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CAFF Monitoring Series Report Nr. 5March 2011
Circumpolar Protected Areas MonitoringArctic Protected Areas Monitoring Scheme Background Paper
CAFF Designated Agencies:
• DirectorateforNatureManagement,Trondheim,Norway
• EnvironmentCanada,Ottawa,Canada
• FaroeseMuseumofNaturalHistory,Tórshavn,FaroeIslands(KingdomofDenmark)
• FinnishMinistryoftheEnvironment,Helsinki,Finland
• IcelandicInstituteofNaturalHistory,Reykjavik,Iceland
• TheMinistryofDomesticAffairs,NatureandEnvironment,GovernmentofGreenland
• RussianFederationMinistryofNaturalResources,Moscow,Russia
• SwedishEnvironmentalProtectionAgency,Stockholm,Sweden
• UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior,FishandWildlifeService,Anchorage,Alaska
CAFF Permanent Participant Organisations:
• AleutInternationalAssociation(AIA)
• ArcticAthabaskanCouncil(AAC)
• Gwich’inCouncilInternational(GCI)
• InuitCircumpolarCouncil-(ICC)
• RussianIndigenousPeoplesoftheNorth(RAIPON)
• SaamiCouncil
Thispublicationshouldbecitedas:Livingston,D.(et al).2011.CircumpolarProtectedAreasMonitor-ing.ArcticProtectedAreasMonitoringSchemeBackgroundPaper.CAFFInternationalSecretariat,CAFFMonitoringSeriesReportNr.5.ISBN:978-9935-431-10-3
Backcoverphoto:NOAA
GraphicsbyHugoAhlenius
Formoreinformationpleasecontact:CAFF International SecretariatBorgir, Nordurslod600 Akureyri, IcelandPhone: +354 462-3350Fax: +354 462-3390Email: [email protected]: http://www.caff.is
Editing:MichaelSvobodaLayout:CourtneyPrice
Acknowledgements
___CAFFDesignatedArea
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Contents
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................ 5
1.0 Background .................................................................................................................................... 61.1TheCircumpolarBiodiversityMonitoringProgram(CBMP)........................................................................ 6Figure1:Arcticconservationareatopographicmap.............................................................................................. 61.2ExpertMonitoringGroups(EMGs)........................................................................................................................ 71.3ArcticProtectedAreasMonitoringScheme...................................................................................................... 7
2.0 Context ............................................................................................................................................ 82.1Protectedareas:whatandwhy?............................................................................................................................ 82.2Circumpolarprotectedareas:wherearethey?............................................................................................... 82.3Monitoringandmonitoringprogramsinprotectedareas............................................................................ 82.3.1MonitoringinEuropeandNorthAmerica:differentapproaches.......................................................... 82.3.2Observationsaboutmonitoring......................................................................................................................... 9
3.0 Current and projected issues facing Arctic protected areas ..................................................... 11Table1:KeyissuesaffectingprotectedareasinFinland....................................................................................113.1Climatechange..........................................................................................................................................................12Table2:ClimatechangeconcernsinfourEcoregionsofAlaska.....................................................................123.2Increasinghumanuse.............................................................................................................................................133.3Developmentwithinandsurroundingprotectedareas.............................................................................133.4Globalandlocalcontaminants............................................................................................................................133.6Lossoftraditionalknowledge..............................................................................................................................133.7Capacity,administrationandcoordination.....................................................................................................14
4.0 Current monitoring programs .................................................................................................... 144.1U.S.(Alaska)...................................................................................................................................................................14Figure2ProtectedAreasofAlaska...............................................................................................................................15Table4:PotentialAlaskanmonitoringindicators.................................................................................................174.2Canada...........................................................................................................................................................................18Table5:CanadianWesternArcticNationalParkMonitoringReport,2008.................................................18Figure3ProtectedAreasofCanada............................................................................................................................194.3Greenland.....................................................................................................................................................................20Table6:MonitoringprogramsinGreenland..........................................................................................................20Figure4ProtectedAreasofGreenland.......................................................................................................................224.4Iceland...........................................................................................................................................................................23Table7:Icelandprotectedareaswithmonitoringprograms...........................................................................244.5Norway..........................................................................................................................................................................27Figure5ProtectedAreasofIceland.............................................................................................................................27Figure6ProtectedAreasofNorway............................................................................................................................28Table8:MonitoringprogramsinNorway.................................................................................................................294.6Sweden............................................................................................................................................................................38Figure7ProtectedAreasofSweden............................................................................................................................39Table9:MonitoringprogramsinSweden................................................................................................................404.7Finland.............................................................................................................................................................................41Figure8ProtectedAreasofFinland.............................................................................................................................41Table10:MonitoringprogramsinFinland..............................................................................................................424.8Russia...............................................................................................................................................................................43
5.0 Themes, key ecosystem components, and indicators ................................................................ 445.1EuropeanUnion(EU)................................................................................................................................................44
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Figure9ProtectedAreasofRussia...............................................................................................................................44Table11:EUbiologicaldiversitythemesandindicators.....................................................................................455.2NorthAmerica............................................................................................................................................................45Table12:ProposedAlaskanmonitoringregime....................................................................................................465.3Selectionconsiderations...........................................................................................................................................47
6.0 Proposed approach for an APAMS .............................................................................................. 476.1Terminology.................................................................................................................................................................486.2APAMSprogram-monitoringschemecomponents...................................................................................49Table13:CBMPecosystem,monitoringtheme,keyvaluesandkeylinkedstressors............................50Table14:DraftAPAMS.....................................................................................................................................................511.CBMPecosystem:TerrestrialFloraandFauna......................................................................................................511(a)Flora...............................................................................................................................................................................511(b)Fauna.............................................................................................................................................................................512.CBMPecosystem:Freshwater...................................................................................................................................523.CBMPecosystem:Marine..........................................................................................................................................524.CBMPecosystem:Coastal.........................................................................................................................................525.Additionaltheme:localknowledge.......................................................................................................................52Table15:CurrentArcticprotectedareamonitoringprograms........................................................................53
7.0 Additional considerations and next steps .................................................................................. 54
8.0 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 55
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Executive Summary
TheCircumpolarBiodiversityMonitoringProgram(CBMP)isaninternationalforumofleadingscientistsandconservationexpertsfromtheeightArcticcountries,theIndigenousorganizationsoftheArcticCouncil,andkeyglobalconservationorganizations.AsthecornerstoneprogramoftheArcticCouncil’sConservationofArcticFloraandFauna(CAFF)WorkingGroup,theCBMP(www.cbmp.is)aimstoimprovedetectionandreportingtrendsinArcticbiodiversitybyharmonizingandintegratingbiodiversitymonitoringeffortsacrosstheArctic.TheCBMPhasbeenendorsedbytheArcticCouncilandisthebiodiversitycomponentoftheSustainingArcticObservingNetworks(SAON).
TheCBMPfocusesonfivekeyprogramareas:coordinationandintegrationofArcticmonitoring;datamanagement;capacitybuilding;communications,education,andoutreach;and,reporting.Withrespecttothefirstofthesefocusareas,coordinationandintegrationofArcticmonitoring;theCBMPisfacilitatinganintegrated,ecosystem-basedmanagementapproachtomonitoringthroughthedevelopmentofExpertMonitoringGroupsrepresentingfourmajorArcticbiomes(marine,coastal,freshwaterandterrestrial).TheCBMPisalsoexploring,withrepresentativesfromvariousagenciesresponsiblefornationalandregionalarcticprotectedareamanagement,theidentificationofasuiteofbiodiversitymeasuresthatwouldbecommonlymonitoredacrosstheArcticandimplementedinastandardizedwaybyeachagency.ThisinitiativeisintendedtoenablecoordinatedreportingofbiodiversityinArcticprotectedareasandtoprovideacircumpolarunderstandingofchangeoccurringwithinprotectedareasaroundthearcticregion.
Thisreport:• SummarizesthebackgroundandcontextforaArcticProtectedAreasMonitoringScheme(APAMS)• DescribescurrentbiodiversitymonitoringprogramsofArcticCouncilmemberstates;• Reviewstheroleofprotectedareasinexistingbiodiversitymonitoringprograms;• IdentifiesdifferencesbetweentheEuropeanandNorthAmericanapproaches;• OutlineschallengesandopportunitiesforanArcticProtectedAreasMonitoringScheme• Summarizescurrentandprojectedissuesfacingprotectedareas;• Proposesanapproachforintegratingcircumpolarprotectedareasmonitoring;• OutlinesfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredforthedevelopmentofanArcticProtectedAreas
Monitoringscheme.
Finally,thereportoutlinesfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredforthedevelopmentofanArcticProtectedAreasMonitoringScheme.
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1.0 Background
TheArcticisexperiencingpressurefromnumeroussources.Localpollution,long-rangecontaminanttransport,habitatfragmentation,meltingofsea-iceandpermafrostduetoclimatechange,over-harvesting,invasivespeciesandtheeffectsofregionalandeconomicdevelopmentandsubsequenttransportareamongthemanyfactorsaffectingArcticbiodiversity.
WhiletheeffectsofchangestoArcticbiodiversityareofcommonconcern,statusandtrenddataareinconsistentandavailableonasporadicbasisornotatall.Nationalandregionalinformationisoftenlacking,notwellsharedandgatheredusingdifferentmethodologiesandprotocols.AlthoughtherearenumerousbiodiversitymonitoringprogramsinplaceinthecircumpolarArcticthereislittlecoordinationofeffortsamongthem.Asaconsequence,ourunderstandingofthelargerpictureofecosystemintegrityintheArcticandthestatusandtrendsofArcticspeciesandtheirhabitatsisincomplete.
1.1 The Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Program (CBMP)
TheCBMPisbeingdevelopedbytheConservationofArcticFloraandFaunaWorkingGroupoftheArcticCouncil(CAFF)inresponsetodirectivesbytheArcticCouncilministers,numerousinternationalagreementsandconventionspromotingthevitalimportanceofbiodiversityconservationandpreservationofecosystems.Theneedforclear,comprehensive,consistentandintegratedArcticenvironmentalmonitoringandreportinghasalsobeenrecommendedbytheauthorsoftheArcticClimateImpactAssessmentreportandotherstudies.
Figure 1: Arctic conservation area topographic map
CAFF´smandateistoaddresstheconservationofArcticbiodiversity,andtocommunicatethefindingstothegovernmentsandresidentsoftheArctic,helpingtopromotepracticeswhichensurethesustainabilityoftheArctic´sresources.Withinthiscontext,theCBMPisintendedto:allowforbettercoordinationfortheimplementationandanalysesofmonitoringactivitiesintheArcticregion;facilitatemoreeffectivetransferofinformationtovariousstakeholders;enablewideraccesstomonitoringresultsandassociatedresearch;andfacilitatejointactivitiessuchascombininglogisticalandfinancialresources,commonanalysesandassessmentsofdataovertheentirecircumpolarregion.
TheCBMPhasinitiatedtwolinkedapproaches:theExpert Monitoring Groups (EMGs) andtheArctic Protected Areas Monitoring Scheme (APAMS).OnceAPAMS
hasidentifiedthemonitoringactivitiesthatcouldapplyacrosscircumpolarArcticprotectedareas,thedesignandimplementationoftheseactivitiesshouldbeconsistentwith,indeedidenticalto,therelevantmonitoringprotocolsdevelopedbytheEMGs.Bothprogramsaredescribedbelow.
Source: CAFF
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1.2 Expert Monitoring Groups (EMGs)
TheenormousgeographicalandbiophysicalscopeofArcticbiodiversitynecessitatesatargetedandstreamlinedapproachtomonitoring.Inordertoachieveacomprehensive,cost-effectivepan-Arcticmonitoringapproachwiththeabilitytodetectlarge-scaletrends,theCBMPhasidentifiedthecreationoffourEMGsaskeydeliverables(freshwater,terrestrial,marine,andcoastalEMGs)..
EachEMGiscomprisedofscientistsandcommunityexpertsfromnetwork-basedresearchandmonitoringprogramscurrentlyactiveintheArctic.Theprimarytasksofeachgrouparetodesignandimplementon-the-groundmonitoringintherespectiveareaofexpertiseandtodevelopstrategiestoovercomecriticalmonitoringgaps.Incarryingoutthesetasks,theEMGsutilizeexistingmonitoringdata,consultwithexpertsfrombothwithinandoutsidetheArctic,drawfromotherdisciplines,incorporatebothcommunityandscience-basedapproaches,developstandardizedprotocols,optimalsamplingschemesandanalyticaltools,andutilizeexistingandemergingtechnologiesasneeded.
AmajorfocusoftheEMGsisorganisms(andindicators)ofcriticalimportancetotheintegrityofArcticecosystems.Specialattentionisbeinggiventocommunity-basedobservationsandcitizenscience,recognizingthevaluableandsignificantcontributionsthatpeoplelivingintheregioncanmakeinmonitoringArcticbiodiversity.
ThefirststepEMGsoftencompleteisaninventoryofexistingbiodiversitymonitoringprogramsandbiodiversitytrendinformation,focusingonbothhistoricaldataandknowledge.TheresultsoftheinventoryprovidetheinformationnecessarytoassesswhatthecurrentArcticmonitoringcapacityisandenabletheestablishmentofhistoricalbaselinesandtrendsforArcticbiodiversity.ThesecondstepEMGscompleteentailsatechnicalgapanalysis.UsingtheinventoryresultsandlinkingtotheworkoftheEMGs,thegapanalysiswillpinpointthecurrentelementalandgeographiccoverageofbiodiversityandmonitoringandidentifystatisticaldesigndeficienciesandinefficiencies.Together,theinventoryandgapanalysiswillprovidethefoundationforthecompletionofacomprehensiveArcticBiodiversityMonitoringScheme.
1.3 Arctic Protected Areas Monitoring Scheme
TheCBMPisalsochargedwiththedevelopmentofasetofmonitoringprogramsthatcanbeappliedconsistentlyandeffectivelyacrossArcticprotectedareas.BecauseprotectedareasrepresentrelativelyundisturbedlandscapescharacteristicofmanyimportantArcticecosystemstheycanserveasimportantbenchmarksorcontrolsitesformonitoringprograms,ascomparedtomoredisturbedlandscapesoutsidetheprotectedareaboundaries.
TheArcticProtectedAreasMonitoringScheme(APAMS)isbeingledbyArcticcountryrepresentativesfamiliarwiththeArcticprotectedareasandwiththemonitoringprogramswithintheirrespectivejurisdictions.TheobjectiveistodevelopasuiteofindicatorswhichwillbemonitoredacrosstheArcticprotectedareasnetwork.Thiswillinvolveaninventoryofexistingprograms,theidentificationofcommonthemesandprograms,theidentificationofgapsandthedesignofacommonapproachtomonitoringbiodiversityincircumpolarprotectedareas
APAMSneedstotakeintoaccountanumberoffactorsincludingcurrentandprojectedissuesfacingArcticprotectedareas,currentmonitoringcapacityinthoseareasandopportunitiesforasetofcommonparameterstobeimplementedacrosstheprotectedareanetworkwithinexistingmonitoringcapacityandmandates.
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2.0 Context
2.1 Protected areas: what and why?
Protectedareasrepresentrelativelyundisturbedlandscapes.Theyarecreatedandmaintained,primarily,• tosupporttheconservationofbiodiversity,includingtheprotectionofrareandendangeredspecies;• fortheprotectionofimportantculturalheritage;and• fortheprotectionofspecialphysicalfeatures
Manyprotectedareascombineallthreeattributesandareimportantforrecreation,educationandeconomicdevelopment.
Protectedareasareimportantforresearchandmonitoringbecausetheycanserveasimportantbiophysical“benchmarks”or“controlsites”wherehuman-causedstressesareminimal,oratleastwelldefined.Thesesitesoffertheopportunitytomeasure“ecologicalintegrity”(definedbyParksCanadaas:“aconditionthatisdeterminedtobecharacteristicofitsnaturalregionandlikelytopersist,includingabioticcomponentsandthecompositionandabundanceofnativespeciesandbiologicalcommunities,ratesofchange,andsupportingprocesses”),andtomonitorchangesinkeyattributes,indicatorsandvalues.
“ProtectedareasarerecognizedbyalltheArcticcountriesaseffectiveandnecessarymeansofconservingArcticbiodiversityandsupportingthesustainableuseofbiologicalresources”.(CAFFCircumpolarProtectedAreaNetwork(CPAN)expertgroup).Whilethisexpertgroupiscurrentlydormant,itsworktodateisavaluablesourceofinformationtoinformandguidetheCBMP.
TheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)definesaprotectedareaas“anareaoflandand/orseaespeciallydedicatedtotheprotectionandmaintenanceofbiologicaldiversity,andofnaturalandassociatedculturalresources,andmanagedthroughlegalorothereffectivemeans.”Onepremiseisthatprotectedareasbesecureinperpetuity.Anotheristhattobesuccessful,protectedareasmustbedesignedandnetworkedinthebroaderregionallandscape,allowingforbuffersandmigrationcorridorsandcarefulmanagementoutside(andinside)theprotectedareasthemselves.ThisisoneoftheprinciplesoftheEuropeanUnion’sNatura2000program,whichreliesonamixofprotectedareasonstate-ownedandprivatelands,whicharesetinacontextofbroaderenvironmentalstewardship.
