China

Conflict, Crisis and Change, 1934 – 1989

The Triumph of Mao & the CCP, 1934 - 1949

Long March 1934 (Causes)– Chiang Kai Shek led the KMT on the encirclements campaign against the

Jiangxi Soviet.– The fifth campaign was devised by Hans von Seekt and was a series of

blockhouse attacks that starved out the Soviet.– By October, the communists had lost over half their land and 60,000

troops.– Because the communists abandoned guerilla tactics under the

influence of Otto Braun, a soviet advisor and fought a series of disastrous battles against KMT.

– Mao wanted to attack the KMT army from the rear, but Braun refused and suggested they force their way through the blockade and journey to the base in Yunan.

Long March 1934 (Events)– 16 October 1934: Break out

– 87,000 troops begin the retreat led by Braun, after six weeks they broke through the blockhouses. At the end of November, they reached the Xiang river and lost over half their men fighting the KMT.

– January 1935: Mao takes over– Leadership was given to Mao, because Braun had allowed soldiers to

carry too much equipment and moved in a straight line, causing the failure of the operation.

– January – October 1935: Progress– Under Mao’s leadership, the Red Army changed direction and split up,

confusing the KMT. At the Dadu river, a party of soldiers swung across the river gorge while under enemy fire, then lowered the bridge for the rest of the army to pass.

– October 1935: Arrival– After fighting many battles and crossing over 6000 miles, only 30,000

troops reached the destination of Yunan.

Long March 1934 (Results)– Communists had survived and found a new base safe from the KMT and

Japanese.– Because of its high geological position, the base in Yunan was well

defended.– Mao was hailed as the great hero and veteran of CCP.– The good behavior by the Red Army impressed the local people and many

began to support the CCP.– The Long March became a legend and the fights such as the one at Dadu

river became key propaganda events.

War with Japan (Causes)– 1931: Invasion

– Japan invade Manchuria, Chiang does nothing to stop them – preoccupied with CCP.

– 1936: Extermination Campaigns– Chiang organizes extermination campaigns against the Communists

instead of declaring war against Japan.– Dec 1936: United Front

– Zhiang Xueliang, one of Chiang’s generals, agrees not to fight with communists. After Chiang opposes this decision, he is kidnapped by his own troops, and released only when he agrees to created a united front.

War with Japan (Events)– July 1937: Start of War

– Japan attacks Chinese troops at the Marco Polo Bridge, marking the start of the war.

– 1938: Japanese Control– Over 1 Million Japanese troops in China. By the end of the year all

major ports and industrial / commercial were under Japanese control.– The Japanese lacked the manpower and resources to fully hold all of

the land they had captured, enabling the Chinese to move back into some of the rural areas.

Party’s Involvement– KMT

– Chiang retreated before the invasion and gave up Nanking, moving to Sichuan, where he was cut off from the industrialized areas of China.

– Government became corrupt and power of warlords increased.– Chiang governed like a dictator and tortured enemies of KMT with his

army of “Blueshirts”.– Did little to improve welfare problems: housing, education, healthcare,

lives of peasants.– CCP

– CCP soldiers went back to reclaim land left by Japanese.– Carried out successful guerilla attacks against Japanese.– 1941: Three Alls Campaign: Kill all, Burn all, Destroy all. Aimed to turn

peasants against CCP, but instead drove many to support them.– Life was better in CCP areas: Land was given to peasants, Rents and

taxes reduced, Outdated practices abolished, Women’s Associations founded, Red Army treated peasants well.

Civil War Events– Most thought KMT would win.

– Army of 3 million, trained and backed by Americans.– Held all major cities and railways.

– December 1945: General Marshall is sent to prevent war.– June 1946: The KMT launch a massive offensive in Northern China.– March 1947: Yunan is under KMT control.– PLA led by Lin Biao uses guerilla tactics to avoid large losses.– 1948: PLA big enough to fight a head on battle with KMT, in the battle of

Huai Hai, KMT lose 500,000 men and much equipment.– PLA capture Beijing and Shanghai.– January 1949: Chiang and 200,000 troops flee to Taiwan.– October 1 1949: The People’s Republic of China is established under the

leadership of the communist party.

