Chinese Ancient Literature List

Translated by Li En & Chan Ying Kit

PrefaceLiterature is a language-based art form, which includes operas, poems, novels and prose works all of which are important expressions of culture. Chinese literature can be said to contain the essence of the wisdom and creativity of the Chinese. A cultural treasure, Chinese literature has been constant and vital; from ancient myths to pre-Qin prose, from Tang poems and Song lyrics to Yuan arias, and from Ming-Qing novels to contemporary literature, Chinese literature has been like a beautiful flower blooming radiantly. It is said that talent emerges in every generation; Chinas great writers are numerous, and their works have indeed been passed down from generation to generation.

The Chinese poet Qu Yuan sang: The road is long and winding, and I shall seek it high and low. What kind of world are we living in? The famous politician and Chinese literary figure Fan Zhongyan said, First and foremost, be concerned with the affairs of the world; put aside the pleasures of the world. One should be responsible for the world, and the happiness and sufferings of the people should always be kept in mind. As the modern literary figure Lu Xun put it: I will spill my blood for the Yellow Emperor. The sounds of ringing instruments create harmony between the sun and moon in the sky.

Literature brings cohesion to human thought and culture, and gathers the thoughts which literary figures have had on life, society and time. Despite its long existence, it still maintains an everlasting charm. Literature purifies the soul, cultivates the personality and improves linguistic skills. Learning 1,000 songs means later generations can hear them; viewing 1,000 swords allows one to identify weapons. Continue to practise the six arts and keep turning the pages of the Hundred Schools of Thought, and you will be able to speak with wisdom and write with grace.

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In todays world, many people lead hectic lives and usually have little time to appreciate literature. Not knowing that the gentleman is already gone, the moon still shines on the windowsill. Bright city lights have blotted out the moon. Little do we realise that, with a civilization that has lasted for 5,000 years, literature is like a gleaming pearl on a civilized river. Five thousand years of Chinese history has also helped establish the foundation of Chinese culture, the fertile soil for the cultivation of new writings to nourish the thoughts of the Chinese. Societal advances, changing times, intense competition and increased stress have all caused people to change their reading objectives from gaining huge volume of information to knowing just the salient points. In order to read effectively, they need highly-concise reading materials. This book can be considered a summary of Chinese literature, in which the reader can find information about the various works created during the past 5,000 years and come to understand the development of Chinese literature as well as the thoughts and styles of Chinas great literary figures.

Great effort has been made to select those classical examples that have contributed much to the development of Chinese literature over the last 5,000 years. Exquisite pictures have also been included so that the book may be visually pleasant and easy to understand.


Classic of Mountains and Seas 2Book of Songs 4Confucius and The Analects 6Zhuangzi and the Zhuangzi 8Han Feizi and the Han Feizi 10Qu Yuan and The Sorrow of Parting 12Songs of Chu 14Chronicle of Zuo 16Discourses of the States 18Strategies of the Warring States 20

Pre-Qin Literature

Literature of the Han Dynasty Jia Yi 24Mei Cheng and Seven Stimuli 26Sima Xiangru 28

Huainanzi 30Sima Qian and Records of the Grand Historian

32

Yang Xiong 34

Ban Gu and Book of the Former Han Dynasty

36

Zhang Heng 38

Spring and Autumn of Wu and Yue 40Nineteen Old Poems 42

Contents


Literature of the Wei, Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties Three Caos of Jianan Literature 46

Seven Scholars of Jianan 48Cai Wenji 50Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove 52

Chen Shou and Records of the Three Kingdoms

54

Lu Ji 56Records of Searching for the Supernatural 58Tao Yuanming 60Yan Yanzhi 62Xie Lingyun 64Bao Zhao 66Poem of Mulan 68The Peacock Flies Southeast 70A New Account of Tales of the World 72The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons

74

A Commentary on the Classic of Rivers 76A Selection of Essays 78New Songs from a Jade Terrace 80Foreword to the Orchid Pavilion Collection 82