2.2 Circumpolar protected areas: where are they?
CAFFhasupdatedthecircumpolarprotectedareanetworkindexinthereportArctic Biodiversity Trends 2010 – Selected indicators of change.ThefirstprotectedareasdatasetfortheArcticwascreatedbyCAFFin1994andmostrecentlyupdatedin2010.ThisupdateddatasethasbeensubmittedasanArcticcomponenttoUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)WorldProtectedAreasDatabase.Icelandisleadingaprojectfocusingonthoseprotectedareaswhichhaveamarine/coastalcomponent.Thisprojectwillfurtherdeveloptheinformationontheseareasandcompileadatasetdetailingthenatureandextentoftheprotectionafforded.
2.3 Monitoring and monitoring programs in protected areas
2.3.1 Monitoring in Europe and North America: different approaches
Itisimportanttounderstandthecircumpolarandregionalcontextofprotectedareas,andunderstandthehistoricaldifferencesintheEuropeanandNorthAmericanapproachestotheestablishmentandmonitoringofprotectedareas.
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OneofthemainaimsoftheEuropeanUnionistostemthelossofbiodiversity.TheNatura2000networkisoneofthemaintoolstoachievethisgoal.Natura2000iscomposedofSpecialProtectedAreasdesignatedundertheEUBirdsDirectiveandSpecialAreasofConservationdesignatedundertheEUHabitatsDirective.ProtectedareasintheNatura2000networkareestablishedonamixofprivatelyownedlandsandstate-ownedlandsinEurope,althoughinsomeScandinaviancountriesmostprotectedareasareonstate-ownedland.IntherestofEurope,protectedareasarepartofabroadplanningframeworkthatincludesbothprivatelyownedlandandnationally-designatedformallyprotectedareasonpublicland.Asaconsequence,monitoringprogramsinEuropeoftendonotdistinguishbetweenprotectedareasandthebroaderlandscape.
TheapproachisdifferentinNorthAmerica,whereprotectedareasarelargelylocatedonfederalorstate-ownedlandandareformallydesignated.AlsoincontrasttomuchofEurope,manyNorthAmericanprotectedareasareverylarge,particularlyintheArctic.Thustheymay,foratime,maintainecologicalintegritybecauseoftheirsizeandbecauseoftherelativelyunderdevelopednatureoftheirsurroundings.Ineffect,manyprotectedareasintheNorthAmericanArcticarerepresentativeofthebroaderlandscape,asopposedto“islands”ofprotectioninotherwisedisturbedlandscapesastheyareinmuchofEurope.
MonitoringprogramsintheNorthAmericanArcticareatdifferentstagesofdevelopment,dependingonthemanagingagencyandthenationaljurisdiction.TheU.S.NationalParkServicehasastrongprogramfocusedonmonitoringchangeacrossavarietyofbioticandabioticmetrics.TheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceisintheprocessofdevelopinganinventoryandmonitoringprogramthatwilladdressbothlocalandecoregionalinformationneeds.NewlydevelopedconservationsciencepartnershipsintheformofLandscapeConservationCooperativeswillprovidecoordinationamongagencies,universitiesandprivatestakeholderstoensureafocusonbroaderissuesandtheroleprotectedareasplayintheconservationlandscape.
IntheCanadianArctic,ParksCanada(responsiblefornationalparks)andtheCanadianWildlifeService(responsibleforNationalWildlifeAreas,MigratoryBirdSanctuariesandMarineWildlifeAreas)focusmonitoringeffortsonthedesignatedprotectedareaswhileconsideringbroaderregionalissues.RegionalmonitoringeffortsintheCanadianArcticarerelativelylimitedandarenotwellcoordinatedamongresponsibleagencies(federalandterritorial).GiventhatmanyprotectedareasintheCanadianArcticareverylargeandthesurroundingregionisrelativelyundisturbed,monitoringinprotectedareasintheCanadianArcticis,fornowatleast,alsogenerallyindicativeofconditionsoutsidethoseprotectedareas.
2.3.2 Observations about monitoring
Aprinciplereasonforcreatingprotectedareasistoconservethespecialbiodiversityvalueswithinthem.Maintainingtherelativelyundisturbedlandscapesandecosystemswillhelpensurethattheimportantvaluesareconserved;atthesametime,theselandscapesandecosystemsofferimportantbiodiversitymonitoringopportunities.InthecontextofaAPAMSprogram,protectedareasoffertheopportunitytoserveasbiodiversitymonitoringlocationswherenaturalecosystemprocessescontinuerelativelyundisturbed,incontrasttoareaswhereindustrialandotherdevelopmentsarethenorm.Arcticprotectedareasaresubjecttorelativelyfewdisturbancesandthereforeprovideimportantbenchmarksorbaselinesforbiodiversitymonitoring.
Monitoringprogramsareessentialindeterminingwhetherinternalorexternalpressurestotheprotectedareaareaffectingthebiodiversityvalues.Theyarealsoessentialinassessingthesignificanceofchanges,andfacilitatingmitigatingactionifsuchactionsaredeterminedtobenecessary.Inotherwords,monitoringresultshelptodeterminewhatischangingandwhatmanagementactions,ifany,shouldbetaken.Monitoringcanalsodeterminetheeffectivenessofthosemanagementactions.
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Monitoringprogramsshouldhavespecificpurposestiedtospecificobjectivesinordertobeeffective.Otherwise,resourcesmaybewastedincollectingunnecessarydata.Norshouldmonitoringprogramsbeconfusedwithresearchprograms.Asnotedearlier,monitoringprogramsshouldbedesignedtoevaluatechangesintargetedindicators(“whatishappening?”);researchprogramsaredesignedtodeterminehowandwhysomethingishappening.Thetwoareclearlylinkedanditerative.
Long-termmonitoringisessentialindeterminingbaselineconditionsandtrends,andresearchiscriticaltounderstandingwhythingsarethewaytheyareandwhychangesareoccurring.Monitoringtoolsrangefromlong-termsamplingatconsistentsitestosatelliteimagery(includingtheuseofhistoricalimagery)toextrapolationandinterpolationfromtheexistingdatabase.Researchapproachesvaryaswell,accordingtotheneed,interest,andresourcesavailable.Intheend,effective,integratedandlong-termresearchandmonitoringprogramswilltelluswhatischanging,whyitischanging,whywemightbeconcerned,andwhatwemightdoaboutit,ifanything.
Toensurethatmonitoringprogramsareeffective,itiscriticalthatwebeclearaboutthequestionswearetryingtoanswer(e.g.,whatarethechangeswearelookingforandwhy),theappropriateindicatorsandhowthemonitoringprogramswillbecarriedout.BothphysicalandtemporalscalesareimportantinthecaseoftheAPAMS:thephysicalscaleiscircumpolarwhilethetemporalscaleishistorical,currentandongoing.
Eachprotectedareaisunique.Eacharearepresentsauniquecollectionofecosystemsandhabitats,floraandfauna,humanuses,andvulnerabilitytochangingconditionsandcircumstances.Thisistruewhetheranareaisoneofseveralinaparticularecoregion/ecozoneorstandsalone.Thisobviouslypresentschallengesinthedevelopmentofacommonmonitoringschemeforallcircumpolarprotectedareas.Furtheraddingtothechallenge,mostEuropeanmonitoringprogramsareregionalinnatureandnotfocusedspecificallyonprotectedareas.InNorthAmerica,protectedarea-specificmonitoringprogramsarethenorm,althoughcoverageisfarfromcompleteorcomprehensive.
Thischallengeiscompoundedbythetendencyforthe“stove-piping”ofmonitoringprograms,i.e.,thetendencyofdifferentorganizationstodeveloptheirownapproachestomonitoring,thuscreatingcompatibilityobstacles.Therearemanyexamplesofthis.ItisimportantthatastheworkbeingundertakenbytheExpertMonitoringGroupsisadvanced,itbeappropriatelylinkedtotheworkoftheAPAMSnetworkaswellastotheactivitiesofandotherrelevantprograms.Clearly,athoroughreviewofrelatedinitiativeswillbeessentialbeforeanyfinaldecisionsaretakenwithrespecttoAPAMSimplementartion.
Furtheraddingtothechallengeistheabsenceofintegratedmonitoringprogramsinmanyprotectedareas,whereprogramsexistatall.Finally,notallmonitoringprogramscanberelevanttoallprotectedareas.
Allthatsaid,theopportunitytocreateastandardizedsetofmonitoringactivitiesforprotectedareaswithintheArcticthatwillyieldcomparableresultsisanexcitingone.Thereisenormouspotentialforimprovingourindividualandcollectiveabilitiestoidentifyandtracktrendsinkeybiodiversityindicatorsinachangingclimateandonacircumpolarscale,usingprotectedareasasbenchmarksorcontrolsites.Inthiscontext,monitoringprogramswillservetwopurposes:individually,eachmonitoringprogramwilltrackchangesinkeycomponentsofecosystemswithineachprotectedarea;collectively,themonitoringprogramswillprovideanindicationofchangesinbiodiversityoccurringonacircumpolarscale.Thechallengeistoselectasetofmonitoringprogramsmostrelevanttoeachprotectedareaandindicativeofchangesincircumpolardiversity.Thisrequirestheidentificationofcommonthemesandasetofcommonindicatorsthatcanbemonitoredconsistentlyandrelativelyeasilyacrossthecircumpolarprotectedareanetwork.
Insomecases,thenecessarymonitoringprogramsarealreadybeingimplemented.Inothercases,there
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maybeopportunitiestodevelopnewprograms.ThechallengefortheAPAMSnetworkistodevelopamonitoringprogramthateffectivelyandefficientlyleveragesexistingprograms,utilizescommonmethodologiesandenablesanunderstandingofcircumpolarbiodiversitychangeinresponsetoasuiteofstressors.
3.0 Current and projected issues facing Arctic protected areas
Therearemanypressuresfacingprotectedareasworldwide.Mostoftheserelatetoincreasedhumanactivitywithinandadjacenttoprotectedareas.IntheArctic,climatechangeisamajorfactor.ThefollowingsectionsoverviewmanyofthepressuresthatArcticprotectedareasareexperiencinggenerally.Asonespecificexample,Table1highlightspressuresidentifiedbyFinlandwithrespecttoitsprotectedareas.
Table 1: Key issues affecting protected areas in Finland Issuesreferheretothreatsandpressurestobiodiversityconservationobjectivesorchallengesinmanagement.Issuesvarywithprotectedareatypeandlocation.(Source:HeikkiEeronheimo,Metsahallitus).
Protected area type and management\protection objectives
Key Issues
Established protected areasArctic-alpine,forestandpeatlandhabi-tatsandtheirspecies:Mainlymaintain-ingortolesserextentimprovingthestatusofthehabitatsandspecies,(activemanagemente.g.,somethreatenedspe-cies,seminaturalgrasslands).
Tourism,recreationaluse(hiking):mainlyinNationalParks.
Huntingpermitted(alsoinsomeStrictNatureReserves)atleastforlocalpeople.Commonly,commercialhuntingpermitted,butregulatedandmanagedbythestateauthorityMetsähallitus,NaturalHeritageServices(NHS).
Recreational(commercial)fishingusuallypermitted.Restrictionsfortypesoffishing(fishingnets,etc.)inmostareas.
Existinggoldminingisapressureinsomeprotectedareas.Miningisalsoafuturethreat,exceptinStrictNatureReservesandNationalParks,wherenewminesarenotpermitted.
Reindeerherding:overgrazingbyreindeersisaprobleminmanyareas.Localerosionbyrecreationalvehicles.
Wilderness areasArctic-alpine,forestandpeatlandhabitatsandtheirspecies:Establishedforsafeguardingwildernesscharacter,Saamiculture,traditionalnature-basedlivelihoodculture(e.g.,reindeerherding,hunting,fishing)andpromotingmultipleuseofnature.
Forestrypermittedinsomeareasandinsmallscale,butisnotpracticedinrecentyearsnorwillbeinthenearfuture.
Managingthelevelofnature-basedlivelihood.
Reindeerherding:overgrazingbyreindeersisaprobleminmanyareas.Localbyrecreationalvehicles.
State areas reserved for protection Areabelongingmainlyinnationalcon-servationprogrammes.Arctic-alpine,forestandpeatlandhabi-tatsandtheirspecies.
Seeallprotectedareasabove.
Notyetestablished>regulationspartlymissing,andthusunclear(forindividualpersons,sometypesoflanduse,e.g.,mining).
Natura 2000 networkHabitatsandspecieswhicharelistedinEUhabitatsdirective(proposed=SitesofCommunityImportanceandestablished=SPeeecialAreaofConservation)orbirdsdirective(SpecialProtectedArea):MainlymaintainingortolesserextentimprovingthestatusofthehabitatsandspeciesintheEU-directives(activemanagemente.g.,somedecliningspecies,seminaturalgrasslands).
Challenge:Managementofareas,whicharemanagedbyothermeasuresthannatureconservationareas.ThisisofminorimportancesinceinFinnishArcticareamostoftheNatura-areasarestateownedbyPAsorareasreservedforprotectionandmanagedNHS.Otherkeyissuesaremuchthesameinprotectedareas.
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3.1 Climate change
Inmany,ifnotall,Arcticprotectedareas,climatechangeishavingwidespreadandprofoundeffectsonhabitats,bioticcommunities,humanactivities,accessibility,diseaseandotheraspectsofbiodiversity.Theconsequenceswillincludechangesinthecharacteristicsofprotectedareas,thenatureofhumanuseinthoseareasandthetypesofmanagementactionsrequiredtomaintainprotectedareavaluesandmission.Climatechangemayresultinthedisappearanceordramaticmodificationofkeyfeaturesofaprotectedarea(e.g.,glaciersandpermafrostfeatures),threatstowildlifepopulationsandendemicspecies,theintroductionofnon-nativespeciesandnewdiseases,reductionofriverflowsandsoon,withconsequentecosystemeffects.Offshore,thelossofseaicewillhavesignificantandwide-rangingeffectsontheecologyofmostArcticmarinemammals.
Changesareoccurringrapidlyinmanyareas.Seaiceisdisappearingatanacceleratedrate.Otherexamplesincludeincreasedmeltingofglaciers,unprecedentedoutbreaksofinvasiveandharmfulinsects(e.g.,themountainpinebeetle)andexpansionnorth(andintohigherelevations)ofthenormalrangesof“southern”mammals,reptiles,vegetationandbirds.Table2summarizesclimatechangeconcernsinfourecoregionsinAlaska.Monitoringprogramswillneedtobeinnovative,robust,sufficientlydetailedandflexibleiftheyaretocapturethesechanges.
Table 2: Climate change concerns in four Ecoregions of Alaska
Polar Bering Coast Interior Alaska North Pacific Coast
Alteredmanagementofharvestedspecies
Changeinplantandanimalcommunitycompositionandstructure
Alteredfireregimes(in-creaseddryinglikelytocausemorefrequentandintensefires)
Alteredphenology(betterunderstoodinterrestrialecosystems)
Altereddistributionofinvasivespecies(relatingtodetectionandcontrol)
Dryingofwetlands Changesininvasivespeciesdiversityanddistribution
Waterquality,especiallymeltingofglaciers,surfacewaterflow,waterchemistry,andtiming&qualityoffreshwaterenteringmarinesys-tems(andconsequentlocaleffectsonsalinity).
Alteredwaterqualityandquantity
Changesinamountandtim-ingofprecipitation
Alteredsubsistenceman-agement(populationsizes,reproductionanddemog-raphy;harvestregulations;phenology)
Alteredanimalcommunitydynamics(terrestrialandmarine),duetospecies’dif-ferentialresponsestoclimatechange.
Effectsonbiologicaldiversity(includinglegalandstatutoryramifications)
Alterationstoterrestrialhydrology
Effectsonrareanddecliningspeciesandhabitats(identifylosses,determineconserva-tionactionsneeded)
Changesinoceandynamics(upwellings,acidification,alteredcurrents,impactsonmarinefoodwebs,nutrientflows,effectsonseabirds)
Changesinthetypes,levelsandspatialdistributionofanthropogenicactivities
Alterationstowaterqual-ityandquantity(includingmanagementofupstreamactivities)
Changeinplantcommunitycompositionandstructure
Effectsonspeciescoveredbytreaties(forwhichbroad-scalecoordinationisessen-tial)
Alterationstomigratoryandinvasivespecies.
Source:Woodward,A.,andE.Beever.2010.FrameworkforecologicalmonitoringonlandsofAlaskaNationalWildlifeRefugesandtheirpartners:Anchorage,Alaska.USDepartmentoftheInterior,USGeologicalSurvey,Open-FileReport2010-xxx.V+88pgsDRAFT14Dec09
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3.2 Increasing human use
Ashumanpopulationscontinuetoincrease,protectedareaseverywherearecomingunderincreaseddirecthumanpressurefromsimplevisitation,recreation,harvestingandotheruses(includingresearchandmonitoring).Insomeareasbackcountryuseisincreasing.recreationalvehicletrafficinEuropeanprotectedareas,andcausingconcern.Day-useofprotectedareasislikelytoincreasewithpotentialconsequencesforeasilyaccessibleareas.Overall,humanactivitieswillhaveincreasinglysignificantimpactsonecosystems,archaeologicalresourcesandtraditionalculturaluses.Monitoringprogramsmustcapturetheseandotherchangesresultingfromchangesinhumanactivities.
3.3 Development within and surrounding protected areas
Protectedareaecosystemsarenecessarilydirectlylinkedtosurroundingareas.Boundariesaretransparenttowildlifeandplantsandtheeffectsofactivitiesoutsideprotectedareas(andwithinprotectedareas)willhaveconsequenteffectsontheotherside.Ashumanpressuresincreaseandclimatechangeeffectsbecomemoreacute,fragmentation,contamination,lossofhabitatandoveruseinareasadjacenttoprotectedareasarelikelytoincrease,creatingpressuresontheprotectedareasthemselves.WithinsomeEuropeanprotectedareas,reindeerovergrazingisalreadyaseriousthreattoecosystemintegrity.
