of Labor.

The United States Department of Labor's publica­

tion Manpower Report to the President stated the following:

1. In 1970, the number of Jobless persons rose to 4.1 million on an annual average basis, up more than 1 million from 1969.

2. As a consequence, the overall unemployment rate, which has averaged 3.5 percent in 1969, also moved markedly higher in 1970, to an average of 4.9 percent.

3. The number of long-termed unemployed—those who had been jobless for 15 or more weeks— increased gradually during the year. By December, 1970, the number of such persons passed 1 million and accounted for one-fifth of total unemployment. For the year as a whole, the number of long-term unemployed averaged 660,000 an increase of 290,000 over 1969 (1971, pp. 17, 18).

These figures point to the severity of the unemploy­

ment crisis which occurred in 1970 because of the ongoing

economic situation. The Department of Labor in Suffolk

County, New York, provided statistics regarding the unem­

ployment situation in the local area, where the present

study was carried out. Suffolk County, which is 30 miles

east of New York City, had a population of 1,127,030 in

1970. The average number of unemployed individuals during

1970 in Suffolk County was 28,100, out of a total work

force of 413,000 individuals. The unemployed rate was

6.92 percent of the total work force.

Neither the United States Department of Labor nor

the Suffolk County Department of Labor maintain statistics

on persons defined as chronically unemployed. At the

request of this investigator the Suffolk County Department

of Labor estimated that there were 1,182 chronically unem­

ployed in the county; this group represented 6.4 percent

of the total unemployed in Suffolk County in 1970.

There were numerous studies in the literature

related to the condition of unemployment; there were

relatively few existing studies concerned with chronically

uneTaployed persons. In a factorial study of the motivational

characteristics of the chronically unemployed (Lawlis,

1968), fifteen factors were isolated which significantly

discriminated a chronically unemployed group of males from

an employed group. The factors were lowered motivational

integration, anxiety, general career interest, introverted

uoubt, rebellion against parents and home, lack of assertion,

general fear, inability to deal with threat, intensified

disposition to fight, conflict with society, greater career

conflict, lack of need for affection, lowered sexual

potential, neurotic interaction with spouse, and limited

activity by self-absorption.

In a study utilizing Rotter's (1954) internal-

external control dimension. Tiffany, Cowan and Tiffany

(1970) found that chronically unemployed males perceived

greater controls from others than did those who were

regularly employed. The chronically unemployed were

significantly different from the regularly employed males,

demonstrating low self-esteem, general maladjustment, and

less control over their impulses. Few other studies

related to the personality characteristics of the chroni­

cally unemployed were available in the literature.

Related Learning Disability Literature

Learning disabilities have been a perplexing problem

for many years and have been the focus of much attention

from the lay and professional public. When the literature

concerning learning disabilities is reviewed, it is

apparent that a problem of semantics exists regarding the

labels used to describe the learning disabilities syndrome.

Over fifty terms have been used to describe the syndrome.

For example, some of the commonly used labels were:

congenital word blindness (Morgan, 1896), strephosymbolia

(Orton, 1928), primary reading retardation (Rabinovitch,

Drew, DeJong, Ingram & Withey, 1954) and specific reading

disability (Eisenberg, 1966). Johnson and Myklebust (1967)

discussed the variety of descriptive terminology found in

the literature: minimal brain damage, Strauss Syndrome,

neuophrenia, perceptually handicapped, minimal brain

dysfunction syndrome, and specific dyslexia. Rabinovitch

(1956) noted fourteen such descriptive terms; among them

were: congenital word blindness, bradylexia, strepho-

symbolia, specific dyslexia, and specific reading

disability.

One probable cause of the confusion regarding

descriptive terminology can be related to the professional

orientation of a given author. Depending on whether the

author is a psychologist, an educator, a pediatrician,

a neurologist, an optometrist, or a speech pathologist,

different terminology will be utilized (Anderson, 1970).

For the purpose of the present study the definition

of learning disabilities will be that of Rabinovitch and

his associates (1956). Primary reading retardation was

defined as a two-year lag between tested reading grade

level and mental age as obtained on a performance type

intelligence test.

The etiology of learning disabilities is still

unclear and has not been verified. Various authors suggest

different causative factors, and it would appear these

causative factors are primarily a function of the individuoT

author's professional orientation.

Hallgren (1950) came to the conclusion that reading

problems were genetically based and thus inherited,

following a monohybrid autosomal dominant mode of

inheritance.

Bateman (1966) reported that Bender saw a matura-

tional lag as a causative factor in learning disabilities.

Money stated that reading disabilities are the result

of ma'uurational lag:

8

The great majority of reading disability cases will be classified not on the basis of brain pathology, but simply as representative of a lag in the functional development of the brain and nervous systems that subserve the learning of reading (Money, 1964, p. 34).

Ames (1964) suggested that the majority of high I.Q.

children formerly labeled as "under achievers" may repre­

sent cases of biological immaturity. Wepman stressed the

importance of differentiating between concepts of cerebral

injury and agenesis in childhood disorders. Agenesis

was defined as the arrest or delay in the developmental

process of " . . . (a) any specific modality of input or

output or (b) the central integrative process" (Wepman,

1968, p. 135). Critchley (1968), de Hirsh (1968) and

Money (1966) have postulated a maturational developmental

lag (cerebral immaturity) as the primary cause in specific

develop.mental dyslexia and/or learning disability.

Blau (1946) believed that all reading disabilities

stemmed from emotional problems. Orton (1928) postulated

that faulty cerebral dominance was an underlying cause or

factor in dyslexia. Rabinovitch and Ingram (1962)

emphasized a multifactor approach to the underlying causes

of learning disabilities including environmental, instruc­

tional, emotional, and motivational factors.

There is a great divergence of opinion concerning

the etiology of learning disabilities. The divergence

of thought leads to confusion and there appears to be

a definite need for some terminology that will adequately

cover all the etiological categories. Rabinovitch has

made an attempt to do this with his proposed terminology.

The three groups that he proposed are as follows:

1. Capacity to learn to read is intact but is utilized insufficiently for the child to achieve a reading level appropriate to his intelligence. The causative factor is exogenous, the child having a normal reading potential that has been impaired by nega­tivism, anxiety, depression, emotional blocking, psychosis, limited schooling opportunity, or other external influences. They are diagnosed as having secondary reading retardation.

2. Capacity to learn to read is impaired by frank brain damage manifested by clear-cut neurological deficits. History usually reveals the cause of the brain injury, common agents being prenatal toxicity, brain trauma or anoxia, encephalitis, and head injury. These cases are diagnosed as brain injury with reading retardation.

3. Capacity to learn to read is impaired without definite brain damage suggested in history or neurological examination. The defect is in the ability to deal with letters and words as symbols, with resultant diminished ability to integrate the meaning-fulness of written material. The problem appears to reflect a basic disturbed pattern of neurological organization. Because the cause is biological or endogeneous, these cases are diagnosed as primary reading retardation (Rabinovitch, 1959, p. 865).

The research reported in the literature concerning

the specific manifestations of learning disabilities has

been done exclusively with school-age populations. The

manifestation and effects of learning disabilities in a**

adult population do not appear to have been studied and/or

10

researched. The probable reason for the lack of research

lies in the fact that learning disabilities have only been

recognized as a syndrome since the early 1960's. The

emphasis in practice has been on the school-age child.

Clements and Peters (1962) noted nine symptoms

of the specific manifestation of learning disabilities,

which are usually associated with learning disabilities,

though not all nine are found in any one individual. They

were: (1) a specific learning deficit, (2) perceptual

motor damage, (3) general coordination defects,

(4) hyperkinesis, (5) impulsivity, (6) emotional lability,

(7) short attention span, (8) equivocal neurological signs,

and (9) border-line abnormal electroencephlograms.

Rabinovitch (1959) noted five areas of invcsLigation

which might define the specific process disturbances found

in primary reading retardation. Fsychometrically, the

individual with primary reading retardation was depicted

as having a mean discrepancy between verbal and performance

sub-scales on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

(Wechsler, 1949), with the verbal intelligence quotient

lower than the performance scale by an average of twenty

points. Achievement testing showed a mean discrepancy of

five and one-half years between performance mental age and

reading age. Psychiatric evaluation showed that primary

reading retardation cases exhibit a number of typical

reactions, i.e., anxiety about their reading difficulties;

11

they appear to have difficulty in conceptual thinking in

such abstractions as time, size, number, and direction.

He stated that the following was found in neurological

evaluations of children with learning disabilities:

. . . right-left confusion, various extinction or inattention phenomena, cortical sensory disturbances, mixed hand-eye preferances, nonspecific motor awkwardness, dissociated dysgraphia, and speech and spelling abnormal­ities are all variously combined with reading retardation disturbances (Rabinovitch, 1958, p. 867).

Bell (1969), in his study of reading retardation

in a population of junior high school Caucasian and Negro

readers, delineated five underlying concepts emerging from

a factor analysis of the personality and motivational

factors of this population. First, retarded readers of

both races manifested an overall verbal deficit, which in

turn was associated v.ath poor motor performance. Second,

aggression, impulsivity and excitability influenced the

behavior of inadequate readers in both races. Third, a

negativistic attitude or lack of acquiesence to authority

was an important consideration in the reading problems of

the Caucasian readers. Fourth, low socio-economic status

and low parental education were salient determiners of

reading difficulties, particularly for the Negro readers.

Finally, passivity was found to have some association with

reading retardation in both groups.

12

In the review of the literature there appeared to

be no research available on reading retardation and/or

learning disabilities in an adult population. Nor was

there any literature that was concerned with the relation­

ships of learning disabilities to success or failure in

employment. All the research that has been done in the

field of learning disabilities has been done with school-

age populations. Reports of the incidence of reading

disability vary widely from 4 to 8 percent (Eisenberg, 1966)

to 5 to 20 percent (Critchley, 1964) of the normal school

population. Does this mean that the particular manifesta­

tions of primary reading retardation and/or learning

disability as found in a population of school children are

not applicable to an adult population? It would appear

that such manifestations of reading disabilities would also

be present in an adult population considering the various

etiological factors that have beer, enumerated. It would

appear that today various concerned agencies are beginning

to recognize this possibility. Anderson stated:

Rehabilitation agencies are beginning to recognize minimal brain injury (dysfunction) as a disability if it can be demonstrated that the applicant has a handicap which serves as a deterrant to full employment (Anderson, 1970, p. 117).

It is of interest that Lawlis (1968), in his research

on the chronically unemployed, found them to be less

assertive. Bell (1969) in his research found that adolescent

13

readers with reading retardation were passive. It appears

in viewing Bell's research that these adolescent readers

had a long history of discouragement as they matured to an

age when they would seek gainful employment. The continuum

of passivity from adolesence to maturity might be charac­

teristic of a significant portion of the chronically

unemployed. It leads to the further question of whether

or not an adult population of chronically unemployed

individuals has some of the same personality characteristics

of an adolescent population of reading retardates. It is

recognized that the chronically unemployed may not be

homogenous and may, polarize on the dimensions studied, i.e.,

passivity and assertiveness, reading and non-reading. The

studies that are available have not explained all the

parameters of the chronically unemployed population.

Objectives of Present Study

The present investigation was exploratory in nature.

No formal hypotheses were formulated or tested. It was

felt that the populations would differ on some, if not all,

the variables selected for the study; so rather than test

specific hypotheses, it appeared more relevant to produce

hypotheses for later cross validation. In this regard

the following questions appeared to be relevant:

14

1. Does a group of chronically unemployed individ­

uals differ from a group of regularly employed individuals

on the dimension of reading retardation?

2. Can the chronically unemployed be distinguished

from the regularly employed on the basis of different

personality characteristics, e.g., passivity-aggressiveness?

3. Do the chronically unemployed differ from the

regularly employed in demonstrating characteristics of

learning disability in written language, i.e., spelling,

arithmetic, syntax, mild dysgraphia, and reduced word

produc t i V i ty?

4. Do the chronically unemployed and the regularly

employed differ on the dimension of total motivation and

total motivational conflict?

CHAPTER II

METHOD

In attempting to answer the research questions which

were proposed in the introductory chapter, the present

chapter describes the population sampled, the test instru­

ments utilized, and the procedures employed in examining

the subjects.

Subjects

The subjects consisted of fifty Caucasian males

who were divided into two groups of twenty-five each.

Group one included those subjects who met the criterion

of chronic unemployment; grcup two included regularly

employed males who served as a control group.

T'le subjects in the chronically unemployed group

were defined as individuals who had at least three jobs

in the calendar year preceding the date of their participa­

tion in the study. The chronically unemployed subject was

one who had left three jobs for reasons other than physical

handicap, sickness, training, education, and/or dismissal.

All the subjects v>rere tested between November 1, 1971,

and April 30, 1971.

The subjects in the experimental group were selected

from the Suffolk County Departr.;ent of Labor, Hauppauge,

15

16

New York (N = 7) labor pool and patients from the Mental

Health Service, Veterans Administration Hospital, Northport,

New York (N = 18). The subjects from the Veterans Adminis­

tration Mental Health Service were selected from out­

patients referred for vocational assessment.

The regularly employed control subjects had retained

their positions for at least one year prior to the date

of their participation in the study. All the subjects

in this group were selected from employees of the Veterans

Administration Hospital, Northport, New York.

The subjects were limited to English speaking

Caucasians. Persons from bilingual homes were excluded

from the sample, in order to control for the effects of

language on test results. Frequently persons from bilingual

homes are at a disadvantage when required to take tests

standardized on persons not representative of minority

groups.

The subjects in the two groups were matched accord­

ing to the control relevant variables of age, intelligence,

educational level, and socio-economic status. There were

no significant differences between the two groups on any

of these variables.

The subjects were considered to be matched for age,

if their chronological age was within the same age group

utilized by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (1955),

to correct raw scores for age. The ranges utilized in the

17

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Manual (Wechsler, 1955,

pp. 77-97) are as follows:

1. Age Group: 16 - 17 years. 2. Age Group: 18 - 19 years. 3. Age Group: 20 - 24 years. 4. Age Group: 25 - 34 years. 5. Age Group: 35 - 44 years. 6. Age Group: 45 - 54 years.

7. Age Group: 5 5 - 6 4 years.

The mean age of the chronically unemployed group was

40.40 years (S.D. = 11.73), and the mean age for the

regularly employed group was 40.68 years (S.D. = 11.87).

The subjects ranged in age from 20 years to 61 years. The

age difference between the two groups was not significant.

All of the subjects were screened utilizing an

abbreviated form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

(WAIS), (Wechsler, 1955). The WAIS was utilized to screen

out subjects who had an I.Q. of less than 80. The purpose

of the screening was to eliminate ricantally retarded persons

from the study. The subjects were matched for intelligence

utilizing the intelligence classifications as found in the

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Manual (Wechsler, 1955,

p. 20). Subjects were considered to be matched for intelli­

gence if their I.Q.'s were within the same classificatory

grouping. The classificatory groups are as follows:

1. I.Q. of 130 and above. 2. I.Q. of 120 to 129. 3. I.Q. of 110 to 119. 4. I.Q. of 90 to 109. 5. I.Q. of 80 to 89.

18

The mean Full Scale I.Q. obtained for the chronically

unemployed group was 106.5 (S.D. = 10.67); the mean Full

Scale I.Q. for the regularly employed group was 107.6

(S.D. = 10.22). The range in Full Scale I.Q.'s was from

85 to 130. The Full Scale I.Q. difference between the two

groups was not significant.