The Four Great Poets of the Early Tang Dynasty

86

Chen Ziang 88Meng Haoran 90Wang Changling 92Gao and Cens Poems on the Frontiers 94Li Bai 96Wang Wei 98Du Fu 100Han Yu 102The Four Great Female Poets of the Tang Dynasty

104

Bai Juyi 106Liu Yuxi 108Liu Zongyuan 110

Yuan Zhen 112

The Deep Emotions of Li Shangyin 114

Wen Tingyun 116Pi Rixiu 118Tang Mythological Tales 120

Literature of the Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties

Liu Yong 124The Yan Father and Son 126Ouyang Xiu 128The Three Sus 130Sima Guang 132Zeng Gong 134Wang Anshi 136Collection of Music Bureau Ballads 138Li Qingzhao 140Lu You 142Xin Qiji 144

Literature of the Song Dynasty


Water Margin 166Romance of the Three Kingdoms 168Journey to the West 170Tang Xianzus Peony Pavilion 172Plum in the Golden Vase 174Feng Menglong and Three Tales 176Ling Mengchu and Two Beats 178The Three Great Marvel Tales of Ming Drama

180

Literature of the Ming Dynasty

Xiao Guanyin 148Yuan Haowen 150Guan Hanqing 152Bai Pu 154Ma Zhiyuan 156Zheng Guangzu 158Wang Shifu and Romance of the Western Chamber

160

Gao Ming and Story of the Pipa 162

Literature of the Liao, Jin and Yuan Dynasties


Pu Songling and Strange Tales of Liaozhai 184Palace of Everlasting Life 186The Historical Drama Peach Blossom Fan 188

Wu Jingzis The Scholars 190Dream of the Red Chamber 192Destinies of Flowers in the Mirror 194An Overview of Ancient Literature 196The Four Great Condemnatory Novels of the Late Qing Dynasty

198

Literature of the Qing Dynasty

Lu Xun 202Guo Moruo 204Ye Shengtao 206Lin Yutang 208Mao Dun 210Xu Zhimo 212Zhang Henshui 214Zhu Ziqing 216Lao She 218Bin Xin 220Shen Congwen and The Border City 222Ding Ling 224Ba Jin 226Ai Qing 228Qian Zhongshu 230Xiao Hong 232Yang Mo and Song of Youth 234The Enigmatic Eileen Chang 236Jin Yong 238Gu Long 240Chiung Yao (Qiong Yao) 242The Eternal San Mao 244

Modern Literature


The Classic of Mountains and Seas can be divided into The Classic of the Mountains (five volumes), The Classic of the Regions beyond the Seas (five volumes), The Classic of the Regions within the Seas (five volumes) and the Classic of the Great Wilderness (four volumes). Rich and varied in content, the Classic contains many mythical legends and religious rituals, as well as records of ancient Chinese geography, literature, people, living things, minerals and medicine. Other ancient sources esteem it highly.

The Chinese myth can be considered the Mother of Literature, and the relationship between the two can be likened to the relationship between the creator of the Universe (Pan Gu) and the sun, the moon and the seas. It is said that when Pan Gu died, his head was transformed into the four sacred mountains, his eyes became the sun and the moon, his blood became the rivers and seas, and his hair became the bushes and forests. People believed that even though Pan Gu is dead, there are traces of him everywhere in the sun, moon, rivers, seas and living things. As legends evolve into other forms of literature, they often lose their mythical significance, but their imaginative nature and variety continue to have an impact on literature.

The Chinese poet Tao Yuanmings Poem of Reading the Classic of Mountains and Seas arises from the Classic of Mountains and Seas. The famous poet Li Bai, known for his romanticism, wrote the poems Dream of a Visit to Mount Tianmu and Difficulties Faced at Shudao, which also refer to the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Many of Li Hes poems and other lyrical works are derived from the Classic. Li Shangyin made great use of the Classics mythical and metaphorical characteristics. Su Dongpo, a famous poet of the Northern Song Dynasty, wrote the poem A Temple Tablet of Duke Wen of Han from Chaozhou; the sacrificial song depicted in the poem, which mentions the singing and

The Classic of Mountains and Seas is the greatest collection of Chinese

mythical legends. It was

written between the

beginning of the Warring

States period and the early

Han period. The Classic

is believed to have been

written down according to

legends passed on by the

wizards and alchemists

(who later evolved into

Taoist priests) of the

different periods. It can

be considered as a classic

text of folk and primitive

religion in China.