Pressuresfromforestry,pipelinedevelopment,mining,roadsandcommunitygrowthareamongthoseexpectedtogrowsignificantlyaspopulationsincreaseanddemandsfornaturalresources,particularlyminerals,oilandgas,growapace.Thedirectandindirecteffectsofindustrialdevelopmentadjacenttoprotectedareasaresignificantbutthepressuretoopenprotectedareastodevelopmentisperhapsthegreaterconcern.
3.4 Global and local contaminants
Long-rangeatmosphericandoceanictransportmechanismsarebringingcontaminantstoprotectedareas.Contaminantsarealsobeingintroducedthroughdevelopmentoflocalnaturalresources(e.g.,mining,oilandgasdevelopment)andaccessbymotorizedvehicles.Contaminantscausenumerousandvariedchronicandacuteeffects,somesubtleandlong-term,someobviousandimmediate.Monitoringprogramsneedtobedesignedaccordingly.
3.5Non-nativeinvasivespeciesAsairandwatertemperaturesincrease,non-nativespeciesareincreasinglyappearingandpersistinginareaswheretheydidnotpreviouslyexist.Thesenon-nativespeciescompetewith(andsometimesdisplace)nativespeciesforpreyorhabitat,bringwiththemnewdiseasesandparasitesandaltertheecosysteminsignificantways.Increasedhumanaccesstoprotectedareasalsobringstheriskofintroducingnewspecies,withconsequentecosystemchanges.
3.6 Loss of traditional knowledge
Traditionalknowledge(TK)relatedtoprotectedareasisdiminishinggloballyasaconsequenceofmanyfactorsincludinginadequatedocumentation,thepassingonofTKholders,inappropriateintegrationofTKinanalysesanddecision-making,inadequateinstitutionalstructures,politicaldisregardordisrespectforthevalueofTK,andotherreasons(e.g.,lossoflinguisticdiversity).ImprovedmechanismsareneededtoensurethatTKisfullyincorporatedinprotectedareadecision-making(includingthedesignandimplementationofmonitoringprogramsandtheapplicationoftheresultsoftheseprograms).Theeffectivenessofthesemeasureswillrequiresoundmonitoringprogramsandadaptivemanagement.
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3.7 Capacity, administration and coordination
Inadditiontotheneededadjustmentofmonitoringprogramssotheyaccommodaterapidlychangingconditions,theseprogramsalsoface“administrative”challenges.Forexample,effectivemonitoringprogramsrequiresustainedfundingandretentionofexpertstaff,whichisalwaysadifficultchallenge.MonitoringprogramsmustalsobecompatibleandthereforeshouldbedevelopedcollaborativelyamongArcticnationssothatmethodologiesareconsistent,theresultsarecomparableandconsistentlyandquicklyreportedandthetechnicalandlogisticalissuesareaddressedpragmatically.
ThedifferentapproachestomonitoringinEuropeandNorthAmericareferencedearlierpresentsignificantchallenges.InEurope,theEUdirectivesformthebasisofmuchmonitoringandthatmonitoringtendstoberegionalornationwideratherthanfocusedontheprotectedareas,versustheNorthAmericanapproachwhereprotectedarea-specificmonitoringisoftenthenorm.
Sustainedeffortbymembernationswillberequiredtoovercomethetendencyforeachtogoitsownwayandtoovercomethetendencyofagenciestoworkseparatelyratherthancollaborativelywhenitcomestobiophysicalresearchandmonitoringprograms(andotheractivities).
Investmentinhumancapacityisvital.Effectivelong-termmonitoringreliesonhighlytrainedscientistsstaffedinpositionswheretheycandotheirjobseffectivelyandefficientlyandwheretheycanworkwithtrainedandknowledgeablelocalpeople.
Finally,whileitisrelativelysimpletodevelopasetofmonitoringprogramsthatcouldbeimplementedacrosscircumpolarprotectedareas,itwillbefarmorechallengingtoimplementandsustainthiscommitment.
4.0 Current monitoring programs
Ineveryjurisdiction—state,provincial,territorial,federal—thereisamultiplicityofenvironmentalmonitoringprograms.InCanada’sNorthwestTerritoriesalonethereareatleast278monitoringprograms,mostofwhichareuncoordinatedandtheresultsofwhichareoftenincompatible.Unfortunately,thissituationappearstobethenormnationallyandinternationally.Compoundingthechallengeofdevelopingacomprehensiveunderstandingofchangesincircumpolarbiodiversityisthedifficultyinidentifyingandinventoryingexisting(andpast)monitoringprograms,anexercisewhichinturnpalesincomparisontocataloguingthedatacapturedintherespectiveprogramsinamannerthatisconsistentacrossprogramsandreadilyavailabletootherusers.
ThegenericallydifferentapproachestakeninNorthAmericaandEuropewithrespecttomonitoringofprotectedareaspresentafurthercomplication.Broadly,theformer(CanadaandtheU.S.)haveagency-drivenmonitoringprogramsspecificallytargetingprotectedareas.Ontheotherhand,EuropeancountriestendtohaveregionalprogramsdriveninlargepartbyEuropeanUniondirectives.Theseprogramsoftendonotfocusonprotectedareaspersebutdoincludeprotectedareas.
ThefollowingsectionsoverviewtheprotectedareamonitoringprogramsandapproachescurrentlyinplaceinArcticcountries.
4.1 U.S. (Alaska)
EcologicalmonitoringinAlaskanprotectedareashasalonghistory.Itisbroad-rangingandinthecaseofgovernment-runmonitoringprograms,isundertakenbynumerousagencies,notablytheU.S.FishandWildlifeService(USFWS),theAlaskaDepartmentofFishandGame,theU.S.ForestService,theU.S.NationalParkServiceandtheBureauofLandManagement.However,aswithmanyotherjurisdictions,
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monitoringandresearcheffortsareoftenundertakenbyseparateagenciesornon-governmentalentitiesindependentlyofoneanother.Differentorganizationsmayfollowdifferentmonitoringprotocolsandtheprogramsthemselvesareoftennotwellintegratedacrossorwithin.StateandfederalauthoritiesinAlaskaareworkingtoimprovethissituation,inpartthroughtheadventofLandscapeConservationCooperatives(LCCs)andprogramssuchastheNorthSlopeScienceInitiativesothatcollectivelyagenciesandorganizationsarebetterabletotrackchangesinbiodiversityatvariousspecialresolutions(refuge,ecoregionandstate-wide).
Inthiscontext,theU.S.NationalParkServicehasdesignedandimplementedanintegratedmonitoringprogramforAlaskannationalparks,theresultsofwhichareintendedtoimproveunderstandingofparkecosystems,informwiseparkmanagementandtobesharedwithotherjurisdictions,particularlythoseintheArctic.
TheArcticNetworkMonitoringProgramincludesseveralcoreinventories:anaturalresourcebibliography;basecartographicdata;geologyandsoilsmaps;weatherdata;airqualitydataandairqualitystationlocations;waterbodylocation,classificationandwaterqualitydata;vegetationmap;specieslist(includingvertebratesandvascularplants);andspeciesdistributionandstatusdata.
Nationalparkvitalsignsmonitoringtracksasubsetofphysical,chemicalandbiologicalelementsandprocessesofparkecosystemsselectedtorepresenttheoverallhealthorconditionofparkresources,knownorhypothesizedeffectsofstressors,orelementsthathaveimportanthumanvalues.Table3summarizestheU.S.NationalParkServiceArcticNetworkMonitoringProgram.
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
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Figure 2 Protected Areas of Alaska
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Table 3: Vital signs of the Alaskan National Park Service Arctic Network
NationalParkslisedinclude:BeringLandsBridge(BELA),CapeKrusenstern(CAKR),GatresoftheArctic(GAAR),KobukValley(KOVA),andNoatak(NOAT).
MonitoringFramework
Vital Sign Parks Where Monitored
BELA CAKR GAAR KOVA NOAT
AirandClimate Airbornecontaminants
Climate
Snowpack
GeologyandSoils Coastalerosion
Seaice
Permafrost
Water Lakecommunitiesandecosystems
Lagooncommunitiesandecosystems
Streamcommunitiesandecosystems
Surfacewaterdynamics
BiologicalIntegrity Landbirds
Yellow-billedloons
Brownbears
Dall’ssheep
Muskox
Caribou
Moose
Fishassemblages
Smallmammalassemblages
Terrestrialvegetationandsoils
Invasive/exoticspecies
HumanUse Subsistence/harvest
Pointsourcehumaneffects
Landscapes Fireextentandseverity
Landscapepatternsanddynamics
TheUSFWShasdevelopedastrategicplanandanoperationalblueprintforinventoryandmonitoringofnationalwildliferefuges.ThiswillenabletheUSFWStoassessthevulnerabilityofwildliferefugestoclimatechangeandassociatedstressors,includingchangesinprecipitationpatterns,watershortages,increasedfirerisk,contaminants,landusechangesandincreasesinweedspecies,pestsanddiseasepathogens.TheinventoryandmonitoringprogramshouldalsoenabletheUSFWStodetectchangesinbiodiversity(e.g.,changesinbiomesandspeciesranges,migrationpatternsandextinctionrates),toassessthevulnerabilityofcoastalrefugesofsealevelrise,risingoceantemperaturesandoceanacidificationandtoassessthevulnerabilityofArcticrefugestoclimatechanges.Ultimatelythis
Source:RobertA.Winfree,NationalParksServiceAlaskaVitalsignsforwhichthenetworkwilldevelopprotocolsandimplementmonitoringwithfundingfromthe
vitalsignsorwaterqualitymonitoringprogram.Vitalsignsthatarecurrentlybeingmonitoredlong-termbyanetworkpark,anotherNPSprogramorby
anotherfederalorstateagency.Thenetworkwillcollaboratewiththeseothermonitoringeffortswhereappropriatebutwillnotusevitalsignsorwaterqualitymonitoringprogramfunds.
Vitalsignsforwhichmonitoringwilllikelybedoneinthefuturebutwhichcannotcurrentlybeimplementedduetolimitedstaffandfunding.
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informationwillinformadaptationstrategies.
ProposedUSFWSmonitoringindicators(Table4andTable12)areintended,amongotherthings,toenabletheUSFWStodeterminetrendsinpopulationsizeofspeciesusedforsubsistence;todeterminewhetherintactecosystemsandnaturalprocessesarebeingconservedwithinandacrossrefuges;todeterminepopulationtrendsinfocalspecies;andtodeterminetrendsinwaterqualityandwaterquantity.
CollaborativelandscapeconservationhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantstepinaddressingconservationconcernsbyAlaskaandthefederaldepartmentsoftheInterior,CommerceandAgriculture.PartneragenciesinLCCsarebeginningtoconsiderhowtoshareexpertiseandcapacitytoachievecommonlandscapeconservationgoals.LCCswillbringtogetherfederal,state,tribal,andlocalgovernmentswithprivatelandowners,academiaandorganizationstodevelopstrategiesforunderstandingandrespondingtolandscape-levelimpacts
TheNorthSlopeScienceInitiative(NSSI)wasdevelopedbyfederal,stateandlocalgovernmentswithtrustresponsibilitiesforlandandoceanmanagementtofacilitateandimprovethecollectionanddisseminationofecosysteminformationpertainingtotheAlaskanNorthSloperegion,includingcoastalandoffshoreregions.Itwillimprovescientificandregulatoryunderstandingofterrestrial,aquaticandmarineecosystemsforconsiderationinthecontextofresourcedevelopmentactivitiesandclimatechange.
Table 4: Potential Alaskan monitoring indicators
Indicator Ecoregion
Polar Bering Coast Interior Alaska North Pacific Coast
AirandClimate BeaufortGyreSeaicedistributionPhenology,ShorefasticedistributionPhenology
MarineclimateSeaicedistributionPhenologyShorefasticedistribu-tionPhenologyOceancurrents
CO2levels(releasebymeltingpermafrostandpeatdegradation,fires;sequestrationbyplantgrowth)
SeaicedistributionPhenology
GeologyandSoils Marine-derivednutri-ents
Marine-derivednutri-ents
Marine-derivednutri-entsPermafrostdistributionandmelting
Marine-derivednutri-entsIsostaticreboundVolcanism
WaterQualityandQuantity
Marineconditions MarineconditionsAspectsofKuskokwinRiverwaterAspectsofYukon,KobukRivers
MarineconditionsRiverflowandfloodriskRiver-icebreakup
Marineconditions(pol-lutants,acidification,climaticinfluence)
BiologicalIntegrity MigratorybirdsCaribouherdsPhenology(insects,seaice,vegetation,green-up,migratorybirds)
Belugawhales,OthermigratorylargemarinemammalsMigratorybirdsAnadromousfishesCaribouherdsPhenology(ice,vegetation,green-up,migratorybirds)
MigratorybirdsAnadromousfishesCaribouherdsPhenology(insects,riverice,vegetation,green-up,migratorybirds,fireseason)
WhalesNorthernfursealsOthermigratorylargemarinemammalsMarinefoodwebPhenology(whalemigrations,vegetationgreen-up,migratorybirds)
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Indicator Ecoregion
Polar Bering Coast Interior Alaska North Pacific Coast
AnthropogenicStress-ors
HarvestofmigratoryanimalsFiremanagement
HarvestofmigratoryanimalsFiremanagement
HarvestofmigratoryanimalsFiremanagement
HarvestofmigratoryanimalsFiremanagementOilandgasdevelop-ment
Source:Woodward,A.,andE.Beever.2010.FrameworkforecologicalmonitoringonlandsofAlaskaNationalWildlifeRefugesandtheirpartners:Anchorage,Alaska.USDepartmentoftheInterior,USGeologicalSurvey,Open-FileReport2010-xxx.V+88pagesDRAFT14Dec09)
4.2 Canada
Asnotedearlier,thereisamultiplicityofmonitoringprogramsoccurringwithinprotectedareasinCanada.ParksCanadamonitoringprogramsforWesternArcticNationalParksaresummarizedinTable5.
Table 5: Canadian Western Arctic National Park Monitoring Report, 2008
Monitoring Aulavik NP Ivvavik NP Tuktut Nogait NP Pingo Canadian Landmark
Wildlife
Wildlifecards
NWT-Nunavutbirdchecklist
Aquaticinvertebratemonitoring
Lemmingwinternextmonitoring
Bluenose-westcariboumonitoring
Porcupinecariboumonitoring
Habitat
Satellitemonitoringofnorthernecosystems
Pingomonitoring
Human Use
FirthRivercampsitemonitoring
Humanusemonitoring
Cultural Resources
TuktutNogaitNPculturalresourcemonitoring
Environmental Processes
Weathermonitoring
Riverflowmonitoring
Waterqualitymonitoring
Freshsurfacewatermappingandmonitoring(RA-DARSAT)
Solid Waste
GroundwatermonitoringatKomakukBeach
TheprimarygoalofParksCanadaistoensure“ecologicalintegrity”withinitsparksystem.ParksCanadahasselectedindicatorsthroughwhichitmeasurestrendsinecosystemintegrity,includingabioticcomponents(e.g.,water,rocks);landscapediversitycomponents(e.g.,tundra,rainforest,grasslands);speciesdiversitycomponents(e.g.,bears,trees,birds);andecosystemprocesscomponents(e.g.,fire,
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floods,predation).
ParksCanadausesthefollowingbreakdown:
Indicator:glaciersandpermanenticeMeasure:glaciermassbalanceMeasure Assessment and Trend:improving,stable,ordeclining(asappropriate)Data Quality:deficient,fair,good(asappropriate)
Themaintenanceofecosystemintegrityisguidedbydiscreteobjectivesrelevanttotheparticularpark.Forexample,anobjectivemaybetomaintainallnativespecieswithinaparkatviablepopulationlevels,tomaintainforestecosystemproductivitythatoptimizesrepresentationandhabitatrequirementsortomaintainlakeandstreamwaterqualityandquantityatpredefinedlevels.Withclimatechangeitmaywellbeimpossibletomaintain“ecologicalintegrity”asdefinedbyParksCanadaasthatparticulardefinitionassumesalevelofstationaritythatlikelynolongerappliesbuttheapproachclearlyallowstrendstobeidentifiedandtrackedonanationalscale.
MonitoringtodetermineecologicalintegrityinnationalparksiscarriedoutonthegroundbyParksCanadaanditspartners,byremotesensingthroughCanada’sParkSpaceprogram,throughotheragenciesandthroughtheapplicationoftraditionalecologicalknowledge.
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
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Figure 3 Protected Areas of Canada
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4.3 Greenland
Greenlanddoesnothavespecificprotectedareamonitoringprograms.Nordoesithaveanationalmonitoringstrategyalthoughoneisunderdevelopment.
Currently,government-monitoringeffortsarefocusedonharvestedresources,threatmonitoringinresponsetopressuresfromindustrialdevelopment(includingmining,oilandgasexploration,andincreasedshipping),wildlifemonitoringandobservationsbytheDanishArmy.Somemonitoringactivitiesdofocusonspeciesthatoccurinprotectedareasandthusprovideinformationtosupportbiodiversityassessments(Table6).
Greenland’smonitoringprogramscurrentlyincludethefollowing:
• GreenlandEcosystemMonitoring(GEM)attwosites,ofwhichoneisattheZackenbergResearchStationinNortheastGreenlandNationalParkandtheothernearNuuk(notwithinaprotectedarea);GreenlandInstituteofNaturalResources,monitoringofharvestedspecies(someinprotectedareas),threatmonitoring(someinprotectedareas),andlocalmonitoringbynon-scientists(someinprotectedareas).TheZackenbergmonitoringprogramhasbeenunderwaysince1995andincludesmonitoringonfivethemes:climate,marine,geological,glacial,andbiological.Thelatterincludesmonitoringofthedynamicsofalargevarietyoforganismsandbiologicalprocessesinthelocalecosystems;
• Monitoringofharvestedspecies,insomecasesdatingbackover100years,includingnarwhal,otherwhales,walrus,harbourseal,polarbear,muskox,reindeer,fox,hare,guillemot,eider,grouse,cod,halibut,lumpsucker,salmon,redfish,crab,shrimpandmollusks.Manyofthesespeciesoccurinprotectedareasalthoughthemonitoringeffortvarieswiththespecies;
• Threatmonitoringincludingmonitoringthenumberofexpeditions/visitors(EastGreenlandNationalParkandotherprotectedareas),monitoringadhocvisitstoatleastoneprotectedarea,monitoringharvestedspeciesinprotectedareaswithquotas(e.g.,polarbear,walrus,narwhal,beluga,muskoxandcaribou)andmonitoringgrazingeffectsattwosites,neitherofwhichareinprotectedareas;and,
• Localmonitoringbynon-scientistsincludingpatrol-basedrecordingofwildlifebySiriusSledgePatrolinEastGreenlandNationalPark,community-basedmonitoringofselectedspecies,threatsandclimateparameters(underdevelopment)andapublicobservationdatabase(underdevelopment)wheremembersofthepubliccanreportsightingsofspecies,climateobservationsandobservationsofotherenvironmentalmatters.
Table 6: Monitoring programs in Greenland
ProtectedAreas
KeyEcosystemComponents
KeyIssues
MonitoringProgram(s)
Indicator(s) Other Issues
MelvilleBayNa-tureReserve
NarwhalPolarbears
Populationstatus
Marinemammalmonitoringprogramme(GINR)
Populationsize
IlulissatIcefiord,WorldHeritageSite
GlacierIceHalibut
Erosion Fishmonitoringprogramme(seeGINR)AdhocvisitsbysitemanagerErosionmonitoring(non-data-based)
Halibutpopula-tionsize
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ProtectedAreas
KeyEcosystemComponents
KeyIssues
MonitoringProgram(s)
Indicator(s) Other Issues
UnnartoqHotSprings
Tourism AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
Klosterdalen Birchforest AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
Tiningnertoq Birchforest AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
Akilia Oldrockforma-tions
AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
NorthandEastGreenlandNationalPark/UNESCOBio-sphereReserve
VegetationzonesWildlife
ClimatechangeOilandmineralexplorationTourism
1.ZackenbergEcologicalRe-searchOperationshttp://www.zackenberg.dk/monitoring.Sitespecific,coveringlessthanonepercentoftheNationalPark.Fivesubcomponents:-ClimateBasis-MarineBasis-GeoBasis-GlacioBasis-BioBasis
2.Wildliferecordingsduringpa-trolactivities(non-scientist)3.Adhocbirdandmammalsurveys4.Impactmonitoring5.AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
1.Various2.Numberofob-servations3.Populationsize/health/distribution4.Expeditionsandvisitornumbers
NationalParkin-cludestwoRamsarsites
Qinnguadalen Birchforest AdhocvisitsbyNNPANAdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
Ikkafjorden IkkaitBacteriaFungi
AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
Austmannadalen SheepReindeer
Hunting Terrestrialmammalmonitoringprgogramme(GINR)
Reindeerpopula-tionsize,sexandageStructure
ArnangarnupQoorua/Paradis-dalenn.
MuskoxVegetation
Hunting Terrestrialmammalmonitoringprogramme(GINR)
Populationsize,sexandageStructure
Kitsissunnguit(GrønneEjland)
LumpsuckerArcticternEiderOtherbirdspe-cies
Huntingandfishing
Adhocpopulationassessment(GINR)
Populationsize(birds)
AlsoRamsarsite
ArcticResearchStation
AdhocvisitsbyNNPAN
OtherProtectedAreas
ThirteenBirdPro-tectionAreas
GuillemotEiderOtherbirdspe-cies
Hunting SeaBirdMonitoringProgramme(GINR)Adhocpopulationassessment
Populationsize
ElevenRamsarsites
GeeseArcticternEiderOtherbirdspe-cies
Hunting Adhocpopulationassessment(GINR)
Populationsize
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ProtectedAreas
KeyEcosystemComponents
KeyIssues
MonitoringProgram(s)
Indicator(s) Other Issues
Birdcoloniespro-tectionzones
GuillemotRazorbillLittleaukKittiwakeFulmarCormorantEiderKingsEiderBlackguillemotPuffinArcticternGulls
Hunting Populationsize(notallspecies)
Source:ElmerTopp-Jørgensen,DepartmentofDomesticAffairs,GovernmentofGreenland
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
Only protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
Figure 4 Protected Areas of Greenland
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4.4 Iceland
Icelanddoesnothavespecificprotectedareamonitoringprograms.Aswithmanyothercountries,monitoringinIcelandisnotaswelldevelopedorstructuredasitmight.Therearefewinhabitants;itisarelativelybigcountry;limitedfundingandexpertise.Differentbodiesincludingacademia,governmentinstitutes,andlocalinstitutescarryoutmonitoring.Gatheringandcollatingdataiscomplicatedandreliestoalargeextentonindividualresearchers.
MonitoringprogramsinIcelandoftendonotdifferentiateprotectedareasfromtherestofthecountryandinsomecasesmonitoringprogramsonlyincludeaportionofprotectedareas(Table7).Thefocusofmonitoringprogramsismainlybirdsandfishstocksandthenplantsandvegetation.Whalesandsealsgetlittleattentionandterrestrialmammalmonitoringislimitedalthoughreindeers(notnativeforIceland)havebeenmonitoredformanyyears.Goodhuntingandfishingstatisticisinplaceandannualmonitoringofplankton.
Icelandhasplansinplacetoreorganizeitsenvironmentalmonitoringprogramsandtorefocuscollaborativeefforts.Thisincludesencouragingthedifferentinstitutesandagenciestoworktogetherandhavecommonoraccessibledatabases,startingwithplantsandbirds.Anewmonitoringschemeforallnaturallyoccurringbirdspeciesincludingarcticpassagebirdsandothermigratoryspeciesisunderway.Inthemeantime,existingbird-relateddatabasesincludemid-winterbirdcounts,theBirdRingingSchemeanddatabasesforindividualspecies(seaeagle,ptarmigan,Slavoniangrebe,Brentgoose,eider,etc).Icelandalsoholdsdatabasesforinvertebrates,insects,marinefish,plankton(phyto-andzooplankton)whalesandplants,includinghabitat-typeandvegetationmaps.Drawingfromallavailabledata,Icelandhaspreparedadraftreportonbirdswhichincludesdataqualityassessments,speciespopulationsizeandtrendsandrevisionstotheRedList.Acomplete,quantitativeandrepeatablesurveyofcliff-breedingseabirdsinIcelandwasfirstcarriedoutin1983-1985andreplicatedin2006-2008,providinganewbaselineforimprovedmonitoring.
Withrespecttomarineareas,theBIOICEprojecttodeterminedistributionofbenthosinIcelandicwatershasconcludedafter19expeditions.Resultsincluded1390samplestakenfrom579locationsfrom20-3000mdepth,4.5millionanimalscollectedandtheidentificationof28previouslyunknownspecies.Thiswasabaselinestudywithverylimitedfollowup.
Icelandhascompletedaninventoryofgeothermalareasandhasmappedhabitattypesinthemidhighlandandispreparingtodefineandmaphabitattypesforlowlandareasincludingfreshwaterandcoastalareas.IcelandwilldothisusingthesamemethodologyasisusedinNatura2000asIcelandisamemberstateintheBernconventionwhereEmeraldNetworkisaparallelprogram.ThiswillgivetheopportunitytomonitornaturalhabitatsandspeciesinaccordancewithEUcountriesasdescribedinTable11andwillalsogiveopportunitytouseremotesensingforlong-termmonitoringofhabitattypes.Icelandalsoparticipatesininternational,monitoringprogramssuchascollectingmosssampleseveryfiveyearsforheavymetalanalysesandisamemberoftheNOBANIS-EuropeanNetworkonInvasiveAlienSpecies.ThisprojectisdevelopingacommondatabaseonalienspeciesandinvasivespeciesincludingthoseinIceland.
Severalgovernmentalinstitutionsareinvolvedinmonitoringofbiodiversity(research)inIcelandandkeepdatabasesintheirfield,amongthemare:The Icelandic Institute of Natural History(theInstituteconductsbasicandappliedresearchandmonitoringonthenatureofIcelandwithemphasisonbotany,ecology,taxonomygeologyandzoology,maintainsscientificspecimencollectionsanddatabases,operatestheIcelandicBird-RingingScheme,advisesonsustainableuseofnaturalresourcesandlanddevelopment,andassessestheconservationstatusofspecies,habitatsandecosystems).The Marine Research Institute(research/monitoringonthemarineenvironmentaroundIcelandanditslivingresourceswithspecialemphasizeoncommercialfishstocks),The Environment Agency
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(managementandsupervisionofdesignatedprotectedareas,monitoringofenvironmentalquality,wildlifemanagement).The Met Office(conductingmonitoring/researchonthephysicsofair,landandsea,specificallyinthefieldsofhydrology,glaciology,climatology,seismologyandvolcanology),The Institute of Freshwater Fisheries(research/monitoringonfreshwaterfishstocksandsuperviseandadviseriverandlakefisheriesassociationsconcerningfisheriesmanagementandenhancementoffisheries),The Soil Conservation Service of Iceland (monitoring/research/combatingdesertification,sandencroachmentandothersoilerosion,promotionofsustainablelanduseandreclamationandrestorationofdegradedland)andtheIcelandforestService(research,development,consultationanddistributionofknowledgewithinforestry).Thereareseverallocalnatural history centreslocatedaroundIcelandthatconductscientificresearch/monitoringonIceland’snatureintheirregion,aswellascollectdataregardingthenaturalhistoryintheregionandparticipateinnatureconservationandenvironmentaleducation).BesidetheinstitutionsmentionedabovetheuniversitiesinIceland,especiallyUniversity of IcelandandThe Agricultural University of Iceland,conductwidevarietyofmonitoringandresearchonnaturalhistorybothinsideandoutsideprotectedareas.FurtherthereareindividuallocalnaturalhistoryresearchcentersthatfocusoncertainareasliketheNatural History Museum of Kópavogur (research/monitoringinfreshwaterecology),The Icelandic Seal CenterandThe Arctic Fox Center orfocusonspecificarealikeThe Lake Myvatn Research StationthatmonitorandresearchonthenaturalhistoryoftheprotectedareaofLakeMývatnandtheriverLaxáandsurroundingarea.
Table7givesanoverviewoversomeofthemonitoringprograms,speciallyaimedatbiodiversity,conductedinsideprotectedareasinIcelandbutisbynomeansexhaustive.
Table 7: Iceland protected areas with monitoring programs
Protected Area Key Ecoystem Components
Key Issues Monitoring Program
Indicator Other Issues Comment
National Park
Snæfellsjökull Mink(Mustelavision)
NumbershuntingStatis-tics
invasivespecies
Þingvellir FreshwaterfishesArcticcharrTroutPlankton
Populationstatus
Harvet Numbers(fish-ingstatistics)Condition
Fourvariants(subspecies)ofArcticcharr
ProtectedbyspecialAct
Vatnajökul-sþjóðgarður
ReindeerPtarmiganGyrfalconPlants
Populationstatus
Populationsize NumberHarvest(hunt-ingstatistic)
ProtectedbyspecialAct
Nature Reserve
Ástjörn Slavoniangrebe Populationstatus
Breedingpairs Numbers Partofmonitor-ingthespeciesaroundthecountry,LakeMývatnetc.
Dyrhólaey Partlymarine
Eldey Gannet Populationsize Numbers Partlymarine
Flatey BlackguillemotPhalathrope
Populationsize Numbers Partlymarinearea.InsideBreiðafjörður
Grótta Partlymarinearea
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Protected Area Key Ecoystem Components
Key Issues Monitoring Program
Indicator Other Issues Comment
Grunnafjörður BrentGoose Populationsize Partofinternalpopulationes-timation-otherareasinIcelandincluded
Guðlaugstun-gur
Pinkfootedgoose,waders
Populationsize,Breedingpairs
Partofinternalpopulationesti-mation–otherareasinIcelandincluded
Hornstrandir Arcticfox Populationstatus
Huntingsta-tisticsexistforArcticfoxinIceland
Arcticfoxpro-tectedinthearea
Hrísey Partlymarinearea.InsideBreiðajörðurarea
Kringilsárrani Reindeer Populationstatus
Populationsize NumberHarvest(hunt-ingStatistic)
SeealsoVatnajökul-sþjóðgarðurNP
Lónsöræfi Reindeer
Melrakkæy Partlymarinearea.InsideBreiðajörðurarea.
Miklavatn WhooperswanGreylagTuftedduckScaup
Populationstatus
Populationsize Numbers
Skrúður Seabirds Populationsize Irregularly Partlymarinearea
Surtsey Ecosystemdevelopment
Plant,birdandinsectcoloniza-tionPopulationstatus
Successionmonitoring
NumbersHarvest
Newislandsince1963,geologicalresearch
Partlymarinearea
Varmárósar Partlymarinearea
Vatnasfjörður Partlymarinearea
Vífilsstaðavatn LakeSomefreshwa-termonitoring
Subspeciesofstickleback
Þjórsárver Pink-footedgoosPlantcommu-nity
Populationstatus
Populaitonsize,breedingpairsPlant.com,ITEX
NumbersPlant.comDensity
Habitattypemapexists
WetlandareaRamsararea
Natural Monument⁄ Mostly Geological Formations
Arnarnesstrítur HotspringsCones⁄geother-malchimneys
EldborgíBláfjöllum
InsideBláfjal-lafólkvangs
26
Protected Area Key Ecoystem Components
Key Issues Monitoring Program
Indicator Other Issues Comment
EldborgirundirGeitahlið
InsideReyk-janesfólkvangs
Fossvogsbakkar Partlymarinearea
Háubakkar Partlymarinearea
HverastrýturábotniEyjaf-jarður
HotspringsCones⁄geoter-malchimneys
Skútustaðagi-gar
InsidetheMý-vatnLaxaarea
Country Park
ÁstjörnogÁsfjall
SeeÁstjörn
Hleinnar Partlymarinearea
Hilð Partlymarinearea
HvaleyrariónogHvaleyrarhöfði
Marinearea
Kasthúsatjörnfjaran
Coastandmarine
Reykjanes Seabirds Populationstatus
Populationsize Numbers Kýísuvíkurbjargbirdcliff
Habitat Protection Area
Hvanneyri Whitefrontedgoose
Populationstatus
Populationsize Numbers Wetland
Sker-jafjörðurinnanGarðabæjar
Brentgoose Populationstatus
Populationsize Numbers Partofin-ternationalpopulationes-timation-otherareasinIcelandincluded
Coastandma-rinearea
Protection by Special Act
Breiðafjörður SeabirdsSeaeagleEiderOtherwildbirdspeciesWhales(fishinggrounds)Mink(Mustelavision)Alsopollutants
Popuationstatus
PopulationsizeHarvest
NumbersCon-dition
Speciesofconcern,eidercolonies(eiderdownutiliza-tion)
CoastIslandsMarinearea
LakeMývatnandRiverLáxa
WetlandareaLakeandriverFreshwaterfishesBirdspecies(ducks,gyrfal-con,Slavoniangrebe)PlanktonMidgeAquaticplants
Populationstatus
Harvest Numbers(breedingpairs)Condition
OneofthebestmonitoredareasinIceland,speciesofcon-cern
Ramsararea
Other Protection
27
Protected Area Key Ecoystem Components
Key Issues Monitoring Program
Indicator Other Issues Comment
Plantspecies Aegagropilalinnaei
Source:TraustiBaldursson,IcelandicInstituteofNaturalHistory
4.5 Norway
Norway’smonitoringeffortisextensiveandwelldocumented(Table8).However,aswithotherEuropeancountries,Norwaydoesnothaveaprotectedareas-specificmonitoringframeworkandconductsgeneralmonitoringindependentofprotectedareas.RegionalmonitoringprogramsofparticularrelevancetoNorwegianprotectedareasincludelargecarnivores,arcticfox,goldeneagle,moose,palsapeatlands,freshwaterpearlmussel,airquality,seabirds,vegetation(NDVIimagery)andphysicaldisturbancebyindustrialdevelopments.
Only protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
= 1 000 km2
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Figure 5 Protected Areas of Iceland
28
NorwaydoesconductextensivemonitoringoftheenvironmentsofSvalbardandJanMayen,andanintegratedmonitoringprogram,“EnvironmentalMonitoringofSvalbardandJanMayen,”(MOSJ)isinplacefortheseareas.
MOSJbeganin1999andisdesignedtoevaluatehowtheenvironmentofthesetworegionsisfaringrelativetonationalgoalsfortheenvironmentinthePolarregion.Itpresentstheresultsfrom69separatemonitoringprogramsinastandardizedmannerandfollowsfivegeneralthemes:climate,humaninfluence/disturbance,fauna,floraandculturalheritage.Eachthemeissubdividedintoindices,e.g.,thereare12indicesforclimate,16fordisturbance,25forfauna,etc.Manyofthetimeseriesdatefromthe1980s.
WhileNorwaydoesnotplantodevelopaprotectedarea-specificprogramforArcticprotectedareas,muchoftheNorwegianArcticIslandsareprotectedandincludedinMOSJ.Thereisalsoanongoingprocesstoestablishaprotectedarea-specificmonitoringprogramformainlandNorwaywhichwillbecloselyrelatedtotheEUdirectives.
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
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Only protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
Figure 6 Protected Areas of Norway
29
Table 8: Monitoring programs in Norway
Marine Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and⁄or Ecosystems included
Geographic coverage
Contact Person\Project Leader
Implementaed or related to CAFF\MAP
SeabirdPopula-tionProgram/SEAPOP(2005)
Includesseveralprojectsspecifiedinthelist(seebelow)
Monitoringofbreedingandwinteringseabirdpopulations
Seeinterlinkedprogrammesandprojectsbelow
NorwegiancoastfromLofotenandNorthward
TheseaareaaroundSvalbard(incl.BearIsland)
BritVeie-Rosvoll
MortonEkker(DN)
TychoAnker-Niils-sen(NINA),
HallvardStrøm(NPI)
CAFF
MonitoringPro-gramforSvalbardandJanMayan(MOSJ)
Monitoring Seeinterlinkedprojectsbelow
SvalbardArchi-pelagoJanMayan
BirgitNjåstad,NPI CAFF\AMAP
NorwegianNationalMonitor-ingProgramonBreedingSeabirds(1998)-From2005incl.inSEAPOP
Trendofmonitor-ingofNorwegianbreedingseabirds
- Fulmarus glacialis- Morus bassanus- Phalacrocora x Carbo- Phalacrocora x aristotelis- Somateria mollissima- Catharacta skua- Larus canus- Larus fuscus- Larus argentatus- Larus marinus- Rissa tridactyla- Sterna hirundo- Sterna paradisea- Alca torda- Uria aalge- Uria lomvia- Fratercula arctica
Norwegiancoast S.H.Lorenstsen,NINA
CAFF
NationalMonitor-ingoftheMarineEnvironmentandLivingResources
Monitoringofseaenvironmentwithspecialfocusonsustainablefisher-iesmanagement
-Physicalandchemicalparameters-Zooplankton-Phytoplankton-Fisheggsandlarvae-Severalfishspe-cies-Prawn-Lobster-Benthicecosys-tems
BarentsSeaNorwegianSea
Lead:NorwegianInstituteofMarineResearch(IMR)
AMAP/CAFF
Only protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
30
Marine Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and⁄or Ecosystems included
Geographic coverage
Contact Person\Project Leader
Implementaed or related to CAFF\MAP
IntegratedMap-pingProgrammefortheNorwegianSeasandCoastalAreas(MAREANO)
Maptheseabed -Bathymetry-Geology-Biology-Contaminants
SeabedinNorwe-gianwaters
OleJørgenLønneandLeneBuhl-Mortensen,IMR
TrondSkyseth,SK
TerjeThorsnes,NGU
CAFF/AMAP
NationalCoastalMonitoring
Monitoringofthestateofenviron-mentrelatedtonutrientsandbiodiversity
-Hydrology–chemistryandplankton
-Softandhardbottomecology
CoastalareasinNorway
KarenFjøsne,SFT
(FrithjofMoy,NIVA)
AMAP/CAFF
ScreeningandsurveyprojectsintheArcticasapartoftheNorwegianStatePollutionMonitoringPro-gram
Monitoringofpol-lutantsinseabirdeggsandadultseabirds
Glaucousgulla.o. NorthernNorwayandSvalbard
IngunnSkaufelSimensen
JonL.Fuglestad,SFTNPI
AMAP
JointAssessmentandMonitor-ingProgramme(JAMP)underOSPAR(incl.contaminantsandbiodiversityele-ments)-(1981-)
Analysesofcontaminantsinsediments&organisms
Sedimentsandbenthicorganisms
Norwegiancoastalwaters
PerErikIvversen,SFT(NormalGreen,NIVA)
AMAP/CAFF
TheEUWaterFrameworkDirec-tive(WFD)–whenstarted(probablyin2008)
JoHaleraker,DN AMAP/CAFF
Offshoremonitor-ingoftheNorwe-gianpetroleumactivities
Monitoringofpollutantsandspeciesdiversityinsedimentsinthevicinityofoffshoreinstallations
Monitoringofuptakeandeffectsofpollutantsinmusselsandfish
Seabedfauna/biodiversity/eco-systems.
Fishandcagedbluemusselsinwatercolumn
ThewholeNor-wegianselfwherethereisoilandgasactivities
NinaMarieJør-gensen,SFT
AMAP
RockybottomresearchalongthecoastsofNorthernNorway,Svalbard,andJanMayan
Mappingandstatemonitoring
Benthicecosys-tems
AlongthecoastsofNorthernNor-way,SvalbardandJanMayan
BjørnGulliksen,UniversityofTromsø
CAFF
31
Marine Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and⁄or Ecosystems included
Geographic coverage
Contact Person\Project Leader
Implementaed or related to CAFF\MAP
TheSeaMammalResearchProgram
Populationregistrationandmonitoring
-Whales(mainlyBalaenopteraacutorostrata,butalsoothers)-Pagophilusgroenlandicus-Cystophoracristata-Phocavitulina-Phocahispida-Halichoerusgrypus-Odobaenusrosmarus
Whales:NorthSea,NorwegianSeaandBarentsSea
Seals:GreenlandSeaandNorwe-giancoast,Spits-bergen(ringedseal)
Svalbard(walrus
IMR,NPI AMAP/CAFF
ContaminantsinPolarbearintheSvalbardareaNPI(1991-2005)
MOSJ Ursusmaritimus Svalbard GeirW.Gabrielsen,NPI
AMAP
Populationecol-ogyofPolarbearintheSvalbardarea(1967-)
MOSJ Ursusmaritimus Svalbard MagnusAnder-sen,NPI
CAFF
Polarbearpopula-tionintheBarentsSea(Russian/Nor-wegianmonitor-ing)–(2005-)
Long-termmonitoringofpopulationsizebyaeriallinetransectsurveys
Ursusmaritimus BarentsSea
Svalbard
FranzJosephLand
NovayaZemlia
JonAars,NPI CAFF
PuffinpopulationecologyinRøst(1964-)
MonitoringofthelargestseabirdcolonyontheEu-ropeanmainland
Fraterculaarctica RøstArchipelago TychoAnker-Nils-sen,NINA
CAFF
Blackguillemotpopulationecol-ogyinRøst(1990-)
ComparativemonitoringtothePuffinmonitoring
Cepphusgrille RøstArchipelago TychoAnker-Nils-sen,NINA
CAFF
Monitoringofsea-birdpopulationsonBearIsland
Populationtrendmonitoringofthetwolargestsea-birdspeciesintheBarentsSeaandthemarineeco-systemthatthesespeciesbelong
-Uriaaalge-Rissatridactyla-Fulmarusglacialis-Stercorariusskua-Allealle-Larushyper-boreus
BearIsland HallvardStrøm,NPI
CAFF
Populationdevel-opmentofEiderinKongsfjorden,Svalbard(1981-)
Populationmoni-toring
-Somateriamollis-sima
Kongsfjorden,Spitsbergen
GeirWingGabri-elsen,NPI
CAFF
ContaminationinGlaucousgullinBearIsland(1995-2002)
Tissuelevelsandeffectsofcontami-nants
-Larushyper-boreus
BearIsland JanOveBustnes,NINA
AMAP
32
Marine Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and⁄or Ecosystems included
Geographic coverage
Contact Person\Project Leader
Implementaed or related to CAFF\MAP
Ivorygull(MOSJ)(2007-)
Breedingcolonymonitoringandbloodsampling/contamination
-Pagophilaebur-nean
SvalbardArchipel-ago(+coopera-tionwithRussia)
HallvardStrøm,NPI
AMAP/CAFF
ContaminantsinglaucousgullsfromBearIsland(1995-2005)
Bloodsamples -Larushyper-boreus
BearIsland GeirWingGabri-elsen,NPI
AMAP
NorwegianNa-tionalMonitoringProgram(NNMP)onwinteringSeabirds(1980-)–from2005incl.inSEAPOP
Monitoringofwinteringseabirdsandwaterfowlsindefinedwinteringareas
-Gaviastellata-Storlom(Gaviaarctica)-Islom(Gaviaim-mer)-Horndykker(Podicepsauritus)Gråstrupedykker,(Podicepsgrisei-gena)-Storskarv(Phalacrocoraxcarbo)Toppskarv(Phalacrocoraxaristotelis)-Kanadagås(Brantaenelopes)-Brunnakke(Anasenelope)-Krikkand(Anascrecca)-Stokkand(Anasplatyrhyn-chos)-Toppand(Aythyafuligula)-Bergand(Aythyamarila)-Somateriamollis-sima-Somateriaspec-tabilis-Polystictastelleri-Clangulahyema-lis-Melanittanigra-Melanittafusca-Bucephalaclan-gula-Mergusmergan-ser
Definedlocations/areas(includedareasinthreenorthernmostNorwegiancoun-tiesnorthofthePolarCircle.
S.H.Lorentsen,NINA
CAFF
33
Marine Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and⁄or Ecosystems included
Geographic coverage
Contact Person\Project Leader
Implementaed or related to CAFF\MAP
Svalbardseabirdmonitoringpro-gram(1988-)
Monitoringoftrends,demo-graphicparam-etersanddietofsomeseabirdspe-ciesinSvalbard
-Uriaaalge-Urialomvia-Allealle-Fulmarusglacialis-Somateriamollissima-Rissatridactyla-Stercorariusskua-Larushyper-boreus
Svalbard HallvardStrøm
HaraldSteen,NPI
CAFF
Populationdevel-opmentandecol-ogyofseabirdsinHornøya,EasternFinnmark(1980–)
NNMP -Rissatridactyla-Uriaaalge-Urialomvia-Fraterculaarctica-Phalacrocoraxaristotelis
Hornøya(Island) RobBarrett,Uni-versityofTromsø
CAFF
PopulationdevelopmentofNorthernGannetinNorway(1947–)
NNMP -Morusbassanus Breedinglocalities(cliffs)inNorway
RobBarrett,Uni-versityofTromsø
CAFF
Populationdevel-opmentofSea-birdsinSouthernVaranger,EasternFinnmark(1966-)
Breedingpopula-tionmonitoring
-Rissatridactyla-Phalacrocoraxcarbo-P.aristotelis-Uriaaalge-Alcatorda
SouthernVaranger RobBarrett,Uni-versityofTromsø
CAFF
ContaminantsinseabirdeggsfromNorthernNorwayandSvalbard(1983,1993,2003)
Eggsamples -Larusargentatus-Fraterculaarctica-Rissatridactyla-Larushyper-boreus
-Hornøya-Røst-BearIsland-Kongsfjorden
GeirWingGabri-elsen,NPI
AMAP
Populationde-velopmentofKit-tiwakesinKongsf-jorden(1998-)
Populationmoni-toring
-Rissatridactyla Kongsfjorden GeirWingGabri-elsen,NPI
CAFF
Long-termvaria-tionsinarcticsoft-bottombenthosI(1920s-)
Benthiccommu-nitycomposition
-Benthicecosys-tems
OpenBarentsSea Akvaplanniva CAFF
Long-termvaria-tionsinarcticsoft-bottombenthosII(1980-)
Benthiccommu-nitycomposition
-Benthicecosys-tems
Svalbardfjords Akvaplanniva CAFF
JAMP,NorthwestRussia(2002-)
POPslevelinma-rinesediments
-Benthicecosys-tems
CoastalareasofNorthwestRussia
Akvaplanniva AMAP
34
Marine Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and⁄or Ecosystems included
Geographic coverage
Contact Person\Project Leader
Implementaed or related to CAFF\MAP
MonitoringofsedimentaryenvironmentsinIsfjorden,Svalbard(1992–)(timeintervalbetweensurveysis5years)
POPslevelinsedi-mentsandbenthicorganisms
-Benthicecosys-tems
SelectedfjordsintheIsfjordencom-plex,Svalbard
Akvaplanniva(plusothers)con-tractedbySyssel-mannenSvalbard
AMAP
MonitoringofNor-wegianfjords
Contaminantsinsediments
-Benthicecosys-tems
Norwegianfjords MatsWaday,NIVA AMAP
Shipsofopportu-nityandremotesensing
Oilinsedimentcontamination
-Benthicandpelagicecosystems(mostlyalgae)
AlongcoastalsailingtransectoftheNorwegian“Hurtigruten”uptoKirkenes,Finnmark,andfrom2007thesail-ingtransectfromTromsøtoLong-yearbyen
DominiqueDu-rand,NIVA
AMAP/CAFF
Limnic Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems Included
Geographic Coverage
Contact Person/ Project Leader
Implemented or related to CAFF / AMAP
Monitoringprogramforlongrangetransportofairpollutantsandtheireffects
Documentdeposi-tionandeffectsinrelationtocriticalloadsandinterna-tionalagreements
-Freshwatereco-systems-Fish-Invertebrates
WholeNorway TorJohannessen,SFT
AMAP
PersistentorganicpollutantsandheavymetalsinsedimentsandfishfromlakesinNorthernNorwayandSvalbard
POPsandheavymetallevelsinsedimentsandfish
-Freshwatereco-systems
NorthernNorwaySvalbard
GuttormN.Chris-tensen,Akvaplan-NIVA
AMAP
Nationalmoni-toringoflakes;effectsoflongrangetransportofcontaminants
POPsandheavymetallevelsinsediments,waterquality
-Freshwaterecosystems
Norway BritLisaSkjelkvåle,NIVA
AMAP
EUWaterFrame-workDirective
Directivenotyetimplementedandnospecificmoni-toringstarted
MonitoringofbreedingwadersandArcticSkuainSletnes(Gamvik),Finnmark(1989-)
Monitoringofbreedingpopula-tions
-Waders
-Stercorarius
Sletnes,Finnmarkcounty
K.B.Strann,Univer-sityofTromsø
CAFF
MonitoringofbreedingwadersinKautokeino,Finnmark(1996-)
Monitoringofbreedingpopula-tions
-Waders Kautokeino,Finn-markcounty
K.B.Strann,Univer-sityofTromsø
CAFF
35
Limnic Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems Included
Geographic Coverage
Contact Person/ Project Leader
Implemented or related to CAFF / AMAP
SpringmigrationmonitoringofRedKnotinBalsfjord,TromsandPor-sangen,Finnmark(2002-)
Monitoringofspringmigration
-Calidriscanutus Balsfjord,TromsandPorsangen,Finnmark
K.B.Strann,Univer-sityofTromsø
CAFF
Waterfowlcount-inginPasvikZapovednikandPasvikNatureReserve(1996-)
Densityanddistri-butionofwater-fowls
-Ducks-Geese-Waders
PasvikRiverwithinPasvikZapovednik&PasvikNatureReserve
PaulAspholm,BioForsk
CAFF
Populationcom-positionofadultAtlanticsalmoninriversandsea–NINA(1989-)
Monitoringofescapedsalmonfarmfishinseaandrivers
-Salmosalar Salmonfjordsandrivers
PederFiske,NINA CAFF
RepparfjordRiverinFinnmark.ScaletestsofadultAtlanticsalmon–NINA(1932-)
Monitoringofescapedsalmonfarmfish
-Salmosalar Repparfjord,Finn-markcounty
ArneJensen,NINA CAFF
AtlanticsalmonandseatroutinSaltdalRiver(1975-)
Long-termmoni-toring
-Salmosalar-Salmotrutta
SaltdalRiver,Nor-dlandcounty
ArneJensen,NINA CAFF
Migrationofanad-romoussalmoninHalselvaRiver,Finnmark–NINA(1987-)
Monitoringofmi-grationandpopu-lationstructure
-Salmosalar-Salmotrutta-Salvelinusalpinus
Halselva,Finnmarkcounty
ArneJensen,NINA CAFF
ImpactsoffishfarmingonseatroutandAtlanticsalmon–Univer-sityofLifeandScience(UMB)(1988-)
Long-termeffectsoffishfarmingonwildpopulations
-Salmotrutta-Salmosalar
Salmonfjordsandrivers
ReidarBorgstrøm,UMBandOysteinSkaala,IMR
CAFF
MonitoringoffishandzooplanktoninPasvikRiver–(1991-)
-Coregonuslavaretus-C.albula-Salmotrutta-Percafluviatilis-Esoxlucius-Lotalota
Per-ArneAmund-sen,UniversityofTromsø
CAFF
Long-rangeim-pactsoffishthin-ningsinStouraja-vri(1981-)
Monitoringofapolymorphicpopulation
-Coregonuslavaretus
Stourajavri,Finn-markcounty
Per-ArneAmund-sen,UniversityofTromsø
CAFF
MonitoringofPearlmusselinNorway(1999-)
National-widemonitoring
-Margaritiferamargaritifera
BjørnMejdellLarsen,NINA
CAFF
36
Limnic Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems Included
Geographic Coverage
Contact Person/ Project Leader
Implemented or related to CAFF / AMAP
Monitoringofcrustaceanin100Norwegianlakes,nationalcontami-nationmonitoring(1996-)
Statusanddevelopmentofacidification
-135speciesofCladoceraandCopepoda
Nationalnetwork AnnKristinSchar-tau,NINA
AMAP/CAFF
MonitoringofGy-rodactylussalariesin120-130riversinNorway(1980-)
-Gyrodactylus-Salmosalar
Nationalnetwork AnnKristinSchar-tau,NINA
AMAP/CAFF
MonitoringofGy-rodactylussalariesin120-130riversinNorway(1980-)
NorwegianFoodandSafetyAuthor-ity
CAFF
NorwegianNa-tionalEutrophica-tionInvestigation1988-2001,of405lakes(1988-2001)
NIVA AMAP
LakeTakvatninTroms,Aquaticfauna(1980-)
UniversityofTromsø
CAFF
Terrestrial Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems Included
Geographic Coverage
Contact Person/ Project Leader
Implemented or related to CAFF / AMAP
TerrestrialMoni-toringProgram(TOV),Fauna
PopulationandreproductionmonitoringandeffectsofLTRAP
-Passeriformesspp.-Ficedulahypo-leuca-Lagopuslagopus-Aquilachrysaetos-Falcorusticolus-smallrodents
WithinCAFFarea:Dividalen,Tromscounty
JohnAtleKålås,NINA
CAFF
TerrestrialMoni-toringProgram(TOV),Birchforest
MonitoringofLTRAPongroundvegetationinbirchforest
WithinCAFFarea:Dividalen,Tromscounty
VegarBakkestuen,NINA
CAFF
TerrestrialMoni-toringProgram(TOV),epiphytevegetation
MonitoringofLTRAPonepiphytevegetationinbirchforest
-Lichens-Alga-Bryophyte
WithinCAFFarea:Dividalen,Tromscounty
IngaE.Bruteig,NINA
CAFF
37
Terrestrial Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems Included
Geographic Coverage
Contact Person/ Project Leader
Implemented or related to CAFF / AMAP
Monitoringofpalsapeatlands
Monitoringoflong-termdevel-opmentofedaphicstructure,perma-frost&vegeta-tion
-Peatland FerdesmyraandGoatteluobbal,Finnmark
Ostojeaggi,Troms
HaugtjørninandLeirpullan,Sør-Trødelag
HaukskardmyrinOppland
AnnikaHofgaard,NINA
CAFF
Polarfoxmonitor-ing(1900-)
Populationmoni-toring
-Alopexlagopus Norway OlavStrand,NINA CAFF
Populationmoni-toringofPolarfoxinSvalbard(1982-)
MOSJ -Alopexlagopus Brøggerhalvøya/KongsfjordenSassen/Advent-dalen
EvaFuglei,NPI CAFF
NationalMonitor-ingProgramforLargeCarnivores(1990-)
Populationmoni-toring
-Lynx-Wolverine-Wolf-Brownbear
Norway HenrikBrøseth,NINA
CAFF
Svalbardcariboupopulationmoni-toringinAdvent-dalen(1979-)
Identifymecha-nismsforthepersistentinsta-bilityofanaturalpopulationofreindeer
-Rangifertarandus-platyrhynchus
Adventdalen,Spitsbergen
NicholasTyler,Uni-versityofTromsø
CAFF
Svalbardcari-bouinBrøggerPeninsula(1978-)–projectofMOSJ
Populationmoni-toring
-Rangifertarandus-platyrhynchus
BrøggerPeninsula,
Ny-Ålesund,Spits-bergen
RonnyAanes,NPI CAFF
Svalbard(jawsfromhunting,monitoring)(1984-)
Populationmoni-toring
-Rangifertarandus-platyrhynchus
NordenskiöldLand,Spitsbergen
ØysteinWiig,Uni-versityofOslo
CAFF
CuobbojeaggiProject(1991-)
Fecundityoffe-malereindeers
-Rangifertarandus-tarandus
Finnmarkcounty NicholasTyler,Uni-versityofTromsø
AMAP/CAFF
Muskrat(Ondatrazibeticus)inthePasvikRiver(1994-)
Populationde-velopmentofaninvasivespecies
-Ondatrazibetica PasvikRiver SteinarWikan,BioForsk
CAFF
Microtusrossiae-meridionalisdy-namicsinSvalbard(1991-)
Monitoringonanintroducedspecies
-Microtusrossiae-meridionalis
Colesbay,Crou-mant,Longyearby-eninSpitsbergen
NigelG.Yoccoz,NINA
CAFF
MonitoringofLesserWhite-frontedGooseinNorway(1991-)
Migrationmoni-toring
-Answererythro-pus
Valdak,Finnmarkcounty
IngarØien,NOF CAFF
38
Terrestrial Programmes
Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems Included
Geographic Coverage
Contact Person/ Project Leader
Implemented or related to CAFF / AMAP
Populationdy-namics&studiesofBlackandWhiteFlycatcherinNorthernScandi-navia(1986-)
Monitoringofpop-ulationdynamics
-Muscicapidae Ammarnes,Swe-den(NorwegianareasonlySouthofthePolarCircle)
PerGustavThings-tad,NTNU
CAFF
NorwegianBreed-ingBirdCensus(1995-)
Biodiversitymoni-toring
-AllNorwegianbirdspecies
MagneHusby,HINT
CAFF
PopulationMoni-toringofSvalbardPtarmigan(1999-)projectofMOSJ
Populationmoni-toring
-Lagopusmutushyperboreus
CentralareaofSpitsbergen
EvaFuglei,NPI CAFF
Pink-footedgooseinVesterålen(2000-)
Migrationmoni-toring
-Anserbranchyrhynchus
Vesterålen IngunnM.Tombre,NINA
CAFF
BarnaclegooseinNyÅlesund–NINA(1992-1998)
Reproductivebehavior
-Brantaleucopsis Ny-Ålesund,Spits-bergen
IngunnM.Tombre,NINA
CAFF
Brownbearregis-trationsinPasvik(1972-)
Populationmoni-toring
-Ursusarctos Pasvik MartinSmith,BioForsk
CAFF
BearinPasvik;springobserva-tions(annually)
Monitoringtimeofcaveleaving
-Ursusarctos Pasvik MartinSmith,BioForsk
CAFF
Cesium137measuresinbodytissuesofreindeerherders(Samipeople)(1996-)
RadiationfromTsjernobylacci-dent
Finnmarkcountyandmid-Norway
ToneD.Bergan,NorwegianRa-diationProtectionAuthority
AMAP
Monitoringofpopulationdevel-opment,fitnessandreproductionofsevenMoosepopulations(1967-)
Populationcondi-tions
-Alcesalces Tromscounty ErlingSolberg,NINA
CAFF
Source:BårdØyvindSolberg,DirectorateforNatureManagement
4.6 Sweden
TheSwedishmonitoringprogramisoutlinedinTable9andfollowstheEuropeanUnionHabitatsDirectiveandtheBirdsDirective.Toalargeextentthismonitoringiscoordinatedwithalreadyexistingnationalmonitoringprograms(e.g.,nationallandscapeinventory,nationalforestryinventory).Protectedareasarenotnecessarilyseparatedfromotherareasinthesenationalmonitoringprograms.Whileregionallake,watercourseandbirdmonitoringeffortsinSwedencanbeappliedtoprotectedareasfairlyreadily,morecouldbedonewithwetlands,largecarnivores,smallmammalsandclimatedatasets.
ThelimitedmonitoringprogramsoccurringspecifictoSwedishprotectedareasnowfocusontheparticularvaluesoftheprotectedarea(especiallythosethatcanbeprotectedandordevelopedbymanagement),theeffectsofconservationmeasures,visitationanddamagescausedbyrecreational
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vehicletraffic.Someprogramsarenetwork-wideandothersarelimitedtocertainprotectedareas.Allareconstrainedbyverylimitedbudgetsandstaff.
Swedenisinterestedinenhancingitsprotectedareamonitoringandisconsideringseveralapproaches,includingextractingprotectedarea-specificdatafromregionalmonitoringprograms,addingvariablestoexistingmonitoringprograms,increasingthesamplesizeinprotectedareasinthecontextofregionalmonitoringandconductingmoreprotectedarea-specificmonitoring.
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
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Figure 7 Protected Areas of Sweden
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Table 9: Monitoring programs in Sweden
Program Broad Objectives of the Program
Specific Species and/or Ecosystems In-cluded Geographic Coverage
MonitoringofhabitatsandspeciesinHabitatsDirective(92/43/EEG)onbio-geographicalscale(alpine/boreal/continental)
TomeettherequirementsofArticles11and17inhabitatdirective
Forhabitatsthefollowingwillbemeasured:RangeAreaStructureandfunc-tionincltypicalspecies
Forspeciesthefollowingwillbemeasured:Popula-tionsizeandRangeArea
Terrestrialhabitatshaveanongoingmonitor-ingprogram.
Aquatichabitatsandmonitoringofspecieswillbedevelopedwithinthecomingtwoyears.
Entireterritory
MonitoringofNa-tura2000Network
TomeettherequirementsofArticles11and17inhabitatdirective
Programtobelaunchedthisyear.Thefollow-ingwillbemonitored:
Habitats:-Area(allareas,butinfrequent)-Structureandfunctions(asmallno.ofpa-rameters,e.g.,Forest:forestfires,treespeciescomposition,CWD;Wetlands:Hydrology;Watercourses:Hydromorphology);Typicalspecies(veryfewofthesewillbemonitored)
Species:Populationsize&habitat
Allprotectedareas(mostareNatura2000)
Source:ErikHellberg,Naturvardsverket
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Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF area
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4.7 Finland
SimilartootherEuropeannations,Finlanddoesnothavemuchinthewayofmonitoringprogramsdirectedspecificallyatprotectedareas.Inaddition,Finlandconsiders“protectedareas”toincludenotjustthoseareaslegislatedassuchbutalsostatelandreservedfornatureprotectionbygovernmentdecisionbutnotyetformallyestablishedbylaw.ItalsoincludesitsNatura2000Network,sitesestablishedforthepurposeofprotectingandmanagingcertainspeciesandhabitats,thoughnotformallyprotected.InmostcasestheNatura2000areasoverlapwithestablishedprotectedareasorareasreservedfornatureprotection.Table10broadlydescribesthemonitoringprogramsinFinlandwhereprotectedareamanagersareresponsibleorimportantpartners.Monitoringcarriedoutinprotectedareasisnormallyconductedinthecontextofnationalbiodiversityandnaturalresourcesmonitoringprograms,ofwhichthereareabout60programsandmanyofthoseareconductedbyorinconjunctionwithNGOs.Finlandusesmorethan100biodiversityindicatorsgroupedintodifferentcategories,mainlybyhabitat,andincludingindicatorsforpressures,state,impactsandresponses.
MonitoringprogramsinFinlandtendtofallintotwobroadcategories:thoseintendedtomonitorbroadchangesinbiodiversityatthespecies,habitatandlandscapelevels;andmorespecificprogramswhichfocusonrareorendangeredspeciesandhabitattypes.SomesurveysarespecifictoprotectedareasbutmosttendtobepartofthenationalmonitoringprogramframeworkwhichisdrivenlargelybytheHabitatsDirectiveandtheBirdsDirective.TheproportionofthespeciespopulationsandhabitatareaandtheirtrendandwithintheNatura2000networkmustbereportedforthefirsttimein2013.KeyArcticspeciesbeingmonitoredinFinlandincludegoldeneagle,peregrinefalcon,gyrfalcon,lesserwhite-frontedgoose,Arcticfox,white-tailedeagle,freshwaterpearlmusselandwolverine.
Theprotectedareacomponentofnationalmonitoringprogramshasbeenanalyzedinsome
Only protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
Figure 8 Protected Areas of Finland
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researchprojectsandconservationassessmentsbutnotonaregularbasis.Theseanalysesareusuallyledbyresearchinstitutesoruniversities.Protectedareavisitationismonitoredandperiodicsurveysareconducted.FinlandisplanningtoassessperiodicallythestateofallNatura2000areasincludingstatusandtrendassessmentofhabitats,species,recreationalandsubsistencevalues,keythreatsandsoon.
Table 10: Monitoring programs in Finland OnlythemonitoringprogramswhereprotectedareamanagersintheArcticareaareinvolvedarelisted.Source:HeikkiEeronheimo,MetsahallitusMonitoring Program(s) Indicator(s) StandardGoldeneagle(Aquila chrysaetos)populationmonitoring
Informationcollected:nestlocations,occupancy,breedingresults
Nordiccountries
Peregrinefalcon(Falco peregrinus)populationmonitoring
Informationcollected:territorylocations,occupancy,breed-ingresults
National,adaptedfromGoldeneaglemonitoring
Gryfalcon(Falco rusticolus)populationmonitoring
Informationcollected:nestlocations,occupancybreedingresults
National,adaptedfromgoldeneaglemonitoring
Lesserwhite-frontedgoose(Ansererythropus)populationmonitoring
Informationcollected:nestlocations,occupancy,breedingresults National
Arcticfox(Alopex lagopus)populationmonitoring
Informationcollected:denlocation,itscharacteristics,andoccupancy
National/Nordiccountries
White-tailedeagle(Haliaeetus albicilla)populationmonitoring
Informationcollected:nestlocations,occupancy,breedingresults
National,partlyadaptedfromGoldeneaglemonitor-ing
Freshwaterpearlmussel(Mar-garitifera margaritifera)popula-tionsurveys
Informationcollectedfromlocalities:status,abundance,loca-tion,descriptionofhabitats
(National?)
Breedingland-birdlinetransectcensusesinprotectedareas(survey/monitoring)
Summariesbyprotectedarea:observationnumbers,estimat-eddensitiesandpopulationsizesforeachobservedspeciesandfordifferentspeciesgroups
Standardizedwidelyusedmethod(atleastNational)
Speciessurveysinprotectedareas(mainlypolyporesintheArcticarea)
Informationcollected:speciesobservations(location,abundance),surveymethods,surveyedareas
WithinNHS,developedbyNHSfordifferentspeciesgroupandsurveytarget
Monitoring/surveysofthreatenedand/orhabitatdirective’sspecies
Informationcollectedfromknownlocalities:status,abundance,location,descriptionofhabitats,managementneeds
Partlyunderpreparation,TargetNational/EU
Monitoring/surveysofthreatenedand/orhabitatdirective’sspe-cies(NHSnationalcoordinationresponsibility
Informationcollectedfromknownlocalities:status,abundance,location,descriptionofhabitats,managementneeds
Underpreparation,TargetNational/EU
Wildlifetrianglecounts(gamespecies)
Abundancelevelsandchangesofspecies National
Monitoringoflargecarnivores Abundancelevelsandchangesofspecies National/RegionalHabitatsurveyofprotectedareas Informationcollectedbycompartment(polygonfeature):habitat
characteristics,treecomposition(plusdeadwood),Natura-habitats,managementneeds,otherbiodiversityvalues,etc
Nationalprotectedareas
AssessmentofconservationstatusofspeciesandhabitatsinHabitatsDirective
Habitats:assessmentofrange,areacoveredbyhabitat,specificstruc-turesandfunctions(includingtypicalspecies),futureprospectsandoverallassessments
Species:assessmentsofrangepopulation,habitatforthespecies,futureprospectsandoverallassessment.
Assessmentsincludeinformationonsize,trend,reasonfortrend,pressures,andthreatswhenrelevant
EU-scale
AssessmentofcontributionofNatura2000Network(andotherconservationmeasures)ontheconservationstatusofthehabitatsandspeciesinHabitatsDirective
Proportion(area/populationsize)innetwork,trendinnetwork,con-servationmeasuresandtheireffects)
EU-scale
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Monitoring Program(s) Indicator(s) StandardAssessmentonthestateofNatura2000areas
Underpreparation,pilotphase:statusandtrendassessmentsofconservationvalues,managementactivitiesandneeds,pressuresandthreats,definitionofothermainvalues
National
IUCNRedListassessments:species Threatclassesandtheirchanges;threatsandpressures,etc.
IUCN
IUCNRedListassessments:habi-tats
Threatclassesandtheirchanges;Threatsandpressures,etc.
Nationalscale
4.8 RussiaEnvironmentalmonitoringprogramsinRussiavaryaccordingtothecategoryofprotectedarea.“Strictreserves”haveecologicalmonitoringasoneoftheirmainfunctions.Nationalparksnormallydoaswellandwhilewildlifereserveshavenosuchrequirements,“adhoc”observationsareconductedbyoutsideagenciesincludingresearchinstitutes,universities,huntingandfishingagenciesandmeteorologicalagencies.
EcologicalmonitoringinthestrictreservesisconductedwithinthecontextoftheNatureChroniclesProgram,whichdescribesmonitoringthemes,monitoringmethodologiesandtheformatofpresentationandanalysesofresults.
Themesincluderelief,soil,weather,water,floraandvegetation,animalsandanthropogenicimpacts.Withineachthemearediscretecomponentsorindices,e.g.,floraandvegetationindicesincludenewspecies,rarespeciespopulation,phenology,productivityandyieldofberries,nuts,etc.
TherearesomechallengesinherentintheNatureChroniclesProgramincludingaveryformalstructurewithoutprioritization(i.e.,allcomponentsandindicesareconsideredtobeofequalimportance),adesignintendedlargelyforforestedareasandlackofresources(bothfinancialandexpertise).
Thatsaid,RussiadoeshaveextensivemonitoringobservationsforArcticandSubarcticreserves.Thebestseriesincludeweather,phenology,endangeredbirdandmammalspecies,harvestedmammals,waterfowl,seabirds,lemmingsandreindeer.Significantgapsincludepermafrost,seaice,freshwaterfish,marinefish,marinemammalsandinsectobservations.