A personal interview was carried out with each

subject in order to obtain demographic data regarding

education, employment history and socio-economic status.

Educational level was noted by the last completed year of

formal education. The mean educational level for the

chronically unemployed group was 12.20 years (S.D. 1.53).

The mean educational level for the regularly employed group

was 12.20 years (S.D. 1.38). Educational level ranged

from 9.0 years to 16.0 years. The difference between the

educational level of the two groups was not significant.

The McGuire-White Index of Social Status, Short

Form (1955), was employed to obtain an estimate of each

subject's social class level. The data was used in matching

pairs of subjects on the variable of social class. The

index was dependent upon a combination of ratings from

three scales; they were occupation, source of income, and

education. A copy of the form utilized to obtain the

necessary personal information for each subject may be found

in Appendix A. Three steps were required to complete the

index. First, the individual was rated on each component

19

scale (Appendix B). Second, the ratings were multiplied

by appropriate weights; and the products summed to secure

the total index score (Appendix E). Third, a table of

estimating status levels from the total index score was

employed for an approximation of the individual's probable

social status. Appendix C presents the general conversion

table utilized to achieve these approximations of social

status.

The mean socio-economic level was 46.80 (S.D. =

9.09) and 46.80 (S.D. = 6.69) for the chronically unem­

ployed group and the regularly employed group respectively.

The range in socio-economic level was from 23.0 to 67.0.

The difference between the two groups in socio-economic

Isval was not significant.

All of the participants were volunteers. They

received no financial compensation for their participation

in the study. Those individuals who agreed to participate

were required to sign release forms. The form (Appendix D)

summarized the purpose of the study.

Test Instruments

The test battery consisted of four standardized

tests and a test requiring the subject to compose a story

about Card 9BM of the Thematic Apperception Test (Murray,

1943). The four standardized tests were the Wechsler

Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), (Wechsler, 1955), the

20

the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT), (Jastak & Jastak,

1965), the Gates-MacGinite Reading Test (Gates-MacGinite,

1965), and the Motivational Analysis Test (MAT), (Cattell,

et al., 1964). Three of the four standardized tests were

administered according to test manual instructions. The

tests were scored and interpreted consistently with the

procedures described in the test manuals, with the excep­

tion of the WAIS. An abbreviated form of the WAIS was

employed and scored according to the scoring procedures

outlined by Satz and Mogel (1963).

The WAIS has been described in detail by Wechsler

(1950) and others .(Euros, 1965). An abbreviated form of

the WAIS developed by Satz and Mogel (1963) was employed

instead of the full test. The reason for employing this

abbreviated form of the WAIS was that it allowed the

investigator to shorten the total amount of time necessary

to complete the testing of an individual subject. It was

believed that it wa.s feasible to limit the subject's

total testing time so that it would not become burdensome.

The correlations reported between the abbreviated form of

the WAIS used in the present study and the respective

WAIS I.Q.'s are as follows: Verbal I.Q., r = .99;

Performance I.Q., r = .97; and Full Scale I.Q., r = .99.

(Satz & Mogel, 1963, p. 78).

Each record was administered and scored according

to the conversions weights as presented in Table 1.

21

TABLE 1

DESIGN OF SHORT FORM SCALE, WAIS

Subtest Name Item Used Multiply by

Information Comprehension Arithmetic Similarities Digit Span Vocabulary Digit Symbol Picture Completion Block Design Picture Arrangement Object Asscrbly

Every third item Odd item only Odd item only Odd item only Unchanged Every third item Unchanged Every third item Odd item only Odd item only Odd item only

3 2 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 2

Source: Satz & Mogel, 1963, p. 78

The Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT), (Jastak &

Jastak, 1965), was used to determine reading-vocabulary

level, arithmetic level, and spelling level of the subjects.

The WRAT -/e? designed to measure achievement in the basic

school subjects of reading (word recognition and pronuncia­

tion) , written spelling and arithmetic computation. Each

of the three subtests was divided into two levels, I and II.

Level I was designed for use with children between the ages

of 5 years 0 months and 11 years 11 months, and Level II

was designed for use with persons ranging in age from

12 years 0 months to adulthood. Level II was employed on

the arithmetic and reading grade equivalencies. Level I

was utilized to obtain spellinLj grade equivalencies because

it was anticipated that it would be more appropriate for

22

the given sample population. It was believed that the

subject's spelling levels might not be accurately ascer­

tained by the more difficult Level II spelling words.

The Gates-MacGinite Reading Test, Survey E,

Form I (Gates-MacGinite, 1965) was designed for use in

grades 7 through 9. The test consisted of three parts:

Speed and Accuracy, Vocabulary and Comprehension.

The Speed and Accuracy Test provided an objective

measure of how rapidly an individual could read with under­

standing. The test contained 36 short paragraphs of rela­

tively uniform difficulty. Each paragraph ended in a

question or incomplete statement; a choice of four words

followed the paragraph. The subject was required to choose

the word that best answered the question or completed the

statement. The number of paragraphs completed within the

time limit (four minutes) provided a measure of speed of

reading.

The Vocabulary Test sampled the subject's reading

vocabulary. The test consisted of 50 items, each consisted

of a test word followed by five other words, one of which

was similar in meaning to the test word. The subject's

task was to choose the word that was synonymous with the

test word.

The Comprehension Test measured the subject's

abili'cy to read complete prose passages. It contained

21 passages graded in terms of difficulty of level. For

23

each paragraph the subject had to decide which answer among

five alternatives characterized the intended meaning of

the entire passage.

The Gates-MacGinite Reading Test was selected

because of its appropriateness for the sample population.

The test has grade norms ranging from a low of grade level

3.0 to a high of grade level 12.6. It was anticipated that

the range in grade level equivalencies would distinguish

average readers from retarded readers. Subjects were con­

sidered to be retarded readers if their reading level was

two years below their last completed grade in high school

(grades 10-12), junior high school (grades 7-9), or

elementary school (grades 1-6).

The Motivational Analysis Test (MAT), (Cattell,

et al., 1964), is an objective, paper and pencil inventory,

considered to be a test in the sense that the subject

answers items in terms of personality characteristics. It

utilized four scores to assess integrated and unintegrated

levels of ten dynamic motivational systems. The four types

of scores were:

1. Unintegrated scores (U) which reflect id-like

motivation, which the subject wishes, unrelated to

objective reality.

2. Integrated (I) scores which reflect ego and

superego functions and were related to social reality,

experience and overt interest.

24

3. Total Motivation (M) which was a function of

U and I (U + I), which gave the individual's total dynamic

interest in a given area.

4. Conflict (C) which was a function also of

U and I (U - I). High scores in this area were indicative

of frustration and/or repression in a given area (Cattell,

et al., 1964).

The ten dynamic systems were classified into two

sub-groups, five of which were termed ergs or drives;

and the other five were termed sentiments. Table 2 presents

a brief description of these ten systems as they are

described by Cattell (1964).

The MAT was composed of 208 items; it can be

completed by normal subjects in 46 to 60 minutes. The time

limit was not adhered to in test administration because

each individual was given all the time he needed to complex.e

the instrument. The test was read orally to six subjects

who were unable to cope with the reading vocabulary level .

of the test.

The Written Story Test was quite simple to admin­

ister. The subject was presented Card 9 BM of the Thematic

Apperception Test (Murray, 1943). The subject was asked

to look at the picture stimulus for two minutes. After

looking at the picture he was requested to write a story

about it. The picture was left in the subject's view

while he wrote. There were no time limits and the subject

25

TABLE 2

MAT, MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEMS

Title Symbol Brief Description

ERGS

Mating Erg

Assertiveness Erg

Fear (Escape) Erg

N^.rcism-comfprt Erg

Pugnacity-sadism Erg

SENTIx^lENTS

Self-concept Sentiment

Ma

.\s

Fr

Na

Pg

SS

Strength of the normal heterosexual or mating drive.

Strength of the drive to self-assertion, mastery and achievement.

Level of alertness to external dangers.

Level of drive toward sensuous, self-indulgent satisfactions.

Strength of destructive, hostile impulses.

Level of concern about the self-concept, social repute, and more remote rewards.

Superego Sentiment

Career Sentiment

SE Strength of development of conscience.

Ca Amount of development of interests in a career.

Sweetheart- Sw spouse Sentiment

Home-parental Ho Sentiment

Strength of attachment to spouse or sweetheart

Strength of attitudes attaching to the parental home (p. 3).

26

was given no instructions other than to produce the best

story that he could write.

The purpose of the Written Story Test was to evalu­

ate deficits in the use of written language. Myklebust's

scoring system contained in the Myklebust Picture Story

Test (Myklebust, 1965) was utilized. Myklebust evaluated

a subject's writing in the three areas of written produc­

tivity, correctness, and sentence meaning. Productivity

was measured in three ways: (1) the total number of words

in the written paragraph; (2) the total number of sentences

in the written paragraph; and (3) the total number of words

per sentence. Correctness of expression was measured by

a syntax scale. The scale measured the accuracy of word

usage, word endings and punctuation. The number of errors

committed was a function of the opportunity to make them;

thus, syntax errors were scored as a quotient. The quotient

was derived by dividing the number of errors by total words

and punctuation units. An additonal score was derived

from the abstract-concrete level of each story. This

score was obtained by comparing a story with examples

provided by Myklebust. There were five levels of abstrac­

tion. The most concrete level was reflected in the naming

of objects in the picture. The most complex or abstract

level was indicated by using objects in the picture as a

starting point for developing a story, complete with a

plot containing a past, present, and future. Raw scores

27

were used since the norm tables provided by Myklebust were

not applicable to an adult population.

Procedure

The experimental subjects were interviewed by the

author at the Suffolk County Department of Labor Office,

Hauppauge, New York, and at the Veterans Administration

Hospital, Northport, New York. First, it was ascertained

if their employment history met the standard of being

chronically unemployed individuals. If their employment

history reflected the probability of chronic unemployment,

the study was briefly explained to them; and they were

asked to participate. The persons who volunteered made an

appointment to be tested at a later date in the author's

office. Veterans Administration Hospital, Northport, New

York. The- appointment v/as made in order to insure that

there woujc be a sufficient amount of time available to

complete the testing. The same procedure was followed in

obtaining the regularly employed control subjects from

among the employees of the Veterans Administration Hospital,

Northport, New York. Each participant was individually

tested in the author's office.

The firs step in the evaluation procedure was to

obtain the information necessary to complete the McGuire-

White Index of Social Status (1955). The information

necessary to match the two groups on the control relevant

28

variables of age and educational level. A copy of the form

utilized to obtain this information is found in Appendix A.

The second step in the testing procedure was to

administer an abbreviated form of the WAIS. The subject

was then administered the WRAT. Following the completion

of the WRAT the subject was administered the Gates-

MacGinite Reading Test.

At this point in the testing procedure the subject

was allowed to relax for ten minutes so that he would not

become overtired. On the completion of the ten minutes

the subject was administered the MAT. The final test

administered v/as the Written Story Test.

The approximate time required to complete each

test was as follows:

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 40 minutes. Wide Range Achievement Test 25 minutes. Gc'tes-MacGinite Reading Test 45 minutes. Motivational AJialysis Test 50 minutes. Written Story Test 10 minutes.

The dependent variables on each of the various tests

and subtests were the raw scores, or in the case of the

WAIS, the raw score corrected for age. Raw scores were

utilized since the norm tables published for the different

tests express the scores in percentile ranks which are not

amenable to further statistical treatment. The tests and

the variables obtained from each are shown in Table 3.

In all, 7 2 dependent variables were obtained.

29

TABLE 3

PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS AND VARIABLES STUDIED

Tests and Subtests Number of Variables

Employment score; one indicated chronically 1 unemployed subjects, and two indicated employed control subjects.

Chronological Age 1

Years of Formal Schooling 1

Socio-Economic Status 1

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 14 Information Comprehension Arithmetic Similarities Digit Span Vocabulary Digit Symbol Picture Completion Block Design Picture Arrangement Object Assembly Verbal Subscale Performance Subscale Full Scale Total

Wide Range Achievement Test 3 Reading Subtest Arithmetic Subtest Spelling Subtest

Gates-MacGinite Reading Test 4 Speed and Accuracy, Number Attempted Speed and Accuracy, Number Correct Vocabulary Comprehension

30

TABLE 3—Continued

Tests and Subtests Number of Variables

Motivational Analysis Test 42 Career, Unintegrated Sentiment Career, Integrated Sentiment Career, Total Sentiment Career, Conflict Sentiment Home-parental, Unintegrated Sentiment Home-parental, Integrated Sentiment Home-parental, Total Sentiment Home-parental, Conflict Sentiment Fear, Unintegrated Erg Fear, Integrated Erg Fear, Total Erg Fear, Conflict Erg Narcism-comfort, Unintegrated Erg Narcism-comfort, Integrated Erg Narcism-comfort, Total Erg Narcism-comfort, Conflict Erg Superego, Unintegrated Erg Superego, Integrated Erg Superego, Total Erg Superego, Conflict Erg Self-sentiment, Unintegrated Self-sentiment. Integrated Self-sentiment. Total Self-sentiment. Conflict Mating, Unintegrated Erg Mating, Integrated Erg Mating, Total Erg Mating, Conflict Erg Pugnacity-sadism, Unintegrated Erg Pugnacity-sadism. Integrated Erg Pugnacity-sadism. Total Erg Pugnacity-sadism, Conflict Erg Assertiveness, Unintegrated Erg Assertiveness, Integrated Erg Assertiveness, Total Erg Assertiveness, Conflict Erg Sweetheart-spouse, Unintegrated Sentiment Sweetheart-spouse. Integrated Sentiment Sweetheart-spouse. Total Sentiment Sweetheart-spouse. Conflict Sentiment Total Integrated Motivation Total Conflict

31

TABLE 3—Continued

Tests and Subtests Number of Variables

Written Story Test Total Words Total Sentences Total words per sentence Syntax Quotient Abstract-Concrete Scale

Total 72

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

The purpose of the study was to investigate if a

group of chronically unemployed individuals could be dis­

tinguished from a group of regularly employed individuals

on a number of dimensions. The basic questions can be

summarized as follows. One, can chronically unemployv=d

subjects be distinguished from regularly employed subjects

on the dimension of reading retardation? Two, do chroni­

cally unemployed subjects de.monstrate spelling deficits,

arithmetic deficits, syntax problems, and reduced produc­

tivity in written language, characteristic of adolescents

with learning disability? Three, do chronically uiiCiiiployed

subjects demonstrate similar personality characteristics,

i.e., passivity-aggressiveness, at: adolescents with reading

retardation and/or learning disability? Four, can chroni­

cally unemployed subjects be distinguished from regularly

employed subjects on the dimension of total motivation and

total motivational conflict as measured by the MAT? It

was anticipated that the experimental group of chronically

unemployed subjects could be distinguished from the control

group of regularly employed subjects on all the above

dimensions.