Pre-Qin Literature

Classic of Mountains and SeasA Treasury of Chinese Fables

Classic of Mountains and Seas

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CHINESE LITERATURE

commanding sorcerer, riding the dragon, passes the White Cloud Village, where the descendants of heaven are knitting cotton garments originates from the Classic as well.

In addition, Gan Baos Story of the Search for the Gods and the Tang Dynasty supernatural tale Biography of Liu Yi also originate from the Classic. Works of other literary genres that emerged later, such as the Yuan dramaThe Injustice to Douer, the Ming novel Romance of the Investiture of the Gods, and the Qing novel Strange Tales of Liaozhai by Pu Songling all have links to the Classic. Characters in the popular novel Journey to the West (written by Wu Chengen of the Ming Dynasty), such as Sun Wukong, Pigsy and other half-human, half-beast creatures are believed to have been adapted from the Classic. Operas like The Cowherd and the Weaving Maid, The Legend of the White Snake and Changer flies to the Moon are also linked to the Classic.

Many works of different literary genres, such as poems, lyrics, novels, and drama, have adapted tales from the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Modern Chinese writers, including Yang Mu, Yu Guangzhong, Guo Moruo, Tan Zihao and Wu Yingtao have also done the same. Mythical legends have been liberally used as metaphors in these works.

In summary, the Classic of Mountains and Seas introduces many motifs that are widely used in Chinese literature. Mythical legends and Chinese literature are like two sides of the same coin: both belong to a literary genre that is symbolic, imaginative, narrative and energetic. Although the ancient legends portrayed in the Classic may pale in comparison to their Western counterparts, they are nevertheless a treasure of Chinese literature. In the Classic, one gets a glimpse of the activities of sorcerers, and one can also learn about the religion and beliefs of the ancient Chinese. There are many records of mythical animals, including birds, beasts, dragons, and snakes, which are portrayed as possessing mythical powers or are possibly related to ancestor (totem) worship. The Classic can be regarded as a treasury of ancient Chinese legends, and is of great significance. It also preserves many ancient historical sources that can be used by later generations to study Chinese history.

The Author of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Ancient scholars often believed that the Classic was written by Xia Yu () or Bo Yi (), but this sounds absurd in modern times. Judging from the contents and the discrepancy of dates, it is quite certain that the Classic was not written by a single author, but is instead a collection of the works of different authors. Due to difficulties faced in transport and communications across different localities, information might have been passed down orally among sorcerers and was later collected and edited into a single work after the unification of China. The responsibilities of early Chinese sorcerers had likely influenced the fields within their cultural sphere, which includes astronomy, geography, history, religion, the study of living things, medicine, the genealogies of emperors and kings, and major ancient inventions in the Classic.

Portrait of Pan Gu


The Book of Songsis divided into three sections: folk songs, festive songs, and hymns. The section on folk songs comprises 160 poems, including Fifteen Folk Songs of the States . The festive songs are divided into the categories of major and minor festive songs, and consist of 105 poems. The hymns are divided into the categories of Sacrificial Hymns of Zhou, Praise Hymns of Lu and Sacrificial Hymns of Shang. This section is made up of 40 poems.

The Book of Songs was widely disseminated in the Spring and Autumn Period. There are several views about the authorship of the Book of Songs. One view believes that the book was edited by the Chinese philosopher Confucius, but this is not accurate. The Book of Songs was in fact edited after a long period of compilation, and published in the middle of the sixth century BC before Confucius was born. In the classic Analects, Confucius mentioned the 300 poems several times, which means that the version he saw was similar to the Book of Songs we have today.