Strength & Weaknesses– Strength of CCP

– Mao’s firm leadership was respected and PLA was under good control.– Peasants became impressed by the policies of the CCP and the

behavior of the PLA.– Successful guerilla tactics from 1946-1948.– Grew from 1 million in 1945 to 4 million by 1949 due to peasant

support.

– KMT Weaknesses– Chiang’s government was corrupt, US aid went to Chiang’s family.– High inflation and Blueshirt brutality in KMT areas reduced popularity.– KMT was the party of the landlords.– US governments gave $200 million in aid since 1945, cut off aid soon

before KMT lost.– KMT forces fell to 1,500,000.

Changes under Mao, 1949 - 1963

Land Reform– Mao had already begun giving away land to the peasants during the war.– Mao’s first task was to take away the power from the landlords.– The Agrarian Reform Law was passed in June 1950 to speed up land

reform.– At people’s courts, peasants were encouraged to hold mass meetings

at which they publicly humiliated landlords.– Turned increasingly violent, by 1952, 2.75 million landlords had

been killed.– By 1952, 50 million hectares of land was taken from landlords and given to

peasants.– Land reform was mostly unsuccessful as peasants did not have the

equipment or money to cultivate the land.– As a result of this, mutual aid teams were formed to share equipment,

land or animals.

First Five Year Plan– 1953 – 1957– Reasons

– By 1952, inflation was brought down and a new currency was introduced.

– Mao called upon Soviet advisors and managed to secure a large loan.– Population in cities increased rapidly, due to migration for rural areas.

– Main focus areas were coal, steel and chemicals.– Most private companies were controlled by the government, those that

weren’t were taxed heavily until the owners gave the government control.– 700 new production plants were built.– Most targets for production were achieved except oil.– National expenditure rose tremendously.– Aided by over 10,000 soviet advisors, also provided soviet equipment.– Light industry was neglected, causing a slow growth in consumer goods.

Cooperatives– Reason

– Peasant farms were too small to be efficient– Mao feared peasants would become landowners.

– Lower stage cooperatives (1953)– Peasant encouraged to join 30 – 50 other families to pool land,

equipment and labor.– Rent was paid to the families in return for the land.

– Higher stage cooperatives (1956)– 200 – 300 families– Widespread towards end of 5 year plan– Only receive wages, no rent– Peasants did not own land anymore.

Hundred Flowers Campaign– Events

– Launched by Mao in 1957, who encouraged free discussion and criticism of the government and himself.

– Mao may have launched the campaign to root out anti-government revolutionaries, or he may launched it to raise popularity.

– In 1957, Mao urged CCP officials to be prepared for criticism from the public, but he did not anticipate the severity of the public’s reactions.

– Reaction– There was a sudden rush to respond and criticize Mao and the CCP.– Many intellectuals, artists, writers and teachers attacked party officials,

policies and even Mao himself.– In June 1957, Mao cracked down on CCP critics with an anti-rightist

campaign.– Leading critics forced to retract statements and some were sacked.– Many intellectuals were sent to “thought reform”.

Great Leap Forward (Causes)

– The 2nd Five Year Plan, 1958 – 61– China’s manpower was not efficiently utilized, with high unemployment in

towns and cities.– Recent developments in agriculture and industry were too slow – Mao was

anxious for change. – Mao was determined to turn China into a powerful industrial nation,

intending for Chinese economy to overtake Western economies in 15-30 years.

– Although China was short on money, they were not short on labour.

Great Leap Forward (Events)– Party Propaganda

– Posters, slogans– Loudspeakers playing music and stirring speeches

– Industry– Thousands of small factories were build. – New higher, industrial and agricultural targets were set.

– Backyard Steel– Small furnaces in villages and towns.– Turned out over 11 million tons of steel from scrap metal or utensils.

– Communes– Average population was 30,000.– By end of 1958, 90% of the population were in communes.

– Peasants had to hand over their land.– Life in communes – all peasants ate together, everything provided

by commune.

Great Leap Forward (Results)

– Industry– Small factories were too inefficient.– Backyard steel was unusable as it was impure.

– Used all of the coal and steel so railways could not be built and machines could not be run.

– Injured the country’s infrastructure.– Used all of the family’s metals, now products made with the steel

were severely weakened.– Machines and workers overworked.

– Agriculture– To meet quotas, peasants gave too much rice to the government,

starving themselves.– Natural disasters reduced the yield, over 20 million die from starvation

and disease.– Communes

– Too large to be run efficiently. Peasants resented the loss of land.

Post - Great Leap Forward– Mao steps down from China’s head of state position.– China now controlled by President Liu Shaoqi, Prime Minister Zhou Enlai

and CCP General Secretary Deng Xiaoping.– They introduced new policies abandoning the GLF.

– Thousands of small factories were closed.– People encouraged to start businesses.– Millions returned from manufacturing to farming.– Commune size reduced heavily.– Private plots returned to peasants.

The Impact of the Cultural Revolution

Mao’s Motives– Mao’s position in the CCP was weakened greatly after GLF, he wanted to:

– Defeat his moderate opponents– Regain political supremacy

– The moderates led by Deng and Liu Shaoqi, wanted to introduce incentives for individual work (large private plots, higher wages).

– Mao felt that China was beginning to deviate from its communist ideals.– Mao wanted to change education into a more practical and “peasant

influenced” form of teaching. He argued that education had produced bureaucrats who did not reflect the ideals of the communist revolution.

Mao’s Return– 1965: Mao gains Lin Biao’s support

– All ranks of the PLA are abolished.– Each soldier is given the “little red book”, a compilation of Mao’s

quotes.– 1966: Mao announces to the young people of China that the communist

revolution was being endangered by the leaders of the CCP.– Schools are shut down for 6 months in 1966 for a rewrite of the

curriculum to include more information on communist ideals.– Leads to the formation of the Red Guard.

– The Red Guards– Given the right to travel for free on the railway to attend mass rallies.– This great freedom soon led to more radical protest.– Attacked the “Four Olds”: ideas, culture, habits and customs, using

violence.– Attacking all shops selling bourgeoisie merchandise, burnt down

libraries etc.– Attacked anyone with authority and “reactionaries”, by 1967, over

400,000 died and many others were maimed and tortured.

The Cult of Mao– The Red Guards turned on Lin Shaoqi, who had succeeded Mao as head of

State.– Red Guards broke into his house and forced him to write a confession of

his crimes. Eventually he was expelled from the party in 1969 and died soon after.

– Mao was worshipped as the new emperor. Almost all houses had his portrait and many bowed to it in the morning and at night.

– Peasants and factory workers gathered to read quotes from his little red book.

– Disbanding the Red Guards– In 1967, Mao attempted to restore order.

– Schools were reopened.– PLA were used to restore order in areas with heavy Red Guard

violence.– By 1968, law and order had been restored in most areas.

– By that time 120 million people under 45 could not read or write.

Impact of Cultural Revolution

– Industry– Specialization was discouraged.– All individual work incentives were abolished. – All workers given equal wages.

– Education– Students did no sit exams– Many went to the countryside to learn from the peasants.– 120 million under 45 were illiterate.

– Countryside– Private plots of land were taken away.– Peasants only allowed a certain amount of animals.

– Government– Many of Mao’s opponents were killed or exiled.– Deng was removed from his post.

Most officials were given their posts back, but were sent to countryside regularly.

Changes under Deng Xiao Ping

Right vs. Left– Left wing radicals – led by Jiang Qing, Mao’s wife

– Controlled the press and radio– Followed the thoughts of Mao.– Wanted to root out the capitalists and reactionaries.

– Right wing moderates – Led by Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping– Supported by CCP and PLA.– Wanted to end the political struggle.– Wanted to reform economy, industry, and agriculture.

