Child Poverty, Deprivation and Social Policy in India: Recent Developments in Comparative and National Perspectives on Theory and Research

Centre for Economic and Social Studies Indian Social Policy Association

Hyderabad 19 September 2014

Why is poverty important? What is poverty? How is poverty measured? What can be done about it? Cash transfers

Children have moral right not to be poor. It is not fair - especially for children It harms us all (human capital) Partly because it costs a lot (child poverty

costs 29 billion per year in the UK) It generates social problems It is an indicator of the failure of the (welfare)

state States have an obligation UNCRC

Lack of physical necessities - Rowntree

Minimum subsistence - Beveridge

Relative deprivation - Townsend

Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions which are customary, or at least widely encouraged or approved, in societies to which they belong. Their resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average family or individual that they are in effect excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs and activities. (Townsend 1979).

lack of physical necessities

minimum subsistence

relative deprivation a culture transmitted

deprivation

the underclass social exclusion Lack of material

well-being

Measures of poverty Groups at risk of poverty Correlates/associations/(causes) of poverty Consequences of poverty

All often muddled (see UK Government consultation on the measurement of child poverty 2013)

Poverty is fundamentally a lack of resources

Budget standards (basket of goods) Rowntree http://www.minimumincomestandard.org/

Expenditure shares (% of budget on food) US poverty line

Income/consumption thresholds (eg $x a day per capita)

Degree of income inequality (below % median income/expenditure)

Deprivation indicators - Townsend Lack of socially perceived necessities

Breadline Britain/PSE studies Subjectively As social exclusion

Severe Food Deprivation children whose heights and weights for their age were more than -3 standard deviations below the median of the international reference population, i.e. severe anthropometric failure (Nandy et al, 2005).

Severe Water Deprivation - children who only had access to surface water (e.g. ponds, rivers or springs) for drinking or who lived in households where the nearest source of water was more than 15 minutes away.

Severe Deprivation of Sanitation Facilities children who had no access to a toilet of any kind in the vicinity of their dwelling, including communal toilets or latrines.

Severe Health Deprivation children who had not been immunised against any diseases or young children who had a recent illness causing diarrhoea or acute respiratory infection (ARI) and had not received any medical advice or treatment.

Severe Shelter Deprivation children living in dwellings with five or more people per room (severe overcrowding) or with no flooring material (e.g. a mud floor).

Severe Education Deprivation children aged between 7 and 18 who had never been to school and were not currently attending school (no professional education of any kind).

Severe Information Deprivation children aged between 3 and 18 in households which do not possess a radio, television, telephone or computer.

THE ESSENTIALS OF LIFE

DEPRIVATION

Yes

Is it essential?

No Yes

Do you have it?

No

Yes

Is this because you cannot afford it?

NoTHE ESSENTIALS OF LIFE

DEPRIVATION

Yes

Is it essential?

No Yes

Do you have it?

No

Yes

Is this because you cannot afford it?

No

Source: Saunders and Wong (2011) 10

Perception of Essential Items in Benin, 2006 Do you regard as essential, necessary or not that the following items are part of the minimal/basic needs in order to have adequate life condition?

Essential (%) Yes, rather necessary

(%) No (%) Total (%)

Need to have access to drinking water 84 15 0 100 Need to take care of oneself when sick 84 16 0 100 Need to have steady work 82 18 1 100 Need to be able to send children to school 79 20 1 100 Need to have access to electricity 77 22 2 100 Need to have three meals per day 74 24 2 100 Need to have a house 71 24 5 100 Need to have a radio 71 28 1 100 Need to have mode of transportation 68 30 2 100 Need to take of own body (soap, barber etc.) 67 32 1 100 Need to have a good meal on Sundays and holidays 64 33 4 100 Need to have personal care products 62 36 2 100 Need to have tables and beds 62 36 2 100 Need to have several sets of clothing 61 36 2 100 Need to have a spacious house 59 37 4 100 Need to be able to buy a television 59 38 4 100 Need to have several sets of shoes 58 38 4 100 Need to have meat or fish every day 57 36 7 100 Need to be able to take a taxi 56 42 2 100 Need to have birth control 55 37 8 100

Need to have cereals or food made from roots or tubers every 51 37 12 100

Need to take vacation 51 43 6 100 Need to be able to take the bus 45 46 9 100 Need to be able to buy presents when needed 44 51 5 100 Need to have vegetables every day 43 40 17 100 Need to work day and night 17 24 60 100

Source: weighted data, Benin 2006 DHS; n=17,511. 11

(%) Respondents believing item essential .