According to some records of the Qin and Han dynasties, the Book of Songs mainly originated from two sources. First, officials were employed at the Zhou court to collect folk songs. They went around interviewing people and collecting songs, and also gathered information about political gains and losses and the beliefs of the people. As various states assisted in the collection of these songs, the ensuing anthology was able to include a wide range of folk songs from different states. Second, the Zhou Dynasty also had a system of presenting poems, in which the officials and literati would present poems to the King on certain occasions. Many of the festive songs collected in the Book of Songs were collected in this manner.

Initially, the Book of Songs consisted of lyrics with musical accompaniment and the combination of ancient poems, songs and dances was preserved. According

Book of SongsA Canon of Poems

The Book of Songs (Shijing) started the trend towards realism

in China and initiated

the long tradition of

Chinese poetry. It has had

a profound impact on

Chinese literature and has

even spread to different

parts of the world. The

Book of Songs is regarded

as Chinas first collection of

poems and comprises 305

poems collected from the

beginning of the Western

Zhou Dynasty to the middle

of the Spring and Autumn

Period, spanning more

than 500 years of Chinese

history.

Book of Songs


CHINESE LITERATURE

to the chapter Gong Meng of the Mozi, there are 300 chants, 300 songs, 300 chords and 300 dances. The Book of Etiquette and Rites, the Rites of Zhou, the Book of Rites and the Discourses of the States also note that the Book of Songs could be performed with musical instruments like the flute and other wind instruments. The musicians of Lu also performed some of the poems in the Book of Songs for Ji Pu. This indicates that ancient music and dance were closely linked in the Book of Songs. However, due to major social changes during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, many musical scores and information on the dances were lost. Only the lyrics survive today.

The 15 Folk Songs of the States mainly deal with themes like love and marriage. Work songs are also featured, such as the song Plantain Seeds in Southern Zhou which women would sing while gathering plantain seeds. Though simple in language and rhythm, these work songs portray the happiness of those singing while at work.

A portion of the section on festive songs is dedicated to songs used by the royal family during ceremonial rituals. For instance, minor festive songs such as the Puncture Vine, Sacrificial Ceremonies at South Mountain, Barren Field, and Big Field are songs that people sang to pray for good harvest. Major festive songs, like Cotton, The Masses, Gong Liu, The Emperor and The Gods, were used to praise the ancestors for their efforts in establishing the Zhou kingdom and King Wus efforts to overthrow the Shang Dynasty.

The impact of the Book of Songs has spread beyond China to other parts of the world. Chinese versions of the work has been available in Japan, Korea and Vietnam from an early period. Since the beginning of the 18th century, the work has also been available in French, German, English, and Russian, and it remains well-liked to this day.

Depiction inspired by Book of Songs

Musical Poems in the Book of Songs

The Hymns of Zhou were dance poems used by the Zhou kings during sacrificial ceremonies at the beginning of the Western Zhou period.

The Hymns of Lu were also musical poems used by the royal family in their ancestral temples.

The Hymns of Shang were used by the royal family of the state of Song, during sacrificial ceremonies for their ancestors and for the Shang kings.


Originally from the Lu state of Zouyi (present-day Qubu in Shandong), Confucius (, 551 479 BC) was also named Qiu () and Zhongni (). He was a thinker, educator, and man of letters during the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. He was also the founder of Confucianism.

Since his youth, Confucius was brilliant and eager to learn. By the age of 20, he had already accumulated much knowledge and was regarded by the people of his time as a man of talent. Confucius wanted to enter officialdom, and was concerned with the affairs of the country. He would frequently ponder questions and share his views on the problems faced by rulers in managing the country. However, Confucius upright character meant that his desire to enter politics did not last long. After leaving officialdom, he and his disciples travelled from state to state, but eventually he returned to Lu where he focused on teaching. Confucius pioneered the first private education system in China and had over 3,000 disciples. Seventy-two of these emerged as sages, while others became senior officials in various states. His more outstanding students included Yan Hui, Zi Lu, Zigong and Zai Yu.