The present chapter presents and interprets the

results of the statistical procedures utilized in answering

32

33

the questions under investigation. Descriptive statistics

were obtained on all the variables. The Student t test

was computed on all the variables to determine if signifi­

cant differences existed between the experimental and

control group on each of the variables under investigation.

All analyses were conducted at the Yale University

Computer Center, New Haven, Connecticut, under the auspices

of the Veterans Administration, Eastern Research Center.

The library programs available through the Veterans

Administration Eastern Research Center were utilized.

General Results

The Means, Standard Deviations, and t values for

the experimental group and the control group on tlie speed,

accuracy, vocabulary and comprehension subtests of the

Gates-MacGinite Reading Test (Gates-MacGinite, 1965) are

reported in Table 4. There were no significant differ­

ences between the regularly employed group and the chroni­

cally unemployed group on any of the subtests of the Gates-

MacGinite Reading Test.

The Means, Standard Deviations, and t values for

the chronically unemployed group and the regularly employed

group for the reading, spelling, and arithmetic subtests

of the WRAT are reported in Table 5. Inspection of the

results reveals no significant differences between the

regularly employed group and the chronically unemployed

34

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WRAT. However, the regularly employed group obtained

significantly higher scores than the chronically unem­

ployed group on the arithmetic subtest (t = 2.065, 2- <.05).

The performance of the regularly employed group

and the chronically unemployed group on the Written Story

Test is reported in Table 6. Significant differences did

exist between the regularly employed group and the chroni­

cally unemployed group for total word productivity; the

regularly employed group scored significantly higher in

total written word production, than the chronically unem­

ployed group (t = 2.49, p. <.05). Significant differences

were also found to exist between the regularly employed

group and the chronically unemployed group on the d? mension

of number of sentences produced. The regularly employed

group scored significantly higher chan the chronically

unemployed group in total sentence productivity

(t = 3.40, p. <.01).

The Means, Standard Deviations, and t values for

the regularly employed group and the chronically unemployed

group on the MAT are reported in Table 7. The regularly

employed group had significantly higher scores than the

chronically unemployed group on the unintegrated scores

and total motivational scores of the narcism-comfort erg,

personality variable (t = 2.92, p. <.01 and t = 3.08,

p.< .01, respectively). The chronically unemployed group

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42

received a higher conflict score on the assertiveness

conflict erg (t = 2.56, p. <.01) than the regularly

employed group. In addition, the chronically unemployed

group received a significantly higher total motivational

conflict score than did the regularly employed group

(t. = 2.41, p. <^.05) . Generally there were no significant

differences between the regularly employed group and the

chronically unemployed group on the personality variables

as defined by the MAT.

Specific statistical Interpretations

Wilkinson (1951) and Sakoda, et, al. (1954) report:

Whenever a large group of statistics is collected in the 'blind analysis' type of experiment, the number of significant statistics should be tect^'5. by the binomial expansion to determine if that number is sufficiently great to indicate a non-chance occurence (Wilkinson, 1951, pp. 156, 157).

Sakoda, et al,. (1954) have published tables for p. at .05

and .01 levels showing the probability of obtaining n or

more significant statistics out of N calculated statistics.

The results of the present study must be examined

to determine if the significant results obtained at the

p. <.05 and p.<.01 levels were not a function of chance

probability and not significant. In analyzing the present

study's results which achieved significance at the p. <.05

level, utilizing the published tables (Sakoda, ejt al. ,

1954, p. 173), it appeared these significant results are

43

due to chance at the .50 percent level. Thus, some of the

results at the g. <.05 level of significance must be

attributed to chance .50 percent of the time. One cannot

categorically state that all the results at p. <.05 level

occurred by chance.

The results obtained in the study at the p. <.01

level were significant at the .01 percent level (Sakoda,

et al., 154, p. 174). Thus, the results obtained at the

jg. <.01 level are significant and not a function of chance

occurrence.

Also, the stringent matching of the experimental

chronically unemployed subjects with regularly employed

control subjects on the confounding variables of age,

intelligence, educational level, and socio-economic status

adds weight to the validity of the significant results.

These confounding variables were controlled for and reduceo

the probability of spurious chance results occurring

because of these variables.

CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

The purpose of the present chapter is to discuss

the results of the study in terms of the cjuestions raised

in Chapter I. The findings of the study will be integrated

with the results derived from other research in the field

of chronic unemployment and the relationship of reading

retardation to chronic unemployment. The implications of

the study will be discussed in relationship to existing

vocational planning and placement services. Finally, sug­

gestions for further research will be discussed.

From the investigation of the first question, it

was sho'/ n that a group of chronically unemployed individuals

could not be differentiated from a group of regularly

employed incividuals on the dimensions of reading retarda­

tion. The instruments utilized to examine this dimension,

i.e., the Wide Range Achievement Test (Jastak & Jastak,

1964) and the Gates-MacGinite Reading Test (Gates-MacGinite,

1965), revealed no significant differences between the two

groups. The two groups were not significantly different

in the areas of vocabulary, speed and accuracy of reading,

nor in comprehension. Thus, reading retardation does not

appear to have a causitive relationship to the condition

of chronic unemployment.

44

45

The answer to the second question which was con­

cerned with the problem of whether chronically unemployed

persons could be distinguished from regularly employed

persons on the basis of personality characteristics proved

to be quite complicated. The two groups were measured in

terms of ten personality variables from the Motivational

Analysis Test (Cattell, et al., 1964). Out of the ten

characteristics, the chronically unemployed men were shown

to be significantly higher than the regularly employed

men on the assertiveness conflict di.mensiori. The chroni­

cally unemployed men tended to have more frustrated needs

for wealth and status symbols, which appeared to lead them

into a more aggressive approach to life.

It had been anticipated that the chronically unem­

ployed men would demonstrate the personality characteristic

of passivity seen in adolescents ^ith learning disabilities.

The findings of the study did not ?;upport this expectation.

Rather, the unemployed appeared to be more assertive instead

of less assertive. The author's clinical observation of

the chronically unemployed group, during the testing sessions,

was that they tended to be more manipulative and utilized

sociopathic approaches to problem solving. Their aggresive-

ness appeared to be manifested through their manipulative

manner.

The regularly employed persons appeared to have

higher unsatisfied basic needs for comfort than the

46

chronically unemployed persons. As defined by Cattell

(1964), comfort referred to the primitive creature needs

and a lack of satisfaction of the fulfillment of these

needs. The unsatisfied basic needs were reflected in the

significantly higher scores achieved by the regularly

employed persons on the unintegrated and conflict scores

on the narcism-comfort dimension as measured by the MAT.

No significant differences existed between the chronically

unemployed group and the regularly employed group on the

other eight personality characteristics of the MAT (career

sentiment, home-parental sentiment, fear erg, pugnacity-

sadism erg, self-concept sentiment, superego sentiment,

mating erg, and sweetheart-spouse sentiment).

Question three concerned the differences between

the chronically unemployed group and the regularly employed

group in terms of their capacity to produce written langua' e.

The two groups were compared on the dimensions of spelling,

arithmetic, syntax, dysgraphia and productivity. The

regularly employed group scored significantly higher than

the chronically unemployed group on arithmetic computation

and total written word productivity at the p. <.05 level

of significance. The significance of these two findings

might be a result of chance probability at 50 percent level.

That is, the possibility exists that these findings would

have occurred 50 percent of the time by chance alone as

previously discussed in Chapter III. The regularly employed

47

group scored significantly higher than the chronically

unemployed group on total written sentence productivity.