Place of residence Age Sex Religion Ethnicity

Ever attended school

Marital status

Urban Rural 16-24 65+ Male Female Traditional (Vodoun) Islam Catholic Adja and related

Fon and related

Yoruba and

related No Yes Never

married Married Live

together Widowed Divorced

Access to drinking water 83 85 84 83 84 85 83 79 85 79 88 86 84 85 84 84 89 86 83 Take care of oneself when sick 83 84 83 83 83 84 82 80 85 77 87 86 84 84 81 84 85 85 81 Have steady work 82 81 82 78 81 83 80 75 84 75 87 85 81 83 81 82 82 82 80 Be able to send children to school 79 79 80 77 78 81 78 71 81 76 84 82 78 81 77 80 83 80 75

Have access to electricity 77 77 78 74 76 79 77 70 78 75 82 79 76 79 77 77 71 77 75 Have three meals per day 72 76 74 73 73 77 77 64 75 72 80 72 76 73 70 75 64 78 74 Have a house 72 70 71 70 70 73 69 65 74 66 77 70 70 73 71 71 69 74 72 Have a radio 69 72 71 68 70 71 72 62 72 68 76 70 70 73 69 71 67 69 69 Have mode of transportation 67 68 69 64 69 67 67 63 69 63 71 68 66 70 66 69 65 63 61 Take of own body (soap, barber etc.) 68 66 68 66 65 70 65 61 69 65 71 66 66 69 66 67 63 70 66 Have a good meal on Sundays and holidays 61 66 61 65 63 65 65 60 63 59 66 62 66 61 59 64 62 67 62

Have personal care products 64 61 63 58 60 65 61 54 65 62 67 60 60 65 61 62 58 64 63 Have tables and beds (furniture) 63 61 64 59 61 64 62 53 64 64 66 62 60 65 61 62 58 61 57 Have several sets of clothing 61 61 63 59 59 64 63 51 63 63 66 59 60 63 61 61 50 65 61 Have a spacious house 59 60 60 59 59 61 61 53 61 61 62 53 60 59 57 60 55 60 57 Be able to buy a television 59 59 61 54 58 60 60 50 61 61 64 58 56 62 60 59 59 56 54 Have meat or fish every day 54 59 57 58 56 60 60 50 57 60 61 52 59 56 54 57 48 61 56 Have several sets of shoes 59 58 60 56 56 61 61 48 60 60 64 56 57 60 58 58 43 61 58 Be able to take a taxi 55 56 54 57 55 57 55 47 58 52 59 57 55 57 54 56 51 58 57 Have birth control 59 53 58 50 53 59 52 47 60 57 60 52 52 60 58 55 58 54 53 Have cereals or food made from roots or tubers every 48 53 52 51 50 52 53 47 50 52 53 44 53 48 46 51 48 55 53

Take a vacation 51 51 53 48 50 53 52 43 53 52 56 51 49 53 51 51 43 50 44 Be able to take the bus 45 45 46 45 44 47 47 37 46 47 48 45 45 46 44 45 43 46 46 Have vegetables every day 38 46 42 44 42 44 45 42 41 46 43 36 46 39 40 43 40 48 43 Be able to buy presents when needed 40 47 43 44 44 45 50 38 44 49 46 41 45 43 40 45 38 44 41

Work day and night 13 19 16 16 17 16 21 18 14 24 13 16 18 14 14 17 23 16 14 12

Essential to enjoy acceptable standard of living Male Female White Indian/Asian Black

African Coloured 16-24 years 25-34 years 35-49 years 50+ years

Mains electricity in the house 92% 91% 99% 97% 90% 96% 91% 92% 89% 95%

A house that is strong enough to withstand bad

weather 89% 92% 99% 99% 88% 97% 91% 90% 88% 93%

Clothing sufficient to keep warm and dry 89% 89% 96% 99% 87% 96% 90% 89% 89% 89%

A fridge 87% 85% 93% 96% 85% 84% 82% 86% 90% 86%

Bedrooms for adults and children 81% 82% 91% 96% 79% 85% 81% 76% 81% 89%

A flush toilet in the house 79% 77% 99% 99% 72% 94% 75% 79% 79% 80%

Ability to pay funeral society 82% 83% 75% 80% 84% 75% 80% 83% 84% 81%

People are able to afford medicines prescribed by

dr. 77% 78% 84% 86% 76% 77% 76% 76% 80% 77%

Parents/carers: be able to buy school uniform 77% 82% 72% 84% 82% 68% 83% 78% 80% 76%

A fence or wall around the property 73% 74% 82% 77% 73% 71% 76% 73% 71% 76%

A bath or shower in the house 62% 62% 99% 97% 53% 86% 59% 62% 61% 68%

Regular savings for emergencies 73% 70% 69% 71% 73% 60% 76% 69% 74% 66%

A radio 75% 74% 73% 44% 77% 60% 75% 71% 74% 78%

Meat or fish every day 61% 64% 85% 75% 58% 70% 62% 66% 59% 62%

Burglar bars in the house 60% 63% 78% 92% 60% 52% 64% 58% 64% 61%

Television/ TV 69% 69% 52% 47% 74% 53% 72% 68% 71% 62%

Special meal at Christmas 55% 57% 70% 56% 53% 60% 61% 55% 53% 53%

A cell phone 62% 64% 51% 37% 69% 37% 63% 68% 65% 53%

A sofa/lounge suite 55% 54% 48% 42% 55% 60% 48% 54% 60% 58%

Some new clothes 56% 55% 55% 42% 58% 44% 56% 60% 54% 51%

A car 51% 48% 74% 57% 47% 36% 54% 46% 52% 45%

A garden 49% 53% 61% 38% 51% 42% 52% 49% 46% 57%

A landline phone 46% 51% 42% 60% 49% 47% 51% 45% 47% 49%

Washing machine 44% 44% 80% 38% 38% 51% 43% 44% 41% 48%

A lock-up garage for vehicles 42% 45% 69% 42% 41% 32% 48% 45% 37% 43%

A small amount of money to spend on self 43% 41% 52% 31% 41% 43% 49% 42% 37% 37%

A burglar alarm system for the house 38% 38% 43% 50% 38% 29% 43% 38% 32% 37%

To be able to afford toys 39% 40% 36% 35% 41% 33% 38% 44% 39% 36%

Having enough money to give presents on special

occasions 39% 44% 33% 20% 46% 26% 42% 47% 40% 37%

An armed response for the house 28% 29% 28% 38% 29% 19% 28% 33% 22% 30%

A DVD player 27% 28% 21% 14% 31% 15% 31% 33% 20% 24%

$ per day World Bank (2009). 'World Development Indicators'. Washington DC: World Bank.

HDI UNDP (2009). Human Development Report 2009: Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development. New York: United Nations. HDI=life expectancy, literacy and enrolment/GDP HPI 1=Prob of not surviving to 40, adult literacy,

improved water and underweight Multi-dimensional index Alkire & Santos (2010)

Education: Schooling and enrolment Health: mortality and nutrition Living standards: electricity, sanitation, water, floors,

cooking fuel, assets

List of 20 items identified in focus groups. Reduced through pilot data to list of 10, based on scalability and strength of relationship to traditional poverty variables

10 items included in main-stage and quarterly surveys: Some pocket money each week Some money to save each month A pair of brand-named trainers An iPod or similar MP3 player Cable or satellite TV at home A garden or somewhere similar nearby to spend time safely Access to a family car Clothes to fit in with other people their age A holiday away from home for one week each year Monthly day-trips with family

What resources? Unit of analysis (child/individual, family,

household) Spatial differences in need/costs Equivalence Times/spells episodes Lines v gaps

Household resources (income) dont meet household needs Income:

Low wages: part-time, short-time, self employment, low skills

No wages: unemployment, sickness/disability, caring, loss of breadwinner

Needs: Large families Disability costs Cost of essential services housing, health, transport,

education Price variation

Caste, class. Ethnic Lone parents Large families Disabled children/adults Spatial factors rural/urban Age of youngest child Education level High costs

Lack of social protection

Health .630** Education .540** Subjective .664** Behaviour .588** Housing .664** Overall well-being .823** Overall excluding material .719**

020

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

gdp per capita child poverty rate

Despite economic growth for ten years up to the crisis child poverty in many middle income countries has been flat lining.

