Chapter One: Scientific Thinking

Data Land: Observable Behaviors Behavior Material Objects Measurement Date

Theory Land: How to explain Behavior Ideas Concepts Hypothesis Theories

Construct: Variables in theories. Also is an inferred cause of measurable events or processes. Should have effects logically related to it where the effects are logically related to each other. Is also a way to think about cause-effect relationships when we cannot see causes.Operational Definition: Taking a psychological construct and finding someway to measure it.Hypothesis: A tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variablesTheories: A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain observations based on research. Purpose is to organize observations; understand the nature of phenomena; explain relationships; and make predictions

Three Traditions of Psychology: Experimental Psychology: Experimental methods Individual Differences: Correlation methods. Clinical Approaches: Case Studies

Wilhelm Wundt: Founding father of psychology. Found things out by experimentation and focused on structuralism, which analyzes conscious experience into its basic elements.William James: Founding father of psychology. Found out the “why” in psychology. Investigated the purposes and meanings behind consciousness.JB Watson:B.F. Skinner: Behaviorist who believed that behavior is a function of the environment or experienceJean Piaget: Cognitive and Neuroscience psychologist who believe that behavior is a functional of internal mental processes.Sigmund Freud: Believed behavior results from unconscious desires. Non-academic and not research based. Focuses on curing mentally ill

Six Principles of Scientific Thinking: Ruling out rival hypotheses: Figure out if you’ve explored all possibilities Correlation vs. causation: Correlation designs don’t permit causation Falsifiability: Is the evidence capable of being disproved? Reliability: Findings can be repeated Extraordinary Claims: Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence Occam’s Razor: Simplest explanation is usually right

Chapter Two

Descriptive Approach: Describing the world as it is. Identifying key variables Correlation methods: Use statistics to explore connections between characteristics and events

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Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation: Watching behavior unfold in the real world Surveys: Using questionnaires and other means to determine attitudes Case Studies: Finding out things about an individual helps us understand some issue or characteristic.

Positives and Negatives of Descriptive Methods:+ Surveys can provide lots of information+ Case studies allow us to study rare or unusual phenomenon - Case studies take a long time and don’t allow us to infer causