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Chess for BeginnersA complete explanation of chess

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Chess

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From left to right: a white king, a black rook, a black queen, a white pawn, a black knight, and a white bishopPlayers 2

Setup time About 1 minute

Playing time Casual games usually last 10 to 60 minutes; tournament games last anywhere from about ten minutes (blitz chess) to six hours orlonger.

Random chance None

Skills required Tactics, strategy

Chess is a two-player board game played on a chessboard, a square-checkered board with 64 squares arranged in aneight-by-eight grid. It is one of the world's most popular games, played by millions of people worldwide at home, inclubs, online, by correspondence, and in tournaments.Each player begins the game with sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, andeight pawns, each of these types of pieces moving differently. Pieces are used to attack and capture the opponent'spieces. The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent's king by placing it under threat of capture ("check")which cannot be avoided. In addition to checkmate, the game can be won by the voluntary resignation of one'sopponent, which may occur when too much material is lost, or if checkmate appears unavoidable. A game may resultin a draw in several ways, and neither player wins. The course of the game is divided in three phases. The beginningof the game is called the opening (with the development of pieces). The opening yields to the phase called themiddlegame. The last phase is the endgame, generally characterised by the disappearance of queens.The first official World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; the current World Champion isViswanathan Anand from India. In addition to the World Championship, there are the Women's WorldChampionship, the Junior World Championship, the World Senior Championship, the Correspondence Chess WorldChampionship, the World Computer Chess Championship, and Blitz and Rapid World Championships. The ChessOlympiad is a popular competition among teams from different nations. Online chess has opened amateur andprofessional competition to a wide and varied group of players. Chess is a recognized sport of the InternationalOlympic Committee[1] , and international chess competition is sanctioned by the FIDE (Fédération Internationale desÉchecs or World Chess Federation). There are also many chess variants that have different rules, different pieces,and different boards.Commencing in the second half of the 20th century computers have been programmed to play chess with increasingsuccess to the point where home computers can play chess at a very high level. In the past two decades computeranalysis has contributed significantly to chess theory as understood by human players, particularly in the endgame.The computer program Deep Blue was the first machine player to overcome a reigning World Chess Championwhen it defeated Garry Kasparov in 1997.

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RulesThe official rules of chess are maintained by the World Chess Federation. Along with information on official chesstournaments, the rules are described in the FIDE Handbook, Laws of Chess section.[2]

Setup

Pieces at the start of a game

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Initial position: first row: rook, knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop, knight, and rook; second row: pawnsChess is played on a square board of eight rows (called ranks and denoted with numbers 1 to 8) and eight columns(called files and denoted with letters a to h) of squares. The colors of the sixty-four squares alternate and are referredto as "light squares" and "dark squares". The chessboard is placed with a light square at the right-hand end of therank nearest to each player, and the pieces are set out as shown in the diagram, with each queen on its own color.The pieces are divided, by convention, into white and black sets. The players are referred to as "White" and "Black",and each begins the game with sixteen pieces of the specified color. These consist of one king, one queen, two rooks,two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns.

MovementWhite always moves first. After the initial move, the players alternately move one piece at a time (with the exceptionof castling, when two pieces are moved). Pieces are moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by anopponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole exception of en passant, all pieces captureopponent's pieces by moving to the square that the opponent's piece occupies. A player may not make any move thatwould put or leave his king under attack. If the player to move has no legal moves, the game is over; it is either acheckmate—if the king is under attack—or a stalemate—if the king is not.

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Each chess piece has its own style of moving. In the diagrams, the dots mark the squares where the piece can move ifno other pieces (including one's own piece) are on the squares between the piece's initial position and its destination.• The king moves one square in any direction. The king has also a special move which is called castling and

involves also moving a rook.• The rook can move any number of squares along any rank or file, but may not leap over other pieces. Along with

the king, the rook is involved during the king's castling move.• The bishop can move any number of squares diagonally, but may not leap over other pieces.• The queen combines the power of the rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along rank, file, or

diagonal, but it may not leap over other pieces.• The knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal, thus the move

forms an "L"-shape, two squares vertically and one square horizontally or two squares horizontally and onesquare vertically. The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces.

• The pawn may move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file; or on its firstmove it may advance two squares along the same file provided both squares are unoccupied; or it may move to asquare occupied by an opponent's piece which is diagonally in front of it on an adjacent file, capturing that piece.The pawn has two special moves: the en passant capture and pawn promotion.

Moves of a king

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Moves of a rook

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Moves of a bishop

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Moves of a queen

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Moves of a knight

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Moves of a pawn

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* Pawns can optionally move two squares forward instead of one on their first move only. They capture diagonally (black x's); they cannot capture

with their normal move (black circles). Pawns are also involved in the special move called en passant.

Castling

Examples of castling

Once in every game, each king is allowed to make a specialmove, known as castling. Castling consists of moving theking two squares along the first rank toward a rook (which ison the player's first rank[3] ) and then placing the rook on thelast square the king has just crossed. Castling is permissibleonly if all of the following conditions hold:[4]

• Neither of the pieces involved in castling may have beenpreviously moved during the game.

• There must be no pieces between the king and the rook.• The king may not currently be in check, nor may the king

pass through squares that are under attack by enemypieces, nor move to a square where it is in check.

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En passant

Examples of pawn moves: promotion (left) and en passant(right)

When a pawn advances two squares and there is anopponent's pawn on an adjacent file next to its destinationsquare, then the opponent's pawn can capture it en passant (inpassing), and move to the square the pawn passed over.However, this can only be done on the very next move, or theright to do so is lost. For example, if the black pawn has justadvanced two squares from g7 to g5, then the white pawn onf5 can take it via en passant on g6 (but only on white's nextmove).

Promotion

When a pawn advances to the eighth rank, as a part of themove it is promoted and must be exchanged for the player'schoice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color.Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted to a queen, but insome cases another piece is chosen; this is calledunderpromotion. In the diagram on the right, the pawn on c7 can be advanced to the eighth rank and be promoted toan allowed piece. There is no restriction placed on the piece that is chosen on promotion, so it is possible to havemore pieces of the same type than at the start of the game (for example, two queens).

Check

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The black king is being checked by the white rook.When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent's pieces, it is said to be in check. A response toa check is a legal move if it results in a position where the king is no longer under direct attack (that is, not in check).This can involve capturing the checking piece; interposing a piece between the checking piece and the king (which ispossible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and there is a square between it and the king); ormoving the king to a square where it is not under attack. Castling is not a permissible response to a check. The objectof the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal wayto remove it from attack. It is illegal for a player to make a move that would put or leave his own king in check.

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End of the gameAlthough the objective of the game is to checkmate the opponent, chess games do not have to end in checkmate —either player may resign which is a win for the other player. It is considered bad etiquette to continue playing whenin a truly hopeless position.[5] If it is a game with time control, a player may run out of time and lose, even with amuch superior position. Games also may end in a draw (tie). A draw can occur in several situations, including drawby agreement, stalemate, threefold repetition of a position, the fifty-move rule, or a draw by impossibility ofcheckmate (usually because of insufficient material to checkmate). As checkmate from some positions cannot beforced in fewer than 50 moves (such as in the pawnless chess endgame and two knights endgame), the fifty-moverule is not applied everywhere,[6] particularly in correspondence chess.

White is in checkmate

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White is in checkmate. He cannot escape from being attacked by the Black king and bishops.Stalemate

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Stalemate if Black is to move. The position is not checkmate, and since Black cannot move, the game is a draw.

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Time control

A modern digital chess clock

Besides casual games without any time restriction, chess is also playedwith a time control, mostly by club and professional players. If aplayer's time runs out before the game is completed, the game isautomatically lost (provided his opponent has enough pieces left todeliver checkmate). The duration of a game ranges from long gamesplayed up to seven hours to shorter rapid chess games, usually lasting30 minutes or one hour per game. Even shorter is blitz chess, with atime control of three to fifteen minutes for each player, and bullet chess(under three minutes). In tournament play, time is controlled using agame clock that has two displays, one for each player's remaining time.

Notation for recording moves

Naming the squares in algebraic chess notation

Chess games and positions are recorded using a special notation, mostoften algebraic chess notation.[7] Abbreviated (or short) algebraicnotation generally records moves in the format "abbreviation of thepiece moved – file where it moved – rank where it moved." Forexample, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file and 5th rank (that is,to the square g5). If there are two pieces of the same type that canmove to the same square, one more letter or number is added toindicate the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g. Ngf3 means"knight from the g-file moves to the square f3". The letter P indicatinga pawn is not used, so that e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4".

If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before the destinationsquare. Thus Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makesa capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a

piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece ond5) or exd (pawn on e-file captures something on the d-file).

If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, the piece chosen is indicated after the move, for example e1Qor e1=Q. Castling is indicated by the special notations 0–0 for kingside castling and 0–0–0 for queenside castling. Amove that places the opponent's king in check usually has the notation "+" added. Checkmate can be indicated by "#"(occasionally "++", although this is sometimes used for a double check instead). At the end of the game, "1–0"means "White won," "0–1" means "Black won," and "½–½" indicates a draw.[8]

Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks and other symbols. For example "!" indicates a good move,"!!" an excellent move, "?" a mistake, "??" a blunder, "!?" an interesting move that may not be best, or "?!" adubious move, but not easily refuted.[9]

For example, one variant of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate, animated in the picture to the right, can berecorded:1. e4 e52. Qh5?! Nc63. Bc4 Nf6??4. Qxf7# 1–0

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Strategy and tacticsChess strategy consists of setting and achieving long-term goals during the game – for example, where to placedifferent pieces – while tactics concentrate on immediate maneuver. These two parts of the chess-playing processcannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved by the means of tactics, while thetactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play. A game of chess is normally divided into threephases: opening, typically the first 10 moves, when players move their pieces to useful positions for the comingbattle; then middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more activepart in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive.

Fundamentals of tacticsMikhail Botvinnik vs. Mikhail Yudovich[10]

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After sacrificing a piece to expose Black's king, Botvinnik played 1. Bh5+ and Yudovich resigned, as mate isinevitable: 1...Kxh5 2.Ng3+ Kh4 3.Qe4+ Rf4 4.Qxf4#, 1...Kf5 2.g4#, or 1...Kh7 2.Nf6+ double check Kh8 3.Qh7#.

In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advanceby a human player or by a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In quietpositions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in"tactical" positions with a limited number of forced variations where much less than the best move would losequickly, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves.Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of material, and double attacks – can becombined into more complicated combinations, sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the pointof view of one or both players.[11] Theoreticians described many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers;for example, pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs,deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences.[12]

A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination.[11] Brilliantcombinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. Acommon type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' skills, is showing players a position where a decisivecombination is available and challenging them to find it.[13]

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Fundamentals of strategyChess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for thefuture play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieceson the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squaresor groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares).

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After 12...Re8 in Tarrasch–Euwe[14] ...An example of visualizing pawn structures

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...and its pawn skeleton (the "Rauzer formation")The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides.[15] The point valuesused for this purpose are based on experience; usually pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishopsabout three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight beingknown as the exchange), and queens about nine points. The king is more valuable than all of the other piecescombined, since its checkmate loses the game. But in practical terms, in the endgame the king as a fighting piece isgenerally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook.[16] These basic values are thenmodified by other factors like position of the piece (for example, advanced pawns are usually more valuable thanthose on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (for example, a pair of bishops usually coordinate betterthan a bishop and a knight), or the type of position (knights are generally better in closed positions with many pawnswhile bishops are more powerful in open positions).[17]

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Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is the pawn structure (sometimes known as the pawnskeleton), or the configuration of pawns on the chessboard.[18] Since pawns are the least mobile of the chess pieces,the pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in thepawn structure, such as isolated, doubled, or backward pawns and holes, once created, are often permanent. Caremust therefore be taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (forexample, by the possibility of developing an attack).[19]

OpeningA chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of openingmoves are referred to as openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defence. They arecatalogued in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are dozens of different openings,varying widely in character from quiet positional play (for example, the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (theLatvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out tomore than 30 moves.[20] Professional players spend years studying openings and continue doing so throughout theircareers, as opening theory continues to evolve.The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar:[21]

• Development: This is the technique of placing the pieces (particularly bishops and knights) on useful squareswhere they will have an optimal impact on the game.

• Control of the center: Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relativelyeasily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent.

• King safety: It is critical to keep the king safe from dangerous possibilities. A correctly timed castling can oftenenhance this.

• Pawn structure: Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled, or backwardpawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position.

Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with a smalladvantage. This initially gives White the initiative.[22] Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage andachieve equality, or to develop dynamic counterplay in an unbalanced position.

MiddlegameThe middlegame is the part of the game which starts after the opening. There is no clear line between the openingand the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed. (Similarly,there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of the endgame.) Because the openingtheory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take intoaccount the tactical possibilities of the position.[23] The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur.Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are oftenconnected with an attack against the opponent's king; some typical patterns have their own names; for example, theBoden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer combination.[24]

Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings which result in a specific typeof pawn structure. An example is the minority attack, which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponentwho has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans thatare typical of the resulting middlegames.[25]

Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame (i.e. simplify). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because

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an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimeseven with a two-pawn advantage.[26]

Endgame

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An example of zugzwang: the side which is to make a move is at a disadvantage.The endgame (or end game or ending) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There arethree main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and endgame:[27]

• During the endgame, pawns become more important; endgames often revolve around attempting to promote apawn by advancing it to the eighth rank.

• The king, which has to be protected in the middlegame owing to the threat of checkmate, becomes a strong piecein the endgame. It is often brought to the center of the board where it can protect its own pawns, attack the pawnsof opposite color, and hinder movement of the opponent's king.

• Zugzwang, a disadvantage because the player has to make a move, is often a factor in endgames but rarely inother stages of the game. For example, the diagram on the right is zugzwang for both sides, as with Black to movehe must play 1...Kb7 and let White promote a pawn after 2.Kd7; and with White to move he must allow a draw by1.Kc6 stalemate or lose his last pawn by any other legal move.

Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces that remain on board. Basic checkmates are positions inwhich one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, withthe pieces working together with their king. For example, king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns onone or both sides and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endingsare classified according to the pieces on board other than kings, such as the "rook and pawn versus rook endgame".

History

Predecessors

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Ashtāpada, the uncheckered 8x8 board, sometimes with special marks, on which Chaturanga was played.

Iranian chess set, glazed fritware, 12th century,New York Metropolitan Museum of Art

Chess is commonly believed to have originated in northwest Indiaduring the Gupta empire,[28] [29] [30] [31] where its early form in the 6thcentury was known as caturaṅga (Sanskrit: four divisions [of themilitary] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry, represented bythe pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, androok, respectively). The earliest evidence of chess is found in theneighboring Sassanid Persia around 600, where the game came to beknown under the name chatrang. Chatrang is evoked inside three epicromances written in Pahlavi (Middle Persian). Chatrang was taken upby the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–644),where it was then named shatranj, with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish "shatranj" wasrendered as ajedrez ("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as xadrez, and in Greek as zatrikion (which comes directly fromthe Persian chatrang), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"), which wasfamiliar as an exclamation and became the English words "check" and "chess".[32] Murray theorized that Muslimtraders came to European seaports with ornamental chess kings as curios before they brought the game of chess.[30]

The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By theyear 1000 it had spread throughout Europe.[33] Introduced into the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors in the 10thcentury, it was described in a famous 13th-century manuscript covering shatranj, backgammon, and dice named theLibro de los juegos. Another theory contends that chess arose from the game xiangqi (Chinese Chess) or one of itspredecessors,[34] although this has been contested.[35]

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Origins of the modern game (1000–1850)

Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de losjuegos, 1283

A tactical puzzle from Lucena's 1497 book

Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in southernEurope, and around 1475, several major changes made the gameessentially as it is known today.[33] These modern rules for the basicmoves had been adopted in Italy and Spain.[36] [37] Pawns gained theoption of advancing two squares on their first move, while bishops andqueens acquired their modern abilities. The queen replaced the earliervizier chess piece towards the end of the 10th century and by the 15thcentury had become the most powerful piece;[38] consequently modernchess was referred to as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess".[39]

These new rules quickly spread throughout western Europe. The rulesabout stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. To distinguishit from its predecessors, this version of the rules is sometimes referredto as western chess[40] or international chess.[41]

Writings about the theory of how to play chess began to appear in the15th century. The Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetitionof Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish churchman LuisRamirez de Lucena was published in Salamanca in 1497.[37] Lucenaand later masters like Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians GiovanniLeonardo Di Bona, Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco, andSpanish bishop Ruy López de Segura developed elements of openingsand started to analyze simple endgames.

François-André Danican Philidor, 18th-centuryFrench chess master

In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved from theSouthern European countries to France. The two most importantFrench masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician byprofession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy,and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a famousseries of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnell in1834.[42] Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses inbig European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson'sDivan in London.[43] [44]

As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly.Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared. Therewere correspondence matches between cities; for example, the LondonChess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824.[45]

Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers;

Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual

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of chess theory.

Birth of a sport (1850–1945)The first modern chess tournament was held in London in 1851 and was won by German Adolf Anderssen, relativelyunknown at the time. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master and his brilliant, energetic attacking stylebecame typical for the time, although it was later regarded as strategically shallow.[46] [47] Sparkling games likeAnderssen's Immortal game and Evergreen game or Morphy's Opera game were regarded as the highest possiblesummit of the chess art.[48]

Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. American Paul Morphy, an extraordinarychess prodigy, won against all important competitors (except Howard Staunton, who refused to play), includingAnderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination ofbrilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.[49] Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitzlater described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in theopponent's position.[50] The scientific approach and positional understanding of Steinitz revolutionized the game.Steinitz was the first to break a position down into its components.[51] Before Steinitz, players brought their queenout early, did not completely develop their other pieces, and mounted a quick attack on the opposing king, whicheither succeeded or failed. The level of defense was poor and players did not form any deep plan.[52] In addition tohis theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German masterJohannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in1894 to a much younger player, the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years,the longest tenure of all World Champions.[53]

Chess Players in late 19th Century Istanbul, byStanisław Chlebowski.

It took a prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca (World Champion1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end theGerman-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated intournament play for eight years, until 1924. His successor wasRussian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player whodied as the World champion in 1946. He briefly lost the title to Dutchplayer Max Euwe in 1935 and regained it two years later.[54]

Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the newtheoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitschand Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the center of the boardwith distant pieces rather than with pawns, which invited opponents tooccupy the center with pawns, which become objects of attack.[55]

After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournamentsand matches held annually quickly grew. Some sources state that in1914 the title of chess grandmaster was first formally conferred byTsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch,and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim.[56] The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World ChessFederation (FIDE), founded in 1924 in Paris. In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championship was established; thefirst to hold the title was Czech-English master Vera Menchik.[57]

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Post-war era (1945 and later)

Wehrmacht soldiers playing chess, France, 1943

After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought.FIDE, who have controlled the title since then (except for oneinterruption), ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948tournament, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, started an era of Sovietdominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, therewas only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer(champion 1972–1975).[58] Botvinnik revolutionized opening theory.Previously Black strove for equality, to neutralize White's first-moveadvantage. As Black, Botvinnik strove for the initiative from thebeginning.[59] In the previous informal system of WorldChampionships, the current champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger wasforced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world'sstrongest players were seeded into Interzonal tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualifiedfrom Zonal tournaments. The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which wasinitially a tournament, and later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play thereigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. Thissystem operated on a three-year cycle. Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteenyears. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954.In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the23-year-old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regainedthe title in a rematch in 1961.

Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the nextchampion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a genius of defense and a strong positional player, held the title for twocycles, 1963–1969. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (champion 1969–1972), was able to win in bothpositional and sharp tactical style.[60] The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the firstnon-Soviet challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents byunheard-of margins and clearly won the world championship match. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend histitle against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when FIDE did not meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title bydefault.[61] Fischer modernized many aspects of chess, especially by extensively preparing openings.[62]

Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string oftournament successes.[63] Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of Garry Kasparov, another Soviet playerfrom Baku, Azerbaijan. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpovnever won his title back.[64] In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke with FIDE to organize their own matchfor the title and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were twosimultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending theSteinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games, and the otherfollowing FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov losthis Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.[65] The World Chess Championship 2006 reunified thetitles. Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov and became the undisputed World ChessChampion.[66] In September 2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India, who won the championshiptournament in Mexico City. Anand defended his title in the revenge match of 2008.[67]

Chess 17

Place in culture

Noble chess players, Germany, c.1320

Pre-modern

In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of nobleculture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game".[68]

Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes", says the overview atthe beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528,English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's mainpassion. Castiglione explains it further:

And what say you to the game at chestes?It is truely an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth SyrFriderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be tocouning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, Ibeleave he must beestowe much tyme about it, and applie it with so muchstudy, that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase anyother matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all thatlaboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely,that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency.[69]

Two kings and two queens from the Lewischessmen at the British Museum

Many of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy have been lost,but others partially survive, such as the Lewis chessmen.

Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. An example isLiber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludoscacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles orthe Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican monk Jacobus deCessolis c. 1300. This book was one of the most popular of the MiddleAges.[70] The work was translated into many other languages (the firstprinted edition was published at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis forWilliam Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the

first books printed in English.[71] Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, andhuman duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces:[72]

The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heedand a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Claddwyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his heelis on hishandes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyfand newe maners/ also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hemgrace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth aboute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispensesand dignyte.[73]

Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of Middle Ages. Anexample is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with the names of chess pieces,Roch, pedites, regina...[74]

Chess 18

ModernDuring the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in hisarticle "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote:

"The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful inthe course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on alloccasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries tocontend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect ofprudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we may learn:I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action [...]II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: – the relation of the severalPieces, and their situations [...]III. Caution, not to make our moves too hastily [...]"[75]

Through the Looking-Glass: the Red King issnoring. Illustration by John Tenniel

With these or similar hopes, chess is taught to children in schoolsaround the world today. Many schools host chess clubs, and there aremany scholastic tournaments specifically for children. Tournamentsare held regularly in many countries, hosted by organizations such asthe United States Chess Federation and the National Scholastic ChessFoundation.[76]

A large-sized chess game is made available on a seasonal basis insidethe Enoch Pratt Free Library in Baltimore, Maryland.

Chess is often depicted in the arts; significant workswhere chess plays a key role range from ThomasMiddleton's A Game at Chess to Through theLooking-Glass by Lewis Carroll to The Royal Game byStefan Zweig and Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense.The thriller film Knight Moves is about a chessgrandmaster who is accused of being a serial killer.Chess is featured in films like Ingmar Bergman's TheSeventh Seal and Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players.

In the video game Killer 7, the protagonist and theantagonist frequently play chess together; in thesurvival horror game Deadly Premonition, chess is thetheme of a puzzle.

Chess is also present in the contemporary popular culture. For example, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter plays "Wizard'sChess", while the characters of Star Trek prefer "Tri-Dimensional Chess". The hero of Searching for Bobby Fischerstruggles against adopting the aggressive and misanthropic views of a real chess grandmaster.[77] Chess has beenused as the core theme of a musical, Chess, by Tim Rice, Björn Ulvaeus, and Benny Andersson.

Approximately 600 million people worldwide know how to play chess.[78]

Chess 19

Chess compositionChess composition is the art of creating chess problems (the problems themselves are sometimes also called chesscompositions). A person who creates such problems is known as a chess composer.[79] There are many types ofchess problems. The two most important are:• Directmates: white to move first and checkmate black within a specified number of moves against any defense.

These are often referred to as "mate in n" – for example "mate in three" (a three-mover).[80]

• Studies: orthodox problems in which the stipulation is that white to play must win or draw. Almost all studies areendgame positions.[81]

Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments (or tourneys) exist for both the compositionand solving of chess problems.[82]

ExampleRichard Réti

Ostrauer Morgenzeitung 4 December 1921

a b c d e f g h

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

a b c d e f g h

White to play and draw

This is one of the most famous chess studies; it was published by Richard Réti in 1921. It seems impossible to catchthe advanced black pawn, while the black king can easily stop the white pawn. The solution is a diagonal advance,which brings the king to both pawns at the same time: 1.Kg7! h4 2.Kf6! Kb6 (or 2...h3 3.Ke7 and the white king cansupport its pawn) 3. Ke5!! (now the white king comes just in time to support his pawn, or catch the black one) 3...h34. Kd6 draw.[83]

Competitive play

Organization of competitionsContemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, andcongresses. Chess's international governing body is FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs). Most countrieshave a national chess organization as well (such as the US Chess Federation and English Chess Federation) which inturn is a member of FIDE. FIDE is a member of the International Olympic Committee,[84] but the game of chess hasnever been part of the Olympic Games; chess does have its own Olympiad, held every two years as a team event.

Chess 20

The current World Chess Champion ViswanathanAnand (left) playing chess against his predecessor

Vladimir Kramnik

The current World Chess Champion is Viswanathan Anand ofIndia.[85] The reigning Women's World Champion is Hou Yifan fromChina. The world's highest rated female player, Judit Polgár, has neverparticipated in the Women's World Chess Championship, insteadpreferring to compete with the leading men and maintaining a rankingamong the top male players.[86]

Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior ChessChampionship, the European Individual Chess Championship, and theNational Chess Championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularlyattract the world's strongest players. Examples include Spain's Linaresevent, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the DortmundSparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament.

Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Championship. The 38th ChessOlympiad was held 2008 in Dresden, Germany; Armenia won the gold in the unrestricted event for the second timein a row after Turin 2006, and Georgia took the top medal for the women. The World Chess Solving Championshipand World Correspondence Chess Championships include both team and individual events.

Besides these prestigious competitions, there are thousands of other chess tournaments, matches, and festivals heldaround the world every year catering to players of all levels. Chess is promoted as a "mind sport" by the Mind SportsOrganisation, alongside other mental-skill games such as Contract Bridge, Go, and Scrabble.

Titles and rankings

Grandmaster Garry Kasparov, former WorldChess Champion

The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the worldchess organization FIDE:[87]

• Grandmaster (shortened as GM; sometimes InternationalGrandmaster or IGM is used) is awarded to world-class chessmasters. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highesttitle a chess player can attain. Before FIDE will confer the title on aplayer, the player must have an Elo chess rating (see below) of atleast 2500 at one time and three favorable results (called norms) intournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some fromcountries other than the applicant's. There are other milestones aplayer can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the WorldJunior Championship.

• International Master (shortened as IM). The conditions are similarto GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is2400.

• FIDE Master (shortened as FM). The usual way for a player toqualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of2300 or more.

• Candidate Master (shortened as CM). Similar to FM, but with aFIDE rating of at least 2200.

All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM), areavailable. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title, and most ofthe top ten women in 2006 hold the unrestricted GM title.[88]

Chess 21

As of August 2011, there are 1363 active grandmasters and 3153 international masters in the world. Top threecountries with the largest numbers of grandmasters are Russia, Ukraine, and Germany, with 208, 78, and 76. Thecountry with most grandmasters per capita is Iceland, with 11 GMs and 13 IMs among the population of 310,000.[89]

International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (bythe International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess organizations may also award titles, usually tothe advanced players still under the level needed for international titles; an example is the Chess expert title used inthe United States.In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by ArpadElo. Elo is a statistical system based on the assumption that the chess performance of each player in their games is arandom variable. Arpad Elo thought of a player's true skill as the average of that player's performance randomvariable, and showed how to estimate the average from results of player's games. The US Chess Federationimplemented Elo's suggestions in 1960, and the system quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and moreaccurate than older systems; it was adopted by FIDE in 1970.[90] The highest ever FIDE rating was 2851, whichGarry Kasparov had on the July 1999 and January 2000 lists.[91]

PublicationsChess is covered extensively in books and journals. Thousands of books about chess have been written, and dozensof periodicals cover chess.

Mathematics and computers

Mathematicians Euler, Legendre, de Moivre, andVandermonde studied the knight's tour.

The game structure and nature of chess is related to several branches ofmathematics. Many combinatorical and topological problemsconnected to chess were known of for hundreds of years. In 1913,Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies,which is considered as one of the predecessors of game theory.[92]

The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be between 1043

and 1047 (a provable upper bound[93] ), with a game-tree complexity ofapproximately 10123. The game-tree complexity of chess was firstcalculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a number known as theShannon number.[94] Typically an average position has thirty to fortypossible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case ofcheckmate or stalemate) or as many as 218.[95]

The most important mathematical challenge of chess is thedevelopment of algorithms that can play chess. The idea of creating achess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing automaton called The Turk becamefamous before being exposed as a hoax.[96] Serious trials based on automatons, such as El Ajedrecista, were toocomplex and limited to be useful.

Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts and computer engineers have built, withincreasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreakingpaper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess," was published in 1950 by Shannon.[97] Hewrote:

The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for

Chess 22

skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanizedthinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well intothe digital nature of modern computers.[98]

1990s chess-playing computer

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first majorchess tournament for computers, the North American Computer ChessChampionship, in September 1970. CHESS 3.0, a chess program fromNorthwestern University, won the championship. Nowadays, chessprograms compete in the World Computer Chess Championship, heldannually since 1974. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chessplaying programs, for example Rybka, have become extremely strong.In 1997, a computer won a chess match against a reigning WorldChampion for the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov3½–2½ (it scored two wins, one loss, and three draws).[99] [100] In2009, a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance

rating 2898: chess engine Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosurtournament with nine wins and one draw.[101] The best chess programs are now able to beat the strongest humanplayers.

With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to learn chess and preparefor matches. Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents all over the world. The presence ofcomputers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regarding cheating during games, most notably the"bathroom controversy" during the 2006 World Championship.[102]

PsychologyThere is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.[103] [104] [105] [106] [107] [108] Alfred Binet and othersshowed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise.[109] [110] In hisdoctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position.[111]

According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than thesheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a fewseconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters andnovices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about half a dozen positionsin each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished theskilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters hadalmost total positional recall.[112]

More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-aheadsearch; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligencein chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in thedevelopment of chess and other domains of expertise has led to a lot of research recently. Ericsson and colleagueshave argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess.[113] Recent researchindicates that factors other than practice are also important. For example, Gobet and colleagues have shown thatstronger players start playing chess earlier, that they are more likely to be left-handed, and that they are more likelyto be born in late winter and early spring.[114]

Chess 23

Chess and intelligenceAlthough the link between performance in chess and general intelligence is often assumed, researchers have largelyfailed to confirm its existence.[115] For example, a 2006 study found no differences in fluid intelligence, as measuredby Raven's Progressive Matrices, between strong adult chess players and regular people.[116] There is some evidencetowards a correlation between performance in chess and intelligence among beginning players. However,performance in chess also relies substantially on one's amount of experience playing the game, and the role ofexperience may overwhelm the role of intelligence. Chess experts are estimated to have in excess of 10,000 andpossibly as many as 300,000 position patterns stored in their memory; prolonged training is necessary to acquire thatamount of data.[117]

A 2007 study of young chess players in the United Kingdom found that strong players tended to have above-averageIQ scores, but, within that group, the correlation between chess skill and IQ was actually moderately negative,meaning that smarter children tended to achieve a lower level of chess skill.[117]

Variants

Glinski's hexagonal chess was popular in the1930s.

Chess variants are forms of chess where the game is played with adifferent board, special fairy pieces, or different rules. There are morethan two thousand published chess variants, the most popular beingxiangqi in China and shogi in Japan.[118] [119] Chess variants include:

• Direct predecessors of chess (chaturanga and shatranj)• Traditional national or regional chess variants like xiangqi, shogi,

janggi, and makruk, which share common predecessors withWestern chess

• Modern variants of chess, such as Chess960, where the initialposition is one selected randomly from a possible 960 startingpositions. This random positioning makes it more difficult toprepare the opening play in advance.[120]

Notes

Footnotes[1] http:/ / www. olympic. org/ content/ the-ioc/ recognised-sport-federations/ federation25/[2] "Laws of Chess" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ handbook/ ?id=124& view=article). FIDE. . Retrieved 2010-08-03.[3] Without this additional restriction, which was added to the FIDE rules in 1972, it would be possible to promote a pawn on the e file to a rook

and then castle vertically across the board (as long as the other conditions are met). This way of castling was "discovered" by Max Pam andused by Tim Krabbé in a chess puzzle before the rules were amended to disallow it. See Chess Curiosities by Krabbé. See alsode:Pam-Krabbé-Rochade for the diagrams online.

[4] Bodlaender, Hans. "The rules of chess" (http:/ / www. chessvariants. org/ d. chess/ chess. html). Chess Variants. . Retrieved 2008-01-07.[5] Burgess (2000), p. 481[6] The 50 moves rule is not applied at FICGS. "50 moves rules" (http:/ / www. ficgs. com/ membership. html#chess). FICGS. . Retrieved

2009-12-01.[7] See paragraph "E. Algebraic notation" in "E.I.01B. Appendices" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ handbook/ ?id=125& view=article).

FIDE. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[8] "FIDE Laws of Chess" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ fide/ handbook. html?id=125& view=article). FIDE. . Retrieved 2010-09-04.[9] Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 92[10] "Botvinnik vs. Yudovich, USSR Championship 1933" (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ perl/ chessgame?gid=1031833). 1933. .[11] Harding (2003), p. 70ff[12] Harding (2003), p. 8ff[13] Burgess, Nunn, & Emms (2004), pp. 14–15

Chess 24

[14] "Siegbert Tarrasch vs Max Euwe, Bad Pistyan it, CZE 1922" (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ perl/ chessgame?gid=1006866). ChessGames.. (Java needed)

[15] Harding (2003), pp. 1–7[16] Lasker (1934), p. 73[17] Watson (1998), p. 163ff[18] Harding (2003), pp. 138ff[19] Evans (1958), pp. 22–67[20] Tamburro (2010), p. 18[21] Tarrasch (1987)[22] Evans (1958), p. 175[23] Harding (2003), p. 32–151[24] Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 86[25] Silman (1998), pp. 202–5[26] Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 373[27] Harding (2003), p. 187ff[28] Leibs (2004), p. 92[29] Robinson & Estes (1996), p. 34[30] Murray (1913)[31] Bird (1893), p. 63[32] At that time Spanish word would have been written axedrez. The Spanish 'x' was pronounced as English "sh", as the Portuguese 'x' still is

today. The spelling of ajedrez changed after Spanish lost the "sh" sound.[33] Hooper & Whyld (1992), pp. 173–75[34] Li (1998)[35] Banaschak, Peter. "A story well told is not necessarily true : a critical assessment of David H. Li's The Genealogy of Chess " (http:/ / www.

banaschak. net/ schach/ ligenealogyofchess. htm). .[36] Davidson (1949), p. 13–17[37] Calvo, Ricardo. "Valencia Spain: The Cradle of European Chess" (http:/ / www. goddesschess. com/ chessays/ ricardovalencia. html).

GoddessChess. . Retrieved 2008-11-28.[38] Yalom (2004)[39] Weissberger (2004), pp. 152ff[40] Dr René Gralla. "XiangQi – an alternate to Western Chess" (http:/ / www. chessbase. com/ newsdetail. asp?newsid=3492). ChessBase.com.

.[41] René Gralla. "Kramnik plays Makruk Thai" (http:/ / www. chessvariants. org/ oriental. dir/ thaikramnik. html). The Chess Variant Pages. .

Retrieved 2010-12-12.[42] "Louis Charles Mahe De La Bourdonnais" (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ perl/ chessplayer?pid=31596). ChessGames. . Retrieved

2008-11-26.[43] Metzner (1998)[44] Bird, Henry Edward. "Chess History and Reminiscences" (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 4902). Gutenberg. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[45] "London Chess Club" (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ perl/ chessplayer?pid=80740). ChessGames. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[46] Parr, Larry. "London, 1851" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 2006/ worldchessnetwork. com/ English/ chessHistory/ salute/

matchesTournaments/ london1851. php). World Chess Network. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[47] Hartston (1985), p.36[48] Burgess, Nunn, & Emms (2004) p. 14[49] Shibut (2004)[50] Steinitz (2002)[51] Kasparov (2003a), p. 6[52] Kasparov (2003a), p. 11[53] Kasparov (1983a), p. 117[54] Kasparov (1983b), p. 9[55] Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 178[56] This is stated in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p.223) by Anne Sunnucks, but is disputed by Edward Winter (chess historian) in his

Chess Notes 5144 and 5152 (http:/ / www. chesshistory. com/ winter/ winter38. html).[57] "Vera Menchik" (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ perl/ chessplayer?pid=13277). ChessGames. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[58] Kasparov (2003b), pp. 7–8[59] Kasparov (2003b), p. 7[60] Kasparov (2004a), pp, 5–6; Kasparov (2003b), p, 8[61] Kasparov (2004b), pp. 5–6[62] Kasparov (2003a), p. 8[63] Kasparov (2004b), pp. 5–6; Kasparov (2006), pp. 5–6

Chess 25

[64] Keene (1993), p. 16[65] "Kramnik beats Kasparov, 2000" (http:/ / archives. cnn. com/ 2000/ WORLD/ europe/ 11/ 02/ chess. kramnik/ index. html). CNN.

2000-11-02. . Retrieved 2010-09-04.[66] "Vladimir Kramnik" (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ perl/ chessplayer?pid=12295). ChessGames. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[67] "Viswanathan Anand regains world chess title" (http:/ / in. reuters. com/ article/ sportsNews/ idINIndia-29785520070930). Reuters.

2007-09-30. . Retrieved 2007-12-13.[68] Vale (2001), pp. 170–99[69] Count Bladessar Castilio; Translated by Sir Thomas Hoby as edited by Walter Raleigh. Online at University of Oregon. Retrieved by

Internet Archive, 2008-05-19 (1561). The Second Book of the Courtier (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080519185956/ http:/ / darkwing.uoregon. edu/ ~rbear/ courtier/ courtier2. html). London, 1900: David Nutt. . Retrieved 2010-05-07.

[70] Olmert (1996), p. 127[71] The Introduction of Printing into England and the Early Work of the Press: The First Book printed in English (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/

212/ 1303. html), from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Vol II. (1907) Online at bartleby.com. Retrieved 12December 2006.

[72] Adams (2006)[73] Caxton, William. "The Game and Playe of the Chesse" (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 10672). Project Gutenberg. . Retrieved

2010-05-20.[74] "Carmina potoria" (http:/ / www. fh-augsburg. de/ ~harsch/ Chronologia/ Lspost13/ CarminaBurana/ bur_cpo2. html). Bibliotheca

Augustana. . Retrieved 2008-11-26.[75] Franklin (1779)[76] "National Scholastic Chess Foundation" (http:/ / www. nscfchess. org/ nscfmiss. html). . Retrieved 2009-12-30.[77] O'Neill, Eamonn. "The Brain Issue" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080626190949/ http:/ / www. eamonnoneill. net/ articles/ Josh+

Waitzkins. PDF) (PDF). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. eamonnoneill. net/ articles/ Josh Waitzkins. PDF) on 2008-06-26. .Retrieved 2008-11-26.

[78] "World Chess 2007" (http:/ / www. turowski. com/ chess/ world2007. html). . Retrieved 2010-08-03.[79] Howard (1961)[80] Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 110[81] Hooper & Whyld (1992), pp. 400–401[82] Weenink (1926)[83] de la Villa (2008), pp.179–80[84] "World Chess Federation" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080822115514/ www. olympic. org/ uk/ organisation/ if/ fi_uk.

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[89] "Federations Ranking" (http:/ / ratings. fide. com/ topfed. phtml?tops=0& ina=1& country=). .[90] For the official process see "02. FIDE Rating Regulations (Qualification Commission)" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ handbook/

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[93] John Tromp (2010). "John's Chess Playground" (http:/ / www. cwi. nl/ ~tromp/ chess/ chess. html). .[94] Chess. (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ Chess. html) Mathworld.Wolfram.com. Retrieved 2006-12-05.[95] "The biggest Number of simultaneous possible legal Moves" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070613072827/ http:/ / www. chessbox. de/

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[96] Levitt (2000)[97] Alan Turing made an attempt in 1953.Alan Turing. "Digital computers applied to games" (http:/ / www. turingarchive. org/ browse. php/ B/

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Chess 26

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Citations

References• Adams, Jenny (2006). Power Play: The Literature and Politics of Chess in the Late Middle Ages. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3944-X. OCLC 238812746.• Binet, A. (1894) (in French). Psychologie des grands calculateurs et joueurs d'échecs. Paris: Hachette.

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Chess 27

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Chess 28

• Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History. NewYork: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80164-7.

• Pritchard, David (1994). The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants. Godalming: Games & Puzzles Publications.ISBN 0-9524142-0-1. OCLC 60113912.

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• Robbins, T.W. (1996). "Working Memory in Chess" (http:/ / www. dur. ac. uk/ c. p. fernyhough/Robbinsetal1996. pdf) (PDF). Memory & Cognition: 83–93.

• Saariluoma, Pertti (1995). Chess Players' Thinking: A Cognitive Psychological Approach. New York: Routledge.ISBN 978-0-415-12079-1.

• Silman, Jeremy (1998). The Complete Book of Chess Strategy. Los Angeles: Silman-James Press.ISBN 978-1-890085-01-8.

• Shibut, Macon (2004). Paul Morphy and the Evolution of Chess Theory. New York: Courier Dover Publications.ISBN 0-486-43574-1. OCLC 55639730.

• Steinitz, William; Landsberger, Kurt (2002). The Steinitz Papers: Letters and Documents of the First WorldChess Champion. Jeferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-1193-7. OCLC 48550929.

• Tamburro, Pete (September 2010). "Challenging the Ruy Lopez". Chess Life: 18–21.• Tarrasch, Siegbert (1987). The Game of Chess. New York: Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-25447-X.

OCLC 15631832.• Vale, Malcolm (2001). The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe, 1270–1380.

Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926993-9. OCLC 47049906.• Verwer, Renzo (2010). Bobby Fischer for Beginners. Alkmaar: New in Chess. ISBN 978-90-5691-315-1.• Watson, John (1998). Secrets of Modern Chess Strategy. London: Gambit Publications.

ISBN 978-1-901983-07-4.• Weenink, H.G.M. (1926). Hume, G., and White, A.C.. ed. The Chess Problem. Stroud: Office of The Chess

Amateur. OCLC 3617028.• Weissberger, Barbara F. (2004). Isabel Rules: Qonstructing Queenship, Wielding Power. Minneapolis: University

of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4164-1. OCLC 217447754.• Wilkinson, Charles K. (May 1943). "Chessmen and Chess". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin New

Series, Vol. 1, No. 9 (9): 271–279. doi:10.2307/3257111. JSTOR 3257111.• Yalom, Marilyn (2004). Birth of the Chess Queen (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 05/ 23/ books/ review/

23SCHILLI. html?pagewanted=print). New York: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-009064-2.

Further reading• Fine, Reuben (1983). The World's Great Chess Games. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24512-8.

OCLC 9394460• Mason, James (1947). The Art of Chess. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20463-4. OCLC 45271009 (see the

included supplement, "How Do You Play Chess")• Dunnington, Angus (2003). Chess Psychology: Approaching the Psychological Battle Both on and Off the Board.

Everyman Chess. ISBN 978-1-85744-326-4• Rizzitano, James (2004). Understanding Your Chess. Gambit Publications. ISBN 1-904600-07-7.