Gang of Four– Memorials to Zhou Enlai after his death in 1976 were removed. Consequent

riots supporting Zhou and Deng began.– Gang of Four blamed riots on Deng and removed him from his position.

– He was replaced by Hua Guofeng.– Hua Guofeng arrested the Gang of Four in October 1976.

– He believed they had been plotting against him.– There was public support for their arrest due to their extreme left wing

views.– Following a massive media campaign where the Gang of Four were

severely criticized, they were put on trial in 1980 – 81 and sentenced to long terms in prison.

Modernizations– Moderates gained power from 1976 – 1980. Deng was determined to carry

out the four modernizations of Zhou.– Problems before:

– Machines and factories were old and inefficient.– Cooperative farms failed to produce sufficient grain, made worse by

natural effects.– Industry: 10 year plan starting from 1979

– New factories build, workers paid for bonus output.– People were free to own their own business.– Much less central control.– Foreigners were encouraged to invest in special enterprise zones.

– Agriculture:– Size of peasant plots increased– Allowed to sell surplus on the market.– Income of agricultural workers tripled between 1977 and 1983.

Modernizations– Education

– Reversed the educational reforms of Cultural Revolution.– Exams were reinstated, academic success was prioritized.– Time spent on political education and manual labor decreased.

– Birth control– One child policy

– Meant to reduce poverty– Barriers to marriage (consent of the commune).– Incentives for one child

– More family allowance, ration coupons– Larger plots of land

– Westernization– More freedom in media (access to western books, music, etc.)– Less censorship

The Democracy Movement 1979 - 1989

Deng’s Views & Democracy Wall

– Deng’s political views– Conservative in his approach to political change.– Wanted to maintain the view that the CCP was entitled to absolute

obedience from the people.– Believed that popular democracy would undermine his political

reforms.– Democracy Wall 1979

– Aimed to achieve more democratic freedom.– Student and young people began to post posters, pieces of literature

and small letters on the brick wall in the avenue of eternal peace.– Writings covered many subjects, gave students the opportunity to

express anti-party sentiments.– Wei Jingshen – a prominent writer who published an article in 1979

attacking Deng was sentenced to 15 years in prison.

Democracy & Deng’s Reaction

– Democracy Movement– People attacked the CCP for being corrupt.– In 1986, thousands of protestors followed Fang Lizhi, a professor in

Hefei, protesting for open government democracy.– The CCP arrested the ringleaders and dismissed Fang Lizhi. The

CCP General Secretary Hu Yaobang was also dismissed.– In 1987, Beijing University students burn copies of the local CCP

newspaper and hold a demonstration.– Deng’s Reaction

– The government generally tolerated the democracy movement, only intervening when it was directly attacked.

– After 1986 demonstrations, Deng insisted there was no need for greater participation by the people.

– The democracy movement became disappointed as Deng rejected democracy.

– Deng’s economic reforms had disappointed workers.

Tiananmen Square (Causes)– April 1989: Death of Hu Yaobang, who was sympathetic to the democracy

movement. Many gather at Tiananmen Square to pay their respects.– Sit ins and boycotts begin after a petition was refused by Premier Li Pena.– May 1989: 300 students go on hunger strike. Students refuse to stop the

strike because they begin to gain worldwide publicity.– On the 6th day of the boycotts, Zhao Ziyang asks the students to stop the

strike, promising that the issues would be resolved. He is dismissed from his post.

– Crack troops, led by specially appointed commanders, advanced on Beijing.

– 2 June 1989, 350,000 PLA soldiers surrounded Tiananmen Square and controlled the routes leading to it.

– Troops told to reclaim the square at all costs.– 3rd June: 10 PM – shots are fired at demonstrators. The massacre is over by

noon the next day.– Number of casualties unknown, includes PLA soldiers.– A news blackout was put into effect.

Results of the Massacre– Ringleaders given heavy sentences, demonstrators imprisoned.– CCP officials showing support for the movement were also imprisoned.– Marked the end of the democracy movement.– Reiterated that there would be no political change.