The significance of this finding was at the £. <.01 level

of significance. Thus, it was a significant finding as

previously discussed in Chapter III. The results do point

to a significant difference between the two groups in the

area of written productivity, which was possibly a function

of lowered positive motivatiuiial potential in the chroni­

cally unemployed group. There were no significant differences

between the two groups in terms of spelling, syntax and

mild dysgraphia.

The investigation of cjuestion four concerning the

differences between the chronically unemployed group and

the regularly employed group on the dimension of total

motivation and total motivational conflict suggested that

the former had significantly higher total motivational con­

flict than tne regularly employed group. Again it should

be emphasized that this finding might have been a function

of chance probability discussed in Chapter III. It would

appear that the chronically unemployed individual experi­

enced a high level of frustration and inner conflict. The

conflict may not be manifested in his overt behavior, but

it might reflect the amount of energy utilized in dealing

with the internal conflict he experienced. Thus, the

chronically unemployed individiial possibly was lacking in

energy for investment in employment-directed behavior.

48

No significant difference was found between the two groups

on the dimension of total motivation.

In the survey of the literature there appeared to

be no research available on reading retardation and/or

learning disabilities in an adult population. Nor was

there any learning disability literature concerned with

individuals categorized as chronically unemployed. The

literature in the area of unemployment deals almost exclu­

sively with the demographic chracteristies of the unem­

ployed. In all of these studies there was an apparent

vagueness in defining the meaning of unemployment. There

was a conspicuous lack in the literature concerning studies

dealing with the causative factors of chronic unemployment,

such as personality factors. Only two studies appear to

exist which are relevant to the present study. Tiffany,

Cowan, ann Tiffany (1970) in their book. The Unemployed,

report a study dealing with chronic unemployment and

personality variables. They found that the chronically

unemployed had less control over their impulses. For the

most part the finding of the present study that the

chronically unemployed group demonstrate higher aggressive­

ness than the regularly employed group can be interpreted

as being consistent with these findings.

In a study by Lawlis (1968), many of the personality

variables under investigation -.rere the same as those in the

present study. The present findings revealed that the

49

chronically unemployed group had lowered narcism-comfort

than the regularly employed group and that the chronically

unemployed group had higher total motivational conflict

than the regularly employed group. These findings were

consistent with those of Lawlis.

However, there was also an inconsistency between

the findings of the present study and those reported by

Lawlis. He found the chronically unemployed group scored

significantly higher than the regularly employed group on

the characteristics of pugnacity-sadism and career sentiment

The regularly employed group was also significantly higher

than the chronically unemployed group on the personality

characteristics of self-esteem, total motivation and

assertiveness. In contrast, the present results suggested

the chronically unemployed group was significantly higher

than the regularly employed group on the assertiveness

dimension. No significant differences existed between the

two groups on the personality characteristics of pugnacity-

sadism, self-esteem, career sentiment, and total motivation.

There are several possible explanations for the

inconsistence between Lawlis' findings and those of the

present study. The subject sample for Lawlis' study con­

sisted of three ethnic groups: Caucasian, Negro, and

Mexican-American, as contrasted to the present study's

subject sample which consisted solely of Caucasians. If

the inconsistency of the results of these two studies can

50

be attributed to the subject sample differences, then it

would be reasonable to assume that ethnic differences are

a factor in the personality characteristics of the chroni­

cally unemployed.

Another possible explanation for the inconsistency

of these two studies in terms of subject differences was

in the area of subject selection. Lawlis' subject sample

was .selected from the geographical area of West Texas.

The subjects for the sample in the present study were

selected from the geographical area of suburban New York

City, New York. If the inconsistency between the two studies

was due to the difference in subject selection, then it is

possible that geographical region is an important factor

in what defines and/or differentiates the chronically

unemployed from the regularly employed. In addition, Lawlis

had paid subjects while the present study utilized volunteer

subjects. Inferentially, the volunteer subject might be

more motivated than the paid subject. It would appear that

a chronically unemployed individual who was paid to partici­

pate might be lacking in positive motivation regarding

participation in the study. The volunteer subject possibly

could be more motivated because he was participating with

inner directed motives versus the possibly externally

directed paid subject.

Tiffany, Cowan, and Tiffany (1970) report that the

chronically unemployed group can be divided into two

51

sub-groups. One group was dependent on public agencies

for assistance in finding employment and experienced anxiety

and passivity. The second group was more independent,

rebellious and sought employment independently. The

possibility exists that Lawlis studied the first group

who demonstrated passivity, lack of aggressiveness and

possibly alcoholism. If the inconsistency between the two

studies can be attributed to this sub-group difference

reported by Tiffany, then the differences between the two

studies can be understocxl more readily.

The differences between the findings of Lawlis'

study and the present study might also be a function of

the definition of the chronically unemployed group utilized

by the two investigators. Lawlis defined the chronically

unemployed group as having six jobs in the last six months,

whereas the present investigator defined the chronically

unemploye<l aj having three jobs in the last calendar year.

If these two classifications are different enough to

establish two significantly different groups, then the

differences in findings between the two studies could be

easily understood.

The findings of the present study have their greatest

implications in the area of employment-services which deal

with the condition of chronic unemployment. The present

employment-services dealing with chronic unemployment appear

to have certain preconceived ideas concerning the nature

52

of the chronically unemployed group. The employment-

service appears to be based on certain commonly accepted

descriptions of the nature of a chronically unemployed

population. For the most part the chronically unemployed,

as a group, are seen as having lowered intellectual func­

tioning. In turn this is often cited as a causative factor

for the lack of job stability. The labeling of the chroni­

cally unemployed as having lowered intellectual functioning

can lead to the assumption that they are incapable of

handling higher level jobs. The chronically unemployed

group is considered more capable of handling menial tasks.

When there is no consistent pattern of employment even

for menial jobs this deviant behavior is explained crudely

in terms of "not having the intellectual capacity" to

succeed at a certain type of work.

In addition, chronically unemployed persons usually

accjuire the label "lazy," often applied in a derrogatory

manner. Those individuals who demonstrate an unstable

work history are often considered lazy with the typical

pattern of behavior being a by-product of their lack of

motivation. Unfortunately the labeling of the chronically

unemployed group as unintelligent and lazy has not been

founded on any empirical evidence. Instead, they are

accjuired prejudices which have developed over time.

The findings of the present study showed that these

common labels of the chronically unemployed individuals

53

to be grossly inaccurate. Frequently the chronically

unemployed are labeled as having lowered intellectual

capacity, learning deficits and minimal skills. The

present findings revealed that no learning disability was

apparent in the chronically unemployed group. Although,

in fact, it may be true that the chronically unemployed

individuals have less knowledge and skills in certain areas,

it is unrealistic to assume that the lack of knowledge and

skills was caused by learning disabilities alone. In

fact, the results revealed that the chronically unemployed

demonstrated no gross indications of learning disability

and/or reading retardation. Similarly the common references

to laziness that usually are applied to chronically unem­

ployed persons has been shown to be unjustified. On the

basis of analysis of personality factors, chronically

unemployed individuals appeared to have the same level of

motivation as the regularly employed.

Certain personality differences do exist between

the chronically unemployed individuals and the regularly

employed individuals. Essentially it was found that

chronically unemployed individuals have frustrated needs

for satisfaction. The chronically unemployed, regardless

of the type of job they might obtain (wealth or status) ,

cannot achieve a sense of satisfaction from the work. The

probable cause for this frustrated satisfaction was the

setting of unrealistic goals. The unrealistic goals can

54

never be attained regardless of the status associated with

the work or the wealth accjuired by the work. As a result,

any work in which this type person engages, regardless of

its nature, was not rewarding in the sense that it allowed

the individual to attain his unrealistic goals. In order

to eliminate this frustrating situation the chronically

unemployed individual withdrew from the world of work.