The teachings of Confucius had a profound impact on later generations. Although his teachings were passed on verbally, he was reputed to be a sage with god-given wisdom, an educator from Heaven and an ancient sage in his own time. He was regarded as highly knowledgeable. When he passed away, later generations continued to give Confucius other honorific titles such as Greatest Sage and Model Teacher for All Eras. He was believed to have edited Chinese classics like the Book of History, compiled the Book of Rites and the Classic of Music, written the foreword for the Yijing (, also known as the Changes of the Zhou), and authored the Spring and Autumn Annals.

Confucius and The Analects

Confucius was born during the Western Zhou period, when the

political system based on

lineage was collapsing and

a community based on

common cultural interests

was taking shape. Given

this background, Confucius

gradually became an iconic

figure who represented

the people and established

a philosophical school

of thought during the

Warring States period. The

Analects, believed to be a

compilation of the sayings

of Confucius, is one of the

Confucian classics.

Portrait of Confucius


CHINESE LITERATURE

The Analects is a classic work of Confucianism, and was compiled by Confucius disciples and their own disciples in turn. The Analects is mostly made up of quotes and dialogues which record the actions and words of Confucius and his disciples. It is a detailed representation of Confucius political views, philosophical thoughts, moral views, and educational principles. The Analects, The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean and Mencius, are regarded as the Four Books of Confucianism. The Analects itself is made up of 20 chapters.

The Analects pioneered the quotation style in Chinese literature and is regarded as a remarkable work of prose. The language used is brief and straightforward; it is simple yet meaningful. Many of its quotes are still relevant and meaningful today. The Analects records the inspirational teachings of Confucius; many of the dialogues collected are simple and straightforward, while others are thought-provoking and complex. The Analects is highly varied in content, but it centres on the social and day-to-day problems of human society. It has had a profound impact on the mindset and values of the Chinese people. Besides narrating the manners and actions of Confucius, The Analects also portrays the personality and disposition of the Sage. Even though Confucius is the main character portrayed in The Analects, the work also vividly depicts some of his disciples. For example, Zi Lu is known for his frank yet reckless character; Yan Yuan is refined and virtuous; Zigong is brilliant and eloquent; and Zeng Xi is uninhibited and outstanding. Their distinct personalities all leave a deep impression on the reader.

The thoughts and teachings of Confucius have had a long-lasting impact on later generations. The American poet and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson regarded Confucius as the glory of all the ethnic groups in the world. In 1988, 75 Nobel Prize winners made a joint declaration: In order for human beings of the 21st century to survive, they must learn from the wisdom of Confucius 2,000 years ago. Dr. Marina Carnogurska-Ferancova of the Slovak Republic once said: There is no one who can surpass the great teacher Confucius in creating a harmonious and moral society.

Three Buildings Dedicated to Confucius

The temple of Confucius, Confucius residence and Confucius grave are all known internationally. Devotees worship Confucius in the temple, which was established in 478 BC. The Confucian temple was small in scale when it was first built in Confucius hometown; however, from the Western Han dynasty onwards titles were consistently bestowed on Confucius by various emperors and the temple gradually expanded. Confucius residence is made up of a big compound. It is not the actual home of the Sage, but is actually the residence of the descendants of Confucius. The grave, measuring 200 hectares, is where Confucius and his family are buried.

The Analects


Zhuangzi (, 369 286 BC) was named Zhou (), and came from Meng of the Song state (present-day Meng in Anhui). He was a thinker and philosopher during the Warring States period. The Zhuangzi, which bears his name, has had great value as a work of philosophy and literature. Famous chapters like Wandering Beyond, A Discussion on Smoothing Things Out as well as The Principle of Nurturing Life have been passed down till today.

According to the Records of the Grand Historian and the Zhuangzi itself, Zhuangzi was a low-ranking official in Guanqiyuan, his hometown (between present-day Henan and Anxi). Zhuangzi quit not long after, and was so poor that he had no rice to eat. He had to resort to making shoes to survive.

Zhuangzi was often seen in shabby clothes and did not bother to tidy himself when the Wei King summoned him. Even though some of his friends such as Hui Shi (who had once been the Premier of Wei) invited him to return, Zhuangzi refused. Zhuangzi even ridiculed those who had received rewards for their efforts in assisting the rulers, calling them bootlickers and refusing to befriend such people.

A trader surnamed Cao from the Song state once went on a diplomatic mission to Qin, and the King rewarded him with hundreds of chariots. The trader showed off his chariots, but Zhuangzi mocked him: The Qin King is sick and has to call for a doctor. Those with ulcers and pestilence get one chariot, but bootlickers get five chariots. The more people are treated, the more chariots are gained.

One day, Zhuangzi was fishing by a pool when two senior officials sent by the Chu King expressed a wish to invite him to the imperial court. They said: Our King has long heard of your fame and has been recently bothered by state affairs. We hope that the Master will leave the

Zhuangzi and the Zhuangzi

Zhuangzi was an astounding philosopher and a talented literary

figure. The Zhuangzi,

authored by him, began

to have a profound impact

from the third to the fifth

century during the Wei

and Jin Dynasties. The

Zhuangzi, the Yijing and the

Laozi are together known

as the Three Mysteries.

The Zhuangzi became the

official classic of Taoism

during the Tang Dynasty.

Portrait of Zhuangzi


CHINESE LITERATURE

mountains now in order to assist the King and bless the p e o p l e . Without moving his fishing rod, Zhuangzi ignored the officials request and replied: I have heard that there is a celestial tortoise in Chu state that was killed at the age of 3,000 years. The Chu King kept the dead tortoise in a bamboo box wrapped in brocade and worshipped it in the temple. I would like to ask the officials whether they think the tortoise would prefer to be treasured after death, or to live a carefree life dragging its tail in the muddy water?

The two officials replied, It would of course prefer to live in muddy water, shaking its tail. Zhuangzi said to them, Please go! I too, like the tortoise, prefer to drag my tail in the muddy water. Preferring to lead a carefree life as a recluse, Zhuangzi was not satisfied with the world and refused to cooperate with the ruling elite.

Zhuangzi lived in an era filled with turmoil. In his book, he made use of humorous and strange allegorical tales to narrate his thoughts. The use of allegory means that Zhuangzis thoughts and imagination possess a certain unity. The use of carefree language with a clear intent, combined with a great imagination and a broad-minded temperament, all give the reader a refined and lofty feeling.

The essays written by Zhuangzi have a special structure. Even though their contents and structure change from line to line, they are interconnected in terms of their thought. Meticulous in its narration and unsymmetrical in its rhyme, the Zhuangzi is an expressive and unique piece of work.

Because of his contributions to philosophy, language and literature, Zhuangzi has left an enduring legacy as a philosopher and a writer. The emergence of the Zhuangzi meant that Chinese philosophy, language and literature had reached a high standard during the Warring States period. It is a treasure among the ancient Chinese classics.

The Story behind Travelling 10,000 Miles

The Chinese idiom travelling 10,000 miles (), which means to have a bright future, is derived from the chapter titled Wandering Beyond. There was once a legendary fish measuring thousands of li (). This fish later transformed into a gigantic bird whose body also measured thousands of li. When the bird spread its wings, it was likened to clouds blocking the sky and the sun.

Once, this bird was heading towards the southern seas; by the time it swept across the water with its wings, it had already travelled 3,000 li. When it soared into the sky, the winds from the sea propelled it to fly. The gigantic bird usually had to rest for half a year before returning home again. Soaring with its back to the sky, there was nothing to obstruct it. Not understanding why the gigantic bird could fly so high, a little bird poked fun at it: When birds fly up, the highest we go is above the trees and eventually we return to land. Why do you need to soar 90,000 li?

The Zhuangzi classic


Documents

Chinese Ancient Literature List