One main reason is the absence of transfer mechanisms World Bank inspired Targeted Social Assistance useless too low and too targeted (see Bradshaw, J., Mayhew, E. and Alexander, G. (2013) Minimum social protection in the CEE/CIS countries: the failure of a model in Marx I. & K. Nelson (eds.) Minimum Income Protection in Flux. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan 249-270)

Cash benefits for children the norm in the EU/OECD mainly universal

No child benefit for working poor in Africa (except RSA), CEECIS except Russia, Belarus and Ukraine for under

3s South America (except Argentina)

UNICEF launched its Social Protection Framework calling for child sensitive social protection with a progressive realisation of universal coverage, including social transfers.

International Labour Organisation adopted the Recommendation Concerning National Floors of Social Protection, which states that member countries should Establish as quickly as possible and maintain their social protection floors comprising basic social security guarantees.

The World Bank has been advocating for universal minimum pensions, but unfortunately not yet for universal child benefits.

The European Union is now supporting the development of inclusive, nationally-owned social protection policies and programmes, including social protection floors.

The case for social protection was also recognised in the old African Union Social Policy Framework for Africa and in the SADC Social Policy Process/Charter of Fundamental Social Rights.

CHILD POVERTY Better evidence

Income/expenditure surveys annually Analysis with the child as the unit Better questionnaires covering child deprivation

Budget analysis to know what is being spent on (poor) children

Micro simulation models to trace distributional outcomes of policy EUROMOD, SAMOD

Remove charges for education/child health Progressively introduce child benefits Spend bigger share of GDP on child benefits Eventually make them universal

The most recent evaluation found that child support grant had improved height for age scores. Educational attainment and participation improve health and reduce the likelihood of illness. For adolescents it has been shown to reduce school

absences and the likelihood of working outside the household.

It also reduces risk behaviour including sexual activity, pregnancy, alcohol use, drug use, criminal activity and gang membership.

In these ways the Child Support Grant promotes human capital development, improves gender outcomes and helps to reduce the historical legacy of inequality.

Since independence in 1990 Namibia has enjoyed political stability and steady economic growth, achieving the status of an upper middle-income country in 2009.

Has Used growth to provide Universal Basic State Grants to older people and people with disabilities, Child Welfare Grants to orphans, children in foster care and children with disabilities as well as War Veteran Grants. Progress has also been made in health and education.

However poverty and inequality remain at very high levels. Namibia is still one of the most unequal countries in the world the Gini coefficient which was 0.67 at independence had fallen to to 0.597 in the 2009/10 NHIES.

For an upper middle income country Namibia also ranks poorly on the 2011 Human Development Index (120 out of 187).

Poverty is highest in households with children. No child grants except OVCs

1. Remove fees for basic health and education. Undermine child living standards

2. Make birth registration universal 3. Assess affordability: average OECD

spend=2.7% GDP, RSA=1.3%. 4. Whether/how to target. Means-test out not in. 5. Model simulations. 6. Assess eligibility easy if good birth

registration and universal per child 7. Pay paypoint technology/mobile phones 8. Monitor outcomes

Health outcomes: it will reduce infant, child and maternal mortality; it will increase heights and weights for age; reduce infectious diseases and other child morbidity; it will reduce early sexual activity, STDs and early pregnancy; it will improve the health of adults. It will reduced alcohol and drug use. It may well have benefits in terms of enhanced child protection outcomes

Education outcomes: the health outcomes will improve cognitive development with educational and long term benefits; it will increase attainment; reduce delays in entering school, absences from school and early school leaving.

Socio-economic outcomes: there will be a reduction of children working outside the household; it will reduce inequality and increase solidarity and well-being; it will increase economic activity at local level, enhance agricultural production and enhance economic development, especially in the poorest regions; this and the improvement in security will increase employment and reduce unemployment; it will reduce criminal activity and gang membership.

050

100

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250

gdp per capita childpoverty rate

Jonathan.bradshaw@york.ac.uk http://php.york.ac.uk/inst/spru/profiles/jrb.php Twitter @profjbradshaw