Another personality factor apparent in the chroni­

cally unemployed individual was the existence of internal

conflict. The findings of the present study show that the

chronically unemployed individuals must invest great energy

expenditures in dealing with the internal conflict experi­

enced. The finding, in effect, meant the chronically

unemployed individual see themselves as having a more

important and threatening problem than unemployment. The

internal conflict may become so great that concern over

matters that are not directly related to this conflict

becomes irrelevant.

Understanding of the factors associated with chronic

unemployment is of extreme importance in the establishment

of realistic and effective rehabilitation programs. Pre­

sently, the existing efforts for remedying the unemployment

situation are attempted with the common prejudice view of

the unemployed. On the basis of characterizing the unem­

ployed as lazy and unable to acquire more knowledge and

skills, the employment-services developed their services

55

for the chronically unemployed. For the most part the

employment-services extended to the chronically unemployed

consisted of job placement. Very little effort has been

extended in the direction of teaching and training indi­

viduals in new skills commensurate with their potential

learning abilities. No attempt has been made by these

agencies to assess personality problems in the chronically

unemployed individual. It was generally assumed that

either these personality problems were nonexistent or that

they were not a factor in the condition of chronic unem­

ployment. However, as revealed by the present study,

personality in terms of inner conflict was very much a

factor in unemployment. As previously mentioned it would

be unrealistic to expect regular employment from an indi­

vidual whose internal conflict was so great that employment

became an irrelevant factor. Therefore, prior to any

training or job placement it is necessary to first determine

if such internal conflicts exist and second to alleviate

them through some type of counseling or treatment if in

fact such conditions do exist. This in part could account

for the lack of success which can be attributed to the

present programs which were designed to alleviate the

condition of unemployment. Certainly it is unrealistic

to expect a person with extreme inner conflict to success­

fully participate in regular employment.

56

Aside from the issue of inner conflict the employ­

ment agency does not account for the potential ability in

the chronically unemployed person. Based on the common

concept that the chronically unemployed are not able to

gain additional knowledge of skills, employment services

usually select job placements for these individuals on the

basis of their present status. Such practices can prove

to be extremely detrimental to the client because they can

further frustrate his needs for social status, wealth,

and job satisfaction. As shown by the present study,

learning disability was not necessarily associated with

chronic unemployment. A more positive rehabilitation pro­

gram for the chronically unemployed would be to first assess

learning ability and potential, second to evaluate interest,

third to supply training and education, and fourth to

select job placement on the basis of realistic definitions

of work capacity. In this way the final selected placement

would be more in line with the client's realistic capacities

and interests. Therefore, more job satisfaction might be

generated, which in turn would increase the probability of

regular employment.

In order to establish the efficacy of new programs

developed similarly to the previously proposed program

further research is warranted. First, studies similar in

design to the present study, with the inclusion of cultural

background, I.Q., geographical area, and sex, should be

57

undertaken in order to more firmly establish all the

relevant factors associated with the condition of chronic

unemployment.

In an attempt to establish a base line of effi­

ciency of the present employment services, several investi­

gations of the effectiveness of these present services

should be attempted. The findings revealed by these studies

would establish a basis of comparison for new programs.

On the basis of the findings of the present study

further research is suggested in the area of internal

conflict as a major cause of chronic unemployment. The

purpose of the research should be to first investigate the

unemployment record and the occurrence of internal conflict

in those individuals counseled and placed by employment

services. Secondly, a counseling program should be designed

to deal with the internal conflict of these individuals.

Employment stability should then be examined again in order

to determine the efficiency or efficacy of counseling with

the chronically unemployed in the new program.

As suggested by the implications of the present

study, rehabilitation programs for the chronically unem­

ployed should include an assessment of potential learning

abilities and interests in order to establish a realistic

training program for each individual. The effectiveness

of such programs certainly warrants further investigation.

Research with these programs would investigate regularity

58

of employment before and after such a program has been

applied.

Unemployment in the United States is a serious

problem which has gained in magnitude within recent years.

Surprisingly there has been relatively little effort in

the area of applied research of the chronically unemployed

group. Existing government programs for the chronically

uneirployed for the most part have not been based on

empirical research. Relatively few studies have dealt with

the issues of their efficiency. No serious attempts have

been made to improve the efficiency of the existing system

by altering the aims and designs of the programs. The

present study was a modest attempt in a relatively naive

area. The findings certainly suggest that personality

factors may be an underlying cause for unemployment.

Although the need for further research is realized, the

suggestion for more realistic rehabilitation employment

programs for the chronically unemployed should be considered

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Unemployment in the United States has been and is

presently one of the great social problems with which our

society must cope. There appears to be much concern

regarding the causes of unemployment and the inter­

relationships of these causes.

The total unemployed group contains a smaller

group that could be categorized as being chronically

unemployed. The chronically unemployed individual is one

who works for a couple of days and cjuits the job for no

apparent reason, such as sickness, physical handicap,

ond/or lack of training.

The present study was basically concerned with

cjuestions concerning a group of chronically unemployed

persons. The chronically unemployed person is generally

considered to have a handicap by virtue of his apparent .

inability to function on a job with a reasonable degree

of stability. The present study attempted to determine

whether chronically unemployed individuals might not

experience reading retardation and/or learning disabilities,

which hindered their ability to work. Concurrent with the

possible learning disability, did a group of chronically unem­

ployed individuals demonstrate personality characteristics

59

60

similar to adolescents with learning disability, i.e.,

passivity-aggressiveness? Also, did the chronically unem­

ployed persons demonstrate characteristics of learning

disability in written language, e.g., deficits in spelling,

deficits in arithmetic, deficits in syntax usage, mild

dysgraphia, and reduced word productivity? Finally, did

the chronically unemployed person differ from a regularly

employed person on the dimensions of total motivation and

total motivational conflict as defined by the Motivational

Analysis Test.

The study involved a total of 50 subjects, 25

regularly employed control subjects, and 25 chronically

unemployed experimental subjects. The chronically unem­

ployed individual was one who had at least three jots in

the calendar year preceding the date of his participation

in the study. The unemployed individual was one who had

left three jobs for reasons other than physical handicap,

sickness, training, education, and/or dismissal from the

place of employment. The regularly employed individual

had retained his position for at least one year prior to

his participation in the study. The subjects were male

Caucasians from homes in which English was the only language

spoken. The chronically unemployed experimental group was

matched with the regularly employed control group on the

control relevant variables of age, intelligence, total years

of formal education completed, and socio-economic status.

61

The subjects were all volunteers. The instruments utilized

to answer the research cjuestions were the Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale, the Wide Range Achievement Test, the

Gates-MacGinite Reading Test, the Motivational Analysis

Test, and the Written Story Test.

The statistical procedures utilized in analyzing

the data was the Student t test of significance for each

of the dependent variables. It was found that the statis­

tical results obtained at the p.< .05 level might have

been a function of chance probability at the 50 percent

level, based on the ratio of significant results obtained

to the number of statistics computed. The results obtained

at the p. <.05 level cannot be categorically assumed to be

spurious for there was a 50 percent chance that they were

actually significant. The results obtained at the p.<.01

level are validly significant at the 01 percent level and

did not o-:cur by chance.

The results indicated there were no significant

differences between the regularly employed group and the

chronically unemployed group on the dimension of reading

retardation and/or learning disabilities. The results did

indicate that the regularly employed group obtained possibly

significantly higher arithmetic scores than did the

chronically unemployed (p.<;.05). Significant differences

also existed between the reguli^rly employed group and the

chronically unemployed group for total word productivity

62

(fi.<.05) and total written sentence productivity (p. <.01).