Toaddresstheinconsistenciesamongstrictreservemonitoringprogramsandtoenablebetterassessmentofbiodiversityconditionsandcurrentandpossiblethreatstoprotectedareaintegrity,Russiadecidedtodevelopamorestandardapproachtomonitoring,focusingonthefollowingthemes: -localfloraandfauna -landscapeorvegetationstructure -mostimportantabioticprocesses -weatherandphenology -endangeredspecies -speciesofsocioeconomicimportance -speciesofbiocentricimportance -majorecosystems -mostimportantanthropogenicimpacts
Eachthemeissubdividedintomonitoringindices.Forexample,majorecosystemindicesincludepermafrost,snowcover,groundwater,icecover,vegetationstructureandproductivity,phytoplankton,invertebratepopulation,zooplankton,birdpopulations,rodentpopulationsandfishpopulations.Eachindexisfurthersubdividedintomonitoringindicators(e.g.,speciespopulationindicatorsincludeabundance,areaanddistribution,sex-agestructure,physiologicalconditionandhabitatconditions).
However,whilethedesignforcomprehensiveprotectedareamonitoringinArcticandSubarcticRussiaisinplace,implementationhasbeenpostponedduetolackofresourcesandmanagementchallenges.
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5.0 Themes, key ecosystem components, and indicators
5.1 European Union (EU)
TheEUHabitatsDirective,theBirdsDirective,theWaterFrameworkDirectiveandtheNatura2000NetworktogetherformthefoundationforEurope’sNatureConservationPolicy.TheWaterFrameworkDirectivefocusesontheprotectionofEuropeanwatersandbiotaincludingfish,benthicinvertebrates,macrophytesandplankton.TheHabitatsDirectiveconcentratesontheconservationofimportanthabitatsandassociatedspeciesandtheBirdsDirectiveconcentratesonthestateofallEuropeanbirdspecies.Natura2000isthecenterpieceofEUnatureandbiodiversitypolicy.ItisanEU-widenetworkofnatureprotectionareasestablishedundertheHabitatsDirectiveandisintendedtoensurethelong-termsurvivalofEurope’smostvaluableandthreatenedspeciesandhabitats.ItiscomprisedofSpecialAreasofConservationdesignatedbyEUstatespursuanttotheHabitatsDirectiveandSpecialProtectionAreasdesignatedpursuanttotheBirdsDirective.
EuropeanUnionstatesarerequiredtomonitornaturalhabitatsandspeciesinaccordancewiththesedirectiveswithparticularattentiontopriorityhabitattypesandpriorityspecies.Monitoringistobecarriedoutfortheentireterritoryandnotjustthespecificprotectedareas.Memberstatesarerequiredtoreporteverysixyears(thenextreportisduein2013).Inparticular,thereportsincludeinformationconcerningconservationmeasurestaken,theeffectivenessofthosemeasuresandthemainresultsoftherespectivemonitoringprograms.
Table11summarizestheEUbiodiversitythemesandindicators.
Protected areas, IUCN Class V-VIProtected areas, IUCN Class I-IV
CAFF areaOnly protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
Figure 9 Protected Areas of Russia
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Table 11: EU biological diversity themes and indicators
FOCAL AREA: STATUS AND TRENDS OF THE COMPONENTS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITYEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:TrendsinabundanceanddistributionofselectedspeciesAbundanceanddistributionofselectedspeciesEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:Changeinstatusofthreatenedand/orprotectedspeciesRedListIndexforEuropeanspeciesSpeciesofEuropeaninterestEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:Trendsinextentofselectedbiomes,ecosystemsandhabitatsEcosystemcoverageHabitatsofEuropeaninterestEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:Trendsingeneticdiversityofdomesticatedanimals,cultivatedplants,fishspeciestreesofmajorsocioeconomicimportanceLivestockgeneticdiversityEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:CoverageofprotectedareasSitesdesignatedundertheEUHabitatsandBirdsDirectives
FOCAL AREA: THREATS TO BIODIVERSITYEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:NitrogendepositionCriticalloadexceedancefornitrogenEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:TrendsininvasivealienspeciesInvasivealienspeciesinEuropeEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:ImpactofclimatechangeonbiodiversityOccurrenceoftemperature-sensitivespecies
FOCAL AREA: ECOSYSTEM INTEGRITY AND ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICESEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:MarineTrophicIndexMarineTrophicIndexofEuropeanseasEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:Connectivity/FragmentationofecosystemsFragmentationofnaturalandsemi-naturalareasFragmentationofriversystemsEuropeanHeadlineIndicator:WaterqualityinaquaticecosystemsNutrientsintransitional,coastal,andmarinewatersFOCAL AREA: SUSTAINABLE USEEuropean Headline Indicator: Area of forest, agriculture, fishery and aquaculture ecosystems under sustainable management Forest: growing stock, increment and fellingsForest: deadwoodAgriculture: nitrogen balanceAgriculture: area under management practices potentially supporting biodiversityFisheries: European commercial fish stocksAquaculture: effluent water quality from finfish farms European Headline Indicator: Ecological Footprint and biocapacity of European countries Ecological Footprint of European countries
5.2 North America
TheU.S.andCanadianapproachestomonitoringinArctic-protectedareastendtobeagencyandarea-specificandnotwellintegrated.Therespectivethemes,keyecosystemcomponentsandindicatorsusedbyAlaskan(bothfederalandState)andCanadianagenciesaredescribedforAlaskaandCanadainSection5.Thatsaid,Alaskan(andCanadian,inaseparatebutsimilarinitiative)authoritiesareworkingtodevelopanintegrated,cascadingmonitoringschemewherebycertainthemeswouldbemonitoredatstate-wide,ecoregionorrefugescales,asfollows:
Only protected areas overlapping or north of the CAFF boundary are displayed
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Statewide: Climate Airquality,precipitationchemistry Phenology Waterqualityandquantity Deformitiesandcontaminantsinorganisms
Ecoregion: Habitatmosaics Migratoryspecies Permafrost-relatedeventsandresources Shorelinechanges Otherlandscapeprocesses
Refuge: Subsistenceresources Ecologicalkeystones,ecosystemengineersorkeylandscapemodifiers Localstressorsandresponses Refuge-significantspeciesnotcoveredatecoregionalextent Specialplantandanimalcommunitiesindividualrefuges
Table12illustrateshowthekeyecosystemcomponentscouldbemonitoredusingvariousindicators(attributes).
Table 12: Proposed Alaskan monitoring regime
Indicator Measure / AttributeClimate Accumulatedatafromexistingweatherstationsandotherclimatenetworks;supplementbyfillinggapsthat
willimproveclimatemodelsatvariousextents;attributesincludetemperature,precipitations,snowdepth,snow-waterequivalent,freeze-thawevent,lengthofgrowingseason
Airquality,precipitationchemistry
Accumulatedatafromexistingair-qualitystations;fillgapstoimprovemodelaccuracy
Landcover Includeattributesofvegetationmosaic,distributionofwaterbodies,glaciers,seaice;createaseamlessmapeveryfivetosevenyears(perhapswithpaneldesignusingsatelliteimagery,ground-truthing,ormaybeasys-tematicgridofgroundplots;collaboratewithUSForestService’sForestInventoryandAnalysisprogram
Phenology Thisisalreadybeingdonebyothers;surrogateforotherspecies’dynamics;exampleattributesincludevegeta-tiongreeningandbrowningusingNDVIice-outandice-in,andothermetricsorganizedbytheNationalPheno-logicalNetwork(e.g.,budburst,arrivalofmigrants,firstnestingdates)
Waterqualityandquantity
Mostcost-effectivetoorganizeatstatewideextent,butmayneedtoparameterizeatecologicalorfinerresolu-tion;includeswetlands,riparianareas,andlenticsystems
Deformitiesandcon-taminantsinorganisms
Birdbeaks,amphibians;contaminantsinseabirds,othertaxa
Habitatmosaics Compositionofhabitattypesimportanttoprimarymonitoringentitiesintheecoregion(e.g.,asdeterminantsofdistributionsofspeciesmonitoredbythoseentities)
Migratoryspecies Includesbirds,largemammals(ungulates,carnivores,anadromousfishes,andmarinespecies)Permafrost-relatedeventsandresources
Exampleattributes:thermokarst,fillinganddrainingoflakes&wetlands
Shorelinechanges Mayneedlocal-scalenormalizationOtherlandscapepro-cesses
Examples:fireandsubsequentsuccession
Subsistenceresources Examples:plantparts,animalsEcologicalkeystones,ecosystemengineersorkeylandscapemodifiers
Examples:seaotters,beavers,moose,and(cyclically)lagomorphs
Localstressorsandresponses
Examples:roads,snow-machineuse,non-subsistenceharvest,localizedsitesofrecreation,etc.
Refugesignificantspeciesnotcoveredatecoregionalextent
Examplesincludespeciesinrefugespurposesandotherstatuteswithhomerangessmallerthantherefuge(e.g.furbearers)
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Specialplantandanimalcommunities
Examples:Eelgrass,rarehabitat,endemicornarrowlydistributedanimals
Source:Woodward,A.,andE.A.Beever.2010.FrameworkforecologicalmonitoringonlandsofAlaskaNationalWildlifeRefugesandtheirpartners,Anchorage,Alaska.U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Open-FileReport2010-1300,94p.
5.3 Selection considerations
EachArcticcountryandvirtuallyeveryagencyapproachesmonitoringinitsownwayalthoughtherearecommonfeatures.
Mostmonitoringagenciescapturemonitoringprogramsaccordingtotheme(e.g.,wildlife,climate,habitat,humanuses,speciescomposition,etc.).Whilethereislittleconsistencyamongagenciesinlabelingthemes,keyecosystemcomponentsandindicators,thereissufficientcommongroundtodrawoutaconsensuslist.
Intheend,selectedkeyecosystemcomponentsshouldbe:
• relevanttomostprotectedareas(notallmonitoringprogramscanapplytoallprotectedareasgiventhediversityofecoregionsrepresentedandtheneedtodeveloparelativelyshortlistofcommonmonitoringprograms);
• relevanttokeybiodiversityissues(responsivetothestressorsidentifiedin3.0,above);• responsivetochange(nottoosensitive,nottooresilient);• measurableacrossextremelybroadscales(butatthesametimesensitiveenoughtoyielduseful
data);• measuredbymultipleArcticcountries(relevanttospecificconcernsinspecificprotectedareasand
atthetimeyielddataandinformationrelevanttothecircumpolarArctic);• amenabletouseofstandardprotocolsthatcanbecomparedacrosslargeareas(oneofthekey
challengesisthestandardizationofmonitoringprotocolssothatdatacanbecomparedfromjurisdictiontojurisdiction);
• easilyestablished,inexpensiveandreadilymaintained(otherwisetheprogramswillrequiretoomuchtimeandresourcestobesustained).Inthiscontext,satellite-basedremotesensingoffersconsiderableopportunityforcost-effective,efficientandeffectivelong-termmonitoringofsomeindicators.
Finally,whereverpossible,theoverallmonitoringschemeshouldutilizeexistingresourcesandprogramsandbuildonotherinitiativesratherthanproceedingseparateandapartfromthem.Arcticcountriesareunlikelytoagreetotakeonsignificantnewmonitoringprogramsgivenresourceconstraints.
6.0 Proposed approach for an APAMS
Theidealmonitoringscheme—onesetofmonitoringprogramsthatallArcticcountrieswouldimplementatthesametimeusingthesameprotocols—isunlikelyintheshortterm,ifatall.Resourceshortfalls,differentmonitoringapproachesatthenationallevel,multipleagenciesandorganizationsexactingindividualprograms,thefactthatnotallprotectedareascontainacommonsetofkeyecosystemcomponents–allthesefactorsleadtotheconclusionthata“one-size-fits-all”approachisnotimmediatelyfeasible.
A“modular”approachshouldbeadopted.This“modularapproach”shouldcombinemonitoringprogramsconductedatdifferentscales,whichmayfocusondifferingkeyecosystemcomponents,butcomplimentallcountries.Differentkeyecosystemcomponentsmayactassurrogates;monitoringdoneatastate-widescalemaycompliment(orsubstitutefor)monitoringinformalprotectedareas.Resultsofmonitoringprogramsthatdonotfocusexplicitlyonprotectedareasmaybeinterpolatedorextrapolated
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toprotectedareas.Insomecases,monitoringtakesplaceinlocationsoutsideprotectedareasthatareindistinguishableinbiodiversityanddisturbancelevelsfromthosethatareprotected(e.g.,GreenlandandSweden;seeFigures10and11,and13-15respectively).MonitoringresultsfromtheselocationsareasvalidasthosefromformalprotectedareasforthepurposeoftrackingchangesinbiodiversityintheArctic.Thekeywillbetoselectrepresentativeappropriateecosystemcomponentsandsurrogates;tointerpolateorextrapolateusingsoundmethodologies;andtoensurethatmonitoringprogramsconductedatallscalesfollowstandardprotocolstoensurecomparativeresults.
6.1 Terminology
OneofthefirststepsindevelopinganeffectiveAPAMSprogramistheadoptionofclearmonitoringprogramterminology.
TheCBMPapproachtoArcticbiodiversityindicesandindicatorsisdescribedinTable2oftheCBMPImplementationPlanOverviewDocumentwherethefollowingdefinitionsareused:
Theme:overarchinglandscape,biologicalorpolicycategory.Examplesinclude:speciescomposition;ecosystemstructure;habitatextentandchangeinquality,ecosystemfunctionsandservices;humanhealthandwell-being;andpolicyresponses.
Index:themesubcategoryconsideredcentraltotheprotectedareaecosystem.Examplesinclude:theArcticSpeciesTrendIndex;theArctictrophiclevelindex;theArcticlandcoverchangeindex;,theArctichumanhealthwell-beingindex;coverageofprotectedareas;andtrendsinextent,frequency,intensityanddistributionofnaturaldisturbances..
Indicator:specificelementsassociatedwithindicesthat,whencarefullymonitored,areindicativeoftheoverallconditionoftheindex.Examplesinclude:,trendsinabundanceofkeyspeciesandtrends;keytrophiclevelindicator;trendsinextentofbiomes,habitatsandecosystems;trendsinpatchsizedistributionofhabitats;trendsinextent,frequency,intensityanddistributionofnaturalandhuman-induceddisturbances;trendsinavailabilityofbiodiversityfortraditionalfoodandmedicine;changesinprotectedareacoverage.
Inthisexample,eachindicatorwouldhaveasub-elementorelementsthatwouldberepresentativeoftheoverallthemeandthefocusofamonitoringprogram(e.g.,speciescomposition/ArcticSpeciesTrendIndex/trendsinabundanceofkeyspecies,orterrestrialfauna/caribou/femalecariboubodyfatconditioninwinter).Statisticscouldbeobtainedthroughharvestersurveys,whichcouldprovideanumberofothermeasuressuchashuntereffort,weatherconditions,snowdepthandsoon.
Incomparison,theU.S.NationalParkServiceusestheterms“monitoringframework,”(e.g.,airandclimate)and“vitalsigns,”(e.g.,airbornecontaminants).TheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceuses“indicator”and“measurement”or“attribute”respectively.TheNorthwestTerritoriesCumulativeImpactMonitoringProgram(NWTCIMP)uses“valuedcomponent”(e.g.,climateandclimatechange),and“indicator”(e.g.,snowpackdepth).ParksCanadauses“ecosystemintegrityindicators”,wheretheNWTCIMPuses“valuedcomponents,”andsoon.
Forthepurposesofthisdiscussionpaper,theterms“CBMPbio-theme”,“monitoringtheme”,“focalecosystemcomponent”,“indicator”and“measure”willbeusedtodescribeacascadingapproach(fromtheverybroadandgeneral,tothenarrowandprecise)toacommonmonitoringprotocol.Thisapproachfollowsthatofthe
Anexample:
CBMPecosystem:terrestrialfaunaMonitoringtheme:ungulatesFocalecosystemcomponent:caribouIndicator:breedingsuccessMeasure:cow/calfratio
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ExpertMonitoringGroupsestablishedbytheCBMP.TheapplicationoftraditionalknowledgeinArcticbiodiversitymonitoringhasbeenaddedasaseparatetheme.
6.2 APAMS program - monitoring scheme components
TheAPAMSprogramschememustanswerthebroadquestion:HowisArcticprotectedareabiodiversityrespondingtothekeychallengesandstressorsidentifiedearlierinthispaper?
Onceacommonterminologyhasbeenaccepted,thenextstepistoagreeonwhatwillbemonitored.Tobeeffective,eachmonitoringprogramshouldtargetandtrackaspecificmeasurethatreliablyrepresentsthestateofaspecificindicatorchosenasanaccurategaugeofthestateofaparticularfocalecosystemcomponent,whichinturnisrepresentativeofakeymonitoringtheme.Consistentmonitoringoftheselectedmeasureswillovertimewillyieldtrendsinindicators,focalecosystemcomponentsandperhapsmonitoringthemes.Monitoringwillalsodeterminethefeasibilityofusingdifferentfocalecosystemcomponentsassurrogatesforothersandthefeasibilityofusingaparticularindicatorasasurrogateforotherindicators,thusincreasingtheoveralleffectivenessandefficiencyofthemonitoringprograms.
Theoverarchingmonitoringthemeswerederivedfromcurrentcircumpolarmonitoringprograms.Focalecosystemcomponentswerelikewisedrawnfromexistingprograms,butalsobecauseoftheirassociatedvaluesandsensitivitytothestressorsidentifiedearlierinSection4.0.Additionally,thereport“ArcticBiodiversityTrends2010–Selectedindicatorsofchange”(CAFFInternationalSecretariat,Akureyri,Iceland.May2010)identifiedthefollowingindicators:
• Polarbears• Wildreindeerandcaribou• Shorebirds–redknot• Seabirds–murres(guillemots)• Seabirds–commoneiders• Arcticchar• Invasivespecies(human-induced)• TheArcticSpeciesTrendIndex• Arcticgeneticdiversity• Arcticsea-iceecosystem• GreeningoftheArctic• Reproductivephenologyinterrestrialecosystems• AppearinganddisappearinglakesintheArcticandtheirimpactsonbiodiversity• Arcticpeatlands• Effectsofdecreasedfreshwatericecoverdurationonbiodiversity• Changingdistributionofmarinefish• Impactsofhumanactivitiesonbenthichabitat• Reindeerherding• Seabirdharvest• Changesinharvest• Changesinprotectedareas• Linguisticdiversity
Table13summarizessomeofthekeyvaluesofeachmonitoringthemeandthelinkedstressors.Becauseeachfocalecosystemcomponentforeachmonitoringthemeshouldfulfillthesamevaluesandrespondtothesamestressors,theyarenotlistedseparatelyhere.