OCLC 55205602• Hale, Benjamin (2008). Philosophy Looks at Chess. Open Court Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8126-9633-2

Chess 29

External linksInternational organizations• FIDE (http:/ / www. fide. com/ ) – World Chess Federation

• Official rules – FIDE Laws of Chess (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ handbook/ ?id=124& view=article)• FIDE list of top rated players (http:/ / ratings. fide. com/ top. phtml?list=men)

• ICCF (http:/ / www. iccf. com/ ) – International Correspondence Chess Federation• ACP (http:/ / www. chess-players. org/ eng/ index. html) – Association of Chess ProfessionalsNews• Chessbase news (http:/ / www. chessbase. com/ )• The Week in Chess (http:/ / www. chesscenter. com/ twic/ twic. html)Other• ChessGames.com (http:/ / www. chessgames. com/ ) – online chess database and community• Chess records (http:/ / www. xs4all. nl/ ~timkr/ records/ records. htm) -details of longest game, most passed

pawns, fewest captures etc.• Blodig - Wimmer, Bavaria, Germany 1988 (http:/ / www. malcolmyoung. com/ extra-legal/ chess pages/

column_178. htm): full game with 17 consecutive captures• CHESS RECORDS in Palview (http:/ / timkr. home. xs4all. nl/ palview3/ recgames. htm) list of unusual chess

games (games in full)• A sample chess game (http:/ / en. wikibooks. org/ wiki/ Chess/ Sample_chess_game)• The Chess Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. echesspedia. com)

Article Sources and Contributors 30

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Ed Poor, EdBever, Edcolins, Eden Thinker, Edgar181, Eequor, Eeyore22, Eggsclear12, Ehn, Ehrenkater, EinZweiDrei, Eleland, Ellis 06, Eloquence, Enchanter, Endofskull, Enelson, Enochlau, Enric Naval, Entirelybs, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epolk, Equal, Ericamick, Ericd, Errational, Esc861, EscapingLife, Esn, Etaonish, Eu.stefan, EvenT, Everard Proudfoot, Evercat, EverettColdwell, Everyking, Exir, Exxoo, F4c1al, FadulJoseA, FadulJoseArabe, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falcon8765, Family Guy Guy, Faradayplank, Fastily, Favonian, Fduniho, Felipe Aira, Fibonacci, Fieldday-sunday, Fireaxe888, Firejump, FisherQueen, Flcelloguy, Fletch79, Footballer609, Forgotten gentleman, Fourthords, Frank A, FrankEldonDixon, Frankenpuppy, Frecklefoot, Fredrik, Frencheigh, FreplySpang, Frip1000, Fritzlein, Frog on a log, Frosted14, FrozenPurpleCube, FullMetal Falcon, Fullcrygal, Funandtrvl, Funguswindmill, Funvill, Fæ, GBizzle, Gabe0227, Gabor, Gagueci, Gaius Cornelius, Gakmo, Gala.martin, Galwhaa, Gameking51, Gamer112, Ganeshk, Gangster Octopus, Gary King, GateKeeper, Gatetwio, Gaunnett, Gawaxay, Gdavid001, Geetlol, Gekritzl, Gengiskanhg, GermanJoe, Ghigna, Giants2008, Giftlite, GilHamilton, Gilester, Gilliam, Gimmetrow, Giovanni33, Girdi, Glen, Gman124, Gmaxwell, Gninnaf, Gnorthup, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Goodmann, Gordonfan, Gordoni, Gracefool, GraemeL, Graham87, GrandMattster, Gravelsack, Green Squares, GreenReaper, GregLindahl, Gregjee, GregorB, Grey Shadow, Grim-Gym, Grossdomestic, Grstain, Grúnt, Gulielmus estavius, Guliolopez, Gun Powder Ma, Gunter, Gurch, Gvil, Gwalla, Gzkn, H2g2bob, HJ Mitchell, Haberg, Hadal, Haiduc, Hajor, HalfShadow, Hamzah786g, Hankwang, HansHermans, Happy-melon, Hapsiainen, Harkenbane, HarlandQPitt, Harryboyles, Harthacnut, Havelock the Dane, Hayabusa future, Hayne, Hcheney, Healthykid, HeartofaDog, Helgihg, Hellosezoo, HermanHiddema, Herostratus, Hetar, Hfastedge, Hhanke, HiDrNick, Hildanknight, Hippasus, Hires an editor, Hmains, Holabumoid, Honette, Honza Záruba, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:ChessSet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChessSet.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: -File:ChessStartingPosition.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChessStartingPosition.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Bubba73 (talk), Jud McCranie. 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Original uploader was Lyctc aten.wikipediaFile:ChessPawnSpecialMoves.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChessPawnSpecialMoves.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: en:User:LyctcFile:Digitalna sahovska ura2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Digitalna_sahovska_ura2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:AndrejjFile:SCD algebraic notation.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SCD_algebraic_notation.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Chess_board_blank.svg: *AAA_SVG_Chessboard_and_chess_pieces_04.svg: ILA-boy SCD_algebraic_notation.png: Klin derivative work: Beao SCD_algebraic_notation.png: Klin derivativework: BeaoImage:chess_xxl44.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chess_xxl44.png  License: unknown  Contributors: -Image:chess_ l44.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chess_l44.png  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Shatranj.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shatranj.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: ZereshkFile:KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alphonse leSage (Alfonso X)File:Lucena1497.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lucena1497.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: -File:André Philidor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:André_Philidor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: -File:Stanislaw Chlebowski - Chess Players.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stanislaw_Chlebowski_-_Chess_Players.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Stanisław Chlebowski (1835-1884)File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-295-1561-09, Frankreich, Turkestani in der Wehrmacht.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-295-1561-09,_Frankreich,_Turkestani_in_der_Wehrmacht.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0Germany  Contributors: Müller, KarlFile:Meister der Manessischen Liederhandschrift 004.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: -File:UigChessmen SelectionOfKings.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UigChessmen_SelectionOfKings.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0Generic  Contributors: -File:Red King sleeping.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_King_sleeping.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -File:Chess Large.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chess_Large.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: JyothisFile:SchachWM2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SchachWM2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: YgrekFile:Kasparov-29.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kasparov-29.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Copyright 2007, S.M.S.I., Inc. - OwenWilliams, The Kasparov Agency.File:Knight's tour.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knight's_tour.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gdr, User:Ilmari KaronenFile:RS Chess Computer.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RS_Chess_Computer.JPG  License: Copyrighted free use  Contributors: Model CitizenFile:Glinski Chess Setup.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glinski_Chess_Setup.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: -

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