The regularly employed group was significantly higher in

written productivity than the chronically unemployed group.

The regularly employed group had significantly

higher scores than the chronically unemployed group on the

unintegrated scores and total motivational scores on the

narcism-comfort erg personality variable as measured by

the MAT (p. <.01 and p. <.01 respectively). It would appear

that the regularly employed individuals appeared to have

unsatisfied basic needs for comfort.

The chronically unemployed group received a higher

conflict score than the regularly employed group for the

assertiveness personality variable as measured by the MAT

(E < . 0 1 ) . The chronically unemployed group tended to

have more frustrated needs for wealth and status symbols,

which appeared to lead to a more aggressive approach to

life. The finding of aggressiveness in the chronically

unemployed group was not anticipated; it was anticipatecl

that they would demonstrate passivity similar to adolescents

with learning disabilities.

Finally, the chronically unemployed group received

a significantly higher total motivational conflict score

than did the regularly employed group (p.<.05). The

significance of this finding might be attributed to chance

as dic^cussed previously, but it cannot be categorically

attributed to chance. Thus, it would appear that

63

chronically unemployed individuals experience a high level

of frustration and inner conflict. Dynamically this inner

conflict possibly prevents them from entering permanently

into gainful employment.

Several suggestions were made relative to further

studies. The suggested studies include partial replication

of the present study including cultural background, geo­

graphical areas, I.Q., and sex. Further possible investi­

gations of present employment services would be accomplished

in order to establish a basis of comparison for new programs

Counseling and/or treatment programs should be established

to deal with the empirically founded inner conflict in the

chronically unemployed group. The counseling and/or

treatment programs could then be followed by post counseling

and/or treatment evaluation to determine if the programs

positively affected later employment stability.

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67

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fle

68

Wolfbein, S. L. Employment, unemployment and public policy. New York: Random House, 1965.

APPENDIX

A. Personal Information Questionnaire

B. McGuire-White Index of Social Status

C. McGuire-White Index of Social Status: General Conversion Table

D. Employment Research Waiver Form

E. McGuire-White Index of Social Status: Conversion Weights

69

70

APPENDIX A: PERSONAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE

EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH PROJECT;

RE: SUBJECT DATA.

NAME:

AGE:

DATE OF BIRTH:

SUBJECT'S USUAL OCCUPATION;

SUBJECT'S SOURCE OF INCOME:

SUBJECT'S EDUCATION;

FATHER'S OCCUPATION:

FATHER'S SOURCE OF INCOME;

FATHER'S EDUCATION:

DATE:

APPENDIX B: ^CGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS

TABLE B-1

McGuire-White: Occupation, Levels & Kinds

71

Rate Professionals Proprietors Businessmen White Collar

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Law^'ers, judge, physician, engineer, professor, school supt., et, al_.

High School teacher, librarians, others with 4-year degree.

Grade school teacher, registered r.urse, minister without 4-year deg.

Large business valued at $100,000 or more depending on community.

Businesses valued at $50,000 to $100,000.

Business or equity valued from $10,000 to $50,000.

Business or equity valued from $5,000 to $10,000.

Business or equity valued from $2,000 to $5,000.

Business or equity valued at less than $2,000.

Top executives; Presidents of corporations, banks, etc.

Asst. Office & deot. manager or supervisors.

Managers of small branches or buyers & salesmen of known mechdse.

CPA; editor of newspapor, maga­zine; executive secretary of status organ.

Accountant; insurance, real estate stock salesman; editorial writers.

Bsnk clerks, auto salesmen, postal clerks, RP. or Tel agent or suprvsr.

(Stenographers, bookkeeper; ticket agent, sales people m dept. stores, et al.)

(Dime store clerks, grocery cler.'.?, telephone & beauty operators, et al.)

(Semi-skilled factory & production workers, et al.)

•Reputed Lawbreakers"

72

TABLE D-1—Continued

Rate Blue Collar Service Farm People

2.

Gentleman Farmer or land owners who do not supervise directly their property.

Land operators v/ho supervise proparties & have an active urban life.

3.

5.

Small Contractors who work or super­vises his Jobs.

Foreman; master carpenter, elec­trician, et al .; RR engineer.

Apprentice to skilled trades r epa i rne n; '\ea. skilled v.'orkers.

(Semi-skilled factory and production workers; assistants to skilled trcde; warehDUse.T.c"; watchrrer.) .

(H avy labor; odd job men; mine or mil hands, unskilled workers.)

Police Capt., tailor, RR cond., watchmaker.

Policemen; barbers; practical nurse; brakcman.

Taxi ti truck drivers; waiter; waitress, gas station attendant.

Doaiestic help; busboy; scrubwoman; janitor.

Farm owners with "hired help" operators of leased property who supervise.

Small landowner; operators of rented property hiring "hands."

Tenants on good farms; foremen; .ovvTiers of farms v'lio "hire out."

Sharecroppers; established farm laborers; subs'ce farmers.

Migrant workers "squatters & nesters.

73

TABLE B-2

McGuire-White

Rate Source of Income

1. Inherited saving and investments; "old money" reputed to provide basic income.

2. Earned wealth; "new money" has provided "transferable' investment income.

3. Profits, fees, royalties, includes executives who receive a "share of the profit."

4. Salary, commissions, regular income aid on monthly or yearly basis.

5. Wages on hourly basis; piece work; weekly checks as distinguished from monthly.

6. Income from "odd jobs" or private relief; "share-cropping" or seasonal work.

7. Public relief or charity; non-respectable incomes (reputation).

74

TABLE B-3

McGuire-White

Rate Educational Attainment

1. Completed appropriate graduate work for a recognized profession, at highest level; graduate of a generally recognized, high status, four year college.

2. Graduate from a four year college, university, or professional school with a recognized bachelor's degree, including four-year teacher colleges.

3. Attended college or university for two or more years; junior college graduate; teacher education from normal school; R.N. from a nursing school.

4. Graduate from a high school or completed equivalent secondary education, includes various kinds of "post-high" business education or trade school study.

»

5. Attended high school, completed grade nine, but did not graduate from high school; for persons born prior to 1900, grades four to seven would be equivalent.

6. Completed grade eight but did not attend beyond grade nine; for persons born prior to 1900, grades four to seven would be equivalent.

7. Left elementary or junior high school before completing grade eight; for persons born prior to 1900, no education or attendance to grade three.

APPENDIX C:

75

MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS: GENERAL CONVERSION TABLE

McGuire-White General Conversion Table

For Status Indices

Index Score Relative Status Level Social Class prediction

12 13-17 10-22

A+ A A-

Upper Class

23-28-33-

38-42-47-

52-57-62-

67-72-76-

-27 -32 -37

-41 -46 -51

-56 -61 -66

-71 -75 -84

B+ B B-

C+ C C-

D+ D D-

E+ E E-

Upper-

Lower-

Upper-

Lower-

-xMiddle

-Middle

-Lower

-Lower

76

APPENDIX D: EMPLOYER RESEARCH WAIVER FORM

EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH WAIVER FORM:

I hereby agree to voluntarily and without external

coercion, participate in the employment research project

being conducted by Mr. Raymond J. Condren. It is under­

stood by me that all information obtained thru this

research will be confidential and privileged. It is

further understood that all information obtained will be

used and only used in an anonymous manner for purposes

of this research. The names of individuals participating

will be divulged to no one.

Signed

Date

77

APPENDIX E: MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS: CONVERSION WEIGHTS

McGuire-White: Conversion Weights

©...Occupation Rate 1 to 7 on OC Scale. .Weight- X 5

S...Source of Income..Rate 1 to 7 on SI Scale. .Weight- X 4

E.. .Education Rate 1 to 7 on ED Scale. .Weight- X 3