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Table 13: CBMP ecosystem, monitoring theme, key values and key linked stressors
Ecosystem Monitoring Theme Value Linked StressorTerrestrialfauna ungulates centralecosystemcomponent,
culturalimportanceclimatechange,increasinghumanuse,development
predators iconicspecies,toppredators,someatrisk
climatechange,increasinghumanuse,development
smallmammals importantkeystonespeciesinecosystemfoodchains
climatechange,development
passerinesandshore-birds
indicatorsofchange,someatrisk climatechange,development,contaminants,invasivespp
waterfowl indicatorsofchange,culturalimportance,someatrisk
climatechange,increasinghumanuse,development
Freshwater fish indicatorsofchange,culturalimportance,someatrisk
climatechange,increasinghumanuse,development
water indicatorofchange,fundamentalecosystemimportance
climatechange,development,contaminants
icecover indicatorofchange,ecosystemfunction,importanthabitat
climatechange
Terrestrialvegetation phenology indicatorofchange,importanthabitat
climatechange,invasives
landscapechange indicatorofchange,importanthabitat
climatechange,increasinghumanuse,development
Marine marinemammals indicatorofchange,culturalim-portance,someatrisk
climatechange,increasinghumanuse,contaminants
fish indicatorofchange,culturalim-portance,someatrisk
climatechange,increasinghumanuse
seabirds indicatorofchange,culturalim-portance,someatrisk
climatechange,increasinghumanuse,development
oceancirculation indicatorofchange,ecosystemfunction
climatechange
Coastal coastaldynamics indicatorofchange,ecosystemfunction
climatechange
Traditionalknowledge traditionalknowledge knowledgeofecosystempro-cesses,atrisk
lossoftraditionalknowledge
Table14summarizestheproposedAPAMSprogram.ItliststheabioticandbioticmonitoringthemesforeachCBMPecosystem.Eachmonitoringthemeincludesseveralfocalecosystemcomponents(perhapsinterchangeableandatleastcomplementary).Thesuggestedindicatorsarecommonforeachfocalecosystemcomponent,i.e.,theindicatorsallapplytoeachfocalecosystemcomponentinthatparticularmonitoringtheme,e.g.,breedingsuccessappliestoallungulatefocalecosystemcomponents.Eachindicatorinturnhasadiscretemeasure,e.g.,theindicatorofbreedingsuccessisthecow/calfratio.
Suggestedkeyecosystemcomponentsarethemselvesindicatorsofvariousaspectsofbiodiversity,forexample:• wolverine,grizzlybear,goldeneagle–indicatorsofrangequality• lemmings–keystonespecies,indicatorsofecosystemfunctioning• caribounumbers–indicatorsofecosystemrecovery• endangeredspeciesorthoseatrangelimits–indicatorsofuniqueness• vegetationcover–indicatorofdiversity• speciessensitivetoclimatechange,increasingordecreasingicecover–indicatorsofresilience• invasivespecies–indicators(andagents)ofchange
Theselectionofappropriatemeasuresisimportant.Appropriatemeasuresshouldincludethose:• wherethereareexistingprogramsandstandardizedprotocols(e.g.,aerialcensus)• wheretherearelong-term,standardized,universaldatabases(e.g.,seaicerecords)
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• thatareamenabletosatelliteorotherremotesensingtechnologies(e.g.,seaicedistributionandthickness)
• thatcanbeimplementedeasily(e.g.,NDVI)
Table 14: Draft APAMS
1. CBMP ecosystem: Terrestrial Flora and Fauna
1 (a) FloraMonitoring theme Focal ecosystem compo-
nentIndicator Measure Expert agency
Phenology Plantcommunitystruc-ture
Speciescomposition,ratios Sppidentification,sppratiocalculation,invasivespp,yeartoyearcompari-son
UNEPGRIDA,IUCNarcticplantbryophytespecial-istgroups,IUCNRedListauthorities
Plantgrowth Springgreen-up NDVI ITEX,GLORIA,IUCNspecialistgroups
Landscapechange permafrost Groundtemperature,groundslumpingnatureandextent
Temperaturemea-surements,landscapemapping
Universities,governmentagencies
Infrastructuredevelopment Roads,buildings,trails Mappingofnewinfrastructuredevel-opment,yeartoyearcomparison
Protectedareamanage-mentauthority
Humanuse Natureandfrequencyofvisitation
Surveys,observa-tions,visitorreports
Protectedareamanage-mentauthority
1(b) FaunaMonitoring theme Focal ecosystem
componentIndicator Measure Expert agency
Ungulates CaribouWildreindeerMooseMuskoxWildsheepandgoats
Abundance,distribu-tion,breedingsuccess,populationtrend,herdhealth
census,seasonalmove-ments,cow/calfratio,fatcondition,harveststatistics,yeartoyearcomparison
CARMA,IUCNCaprinaeSpecialistGroup,wildlifeagencies
Predators Brown/grizzlybearWolfWolverineRedfoxWhitefox
Abundance,distribu-tion,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
census,seasonalmove-ments,littersuccess,harveststatistics,yeartoyearcomparison
BrownBearNetwork,IUCNwolf,bear,canid,smallcar-nivorespecialistgroups,wildlifeagencies
Smallmammals LemmingsVolesMiceHaresPikasshrews
Abundance,distribu-tion,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
census,seasonalmove-ments,littersuccess,yeartoyearcomparison
ParksCanada,Finland,Russia,IUCNsmallmammal,lago-morphspecialistgroups.
Passerinesandshore-birds
PasserinespeciesShorebirdspecies,e.g.,redknot,phala-ropespp
Abundance,distribu-tion,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
census,seasonalmove-ments,nestingsuccess,yeartoyearcomparison
IUCNbirdspecialistgroups
Waterfowl BrentgooseSlavoniangrebewhite-frontedgoose
Abundance,distribution,breedingsuccess,popula-tiontrend
census,seasonalmove-ments,nestingsuccess,harveststatistics,yeartoyearcomparison
WetlandsInternational,IUCNgooseduckspecialistgroups,wildlifeagencies
Endangeredspecies RedBook(unlessnotedabove)
Abundance,distribu-tion,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
census,seasonalmove-ments,reproductivesuccess,yeartoyearcomparison
IUCNBirdRedBookauthori-ties,IUCNThreatenedWater-fowlSpecialistGroup
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2. CBMP ecosystem: FreshwaterMonitoring theme Focal ecosystem
componentIndicator Measure Expert agency
Fish WhitefishspeciesArcticcharRedBookspecies
abundance,distri-bution,spawningsuccess,yeartoyeartrends
census,seasonalmovements,youngofyear,harveststatis-tics,yeartoyearcomparison
FisheriesJointManage-mentCommittee(NWT),IUCN/WIFreshwaterFishSpecialistGroup,IUCNSalmonidSpecialistGroup,IUCNRedBookauthori-ties,fisheriesmanagementagencies
Water Waterquality benthicinvertebrates,chemistrytemperature,turbidity
benthiccommunitystructure,keychemicalconstituents(e.g.,nutrients),temperaturemeasure-ments,turbiditymeasurements,yeartoyearcomparison
ParksCanada,FreshwaterBiodiversityNetwork,NationalWaterResearchInsti-tute(EnvironmentCanada)
Waterquantity seasonalflow,sur-facecover/extent
Waterlevelsandvolumes,surfacemapping,yeartoyearchanges
CanadianMeteorologicalService/WaterSurveyofCanada
Ice Icecover Icedistribution,icethickness
Surfacemapping,thicknessmeasurements,yeartoyearcomparison
CanadianIceService,NOAA
3. CBMP ecosystem: MarineMonitoring theme Focal ecosystem
componentIndicator Measure Expert agency
Marine mammals Seal speciesWalrusPolar bearWhale species
Abundance, distribution, breeding success, popula-tion trend
census, seasonal move-ments, reproductive suc-cess, harvest statistics, year to year comparison
IUCN cetacean, polar bear, pinniped specialist groups
Fish ShrimpTurbotSalmonInvasive spp
Abundance,distr ibution, spawning success, year to year trends
census, seasonal move-ments, spawning suc-cess, harvest statistics year to year comparison
IUCN Salmonid Specialist Group, fisheries manage-ment agencies
Seabirds MurreEiderGuillemot species
Abundance,distr ibution, breeding success, popula-tion trend
census, seasonal move-ments, nesting success, year to year comparison
Circumpolar Seabird Group
Endangered species Red Book (unless noted above)
Abundance, distribution, breeding success, popula-tion trend
census, seasonal move-ments, reproductive success, year to year comparison
IUCN Bird Red Book authorities, IUCN Threat-ened Waterfowl Specialist Group
4. CBMP ecosystem: CoastalMonitoring theme Focal ecosystem com-
ponentIndicator Measure Expert agency
Coastaldynamics Coastlinechange coastalerosionordeposition
Coastlinemapping,currentregimemonitoring(speed,direction,vol-ume)yeartoyearcomparison
Governmentagencies,universities
Icecover seasonaldistribution,thickness
seaicecovermapping,thicknessmea-surement,yeartoyearcomparison
CanadianIceService
5. Additional theme: local knowledge
Monitoring theme Focal ecosystem com-ponent
Indicator Measure Expert agency
Useoftraditionalknowledge
Applicationoftraditionalknowledgeinenvi-ronmentalmonitoringprograms
Traditionalknowledgeholdersatisfaction
Surveys,participationbytraditionalholdersinmoni-toringprograms
Aboriginalgovernments,au-thoritiesandindividuals
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Table15showswhichArcticcountriesarecurrentlymonitoringthethemesidentifiedabove.NA(notapplicable)appliesincaseswherethethemeisnotrelevantorpossibleinacountry.Insomecasesmonitoringisspecifictoprotectedareas(PA);inothercasesmonitoringisonastate-widescale(S)notspecifictobutincludingprotectedareas.Insomecasesmonitoringoccursonbothscales.Protectedarea-specificinformationcanalsobeextractedfromstate-wide(EU)programs;it’sprobablethattheseprogramscouldalsobeexpandedwithinprotectedareaswithoutsignificantadditionalcost.Table 15: Current Arctic protected area monitoring programs
Monitoring theme Indicator Alaska Canada Greenland Iceland Norway Sweden Finland Russia
CBMP ecosystem: Terrestrial
Uncertain:Monitoringprogramshave beendesigned but specific informationon theirapplicationis missing
Ungulates
abundance, distri-bution, herd health, breeding success, population trend
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
S(moose)
Predators
abundance, distri-bution, breeding success, popula-tion trend
SPA
SPA S S
PASPA S S
SmallMam-mals
abundance,distri-bution,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
Passerinesandshore-birds
abundance,distri-bution,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA S S
PASPA
SPA
SPA
Waterfowl
abundance,distri-bution,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
S
Endangeredspecies
abundance,distri-bution,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA S S
PASPA S S
PA
Phenology
speciescomposition SPA
SPA S S
PAS S
PA S Uncertain:Monitoringprogramshavebeendesignedbutspecificinformationontheirapplicationismissing
green-up SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA S S
Landscapechange
permafrosttem-perature PA S
PASPA S S
PA S
infrastructure SPA
SPA PA PA PA PA
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Monitoring theme Indicator Alaska Canada Greenland Iceland Norway Sweden Finland Russia
CBMP ecosystem: Freshwater
Uncertain:Monitoringprogramshavebeendesignedbutspecificinformationontheirapplicationismissing
Fish
abundance,distri-bution,spawningsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA S S
PASPA S S
Waterqual-ity
benthicinvertebratehealth,chemistry,temperature,turbid-ity
SPA
SPA S S S S
PA S
Waterquan-tity
seasonalflows,surfaceextent
SPA
SPA
SPA S S S
Icecover icedistribution,thickness S S S S S S S
CBMP ecosystem: Marine
Marinemammals
abundance,distri-bution,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
S S SPA
SPA S NA
Fish
abundance,distri-bution,spawningsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA S S
PASPA S NA
Seabirds
abundance,distri-bution,breedingsuccess,populationtrend
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA
SPA NA
Oceancircu-lation
temperature,salin-ity,currentflow S S S S S NA
CBMP ecosystem: Coastal
Coastaldynamics
coastalerosion/de-position
SPA
SPA NA
currentflow S S S S S NAseasonalicecover-age,thickness,character
SPA
SPA S S S NA
Traditional knowledgeApplicationinmonitor-ing
Applicationinmoni-toringprograms
SPA
SPA S S S PA
7.0 Additional considerations and next steps
Thechallengeofcreatingaconsistentandcommoncircumpolarprotectedareasmonitoringprogramissignificantforanumberofreasons,amongthem:verydifferentapproachestoprotectedareasmonitoringinEuropeandNorthAmerica;frequentabsenceofconsistentmonitoringandreportingprotocols;limitedcommunicationandcoordinationamongresponsibleagencieswithinandamongArcticcountries;fundingandpersonnelconstraintsandsoon.Allthatsaid,itcanbedone.Thechallengeisnotsomuchtheabsenceofmonitoringprograms–therearefewsignificantgaps–butinthemanagementofthedataandknowledgederivedfromthenumerousmonitoringprograms.
Themostefficientapproachtodevelopingacommonsetofmonitoringprogramsistoderivefromexistingprogramsthecommonthemes,focalecosystemcomponents,indicatorsandmeasuresandtoconstructfromthemacircumpolarscheme.Anexaminationofexistingprotectedareaandstate-widemonitoringprogramssuggeststhatrelativelyminorimprovementsandenhancementstoexistingprogramswouldfilltheremaininggaps.Wherecountriesarenotmonitoringthesuiteoffocalecosystemcomponents,sufficientsurrogatesareavailable;similarly,whereprotectedarea-specificmonitoringprogramsarenotbeingconducted,datafromstate-wideprogramscanbeextrapolatedorinterpolated
effectively.Finally,relativelyminoradjustmentstothestate-wideprogramstoprovidemoredataspecifictoprotectedareascanbedonewithrelativelylittleeffort.Intheend,theobjectiveofmonitoringbiodiversityonacircumpolarscaleusingprotectedareasascontrolsorbaselinescanlargelybeachievedwithminorimprovementstoexistingmonitoringprogramsandgreatereffortdirectedtoinformationmanagement.
OnceconsensusisreachedbytheAPAMSnetworkonadraftsetofmonitoringthemes,focalecosystemcomponents,indicatorsandmeasures,thenextstepshouldbeconsultationwiththeExpertMonitoringGroups.Whilethevariousgroupsarefollowingdifferenttimelines,finalizingthestructureoftheAPAMSprogramshouldberelativelystraight-forward.
Followingthis,aAPAMSprogramimplementationplanwillberequired.Theplanwillneedtoaddresstwokeyaspects:first,creationofaninformationmanagementsystemthatcan“mine”existingdatabasesfortheinformationnecessarytoreportonthestateofArcticbiodiversityasseenthroughaprotectedarealens;andsecond,fillingtheremaininggapsinmonitoringprogramstoimprovethequalityofthebiodiversityassessments.
8.0 Summary
Agreementonasustainablesuiteofcircumpolarprotectedareabiodiversitymonitoringprogramsthatwilleffectivelyandefficientlycapturerepresentativekeydataattheappropriatescaleanddesigningandimplementingtheappropriateinformationmanagementsystemisbothdoableandarguablynecessary.
Therearerealchallengesassociatedwiththedevelopmentandimplementationofalong-termprotectedareabiodiversitymonitoringprogramthatcrossesnationalandinternationaljurisdictionsandthattakesintoaccountdifferentmonitoringapproachesandphilosophies.However,thegreaterchallengeisnotthedevelopmentofthemonitoringprogramspersebutrathercollecting,collatinganddisseminatingtheinformationthatisalreadyavailable.Therearefewsignificantgapsincurrentprotectedareamonitoringprogramsandstate-wideprogramsthatincludeprotectedareasthatwouldpreventreliablebiodiversityassessments.Withoutaneffectiveinformationmanagementregime,however,theknowledgegainedthroughthosemonitoringprogramsisoflimitedavailability.“Mining”andmanagingtheinformationalreadyheldinnumerousdatabasesisachallengebutonethatcanbeovercomewithrelativelyfewadditionalresources.
Asissooftenthecasewithenvironmentalmonitoringandstewardshipprograms,thesinglegreatestlimitingfactorisresources.Trained,professionalstaffareofteninshortsupply;adequatebudgetstoenablethemtodothenecessaryworkareofteninshortersupply.ThedevelopmentandimplementationofaneffectiveAPAMSprogramisarelativelystraightforwardexerciseiftheresourcesandcommitmentarethere.Astherisksandchallengesfromclimatechange,industrialdevelopment,longrangetransportofcontaminants,etc.increasinglyaffecttheArctic,itwillbeallthemoreimportanttoensurethatweunderstandwhatishappening,whyitishappeningandwhattheimplicationsare.ArobustandeffectivebiodiversitymonitoringprogramutilizingallavailableinformationandparticularlyinformationfromcircumpolarArcticprotectedareasisessentialnowmorethanever.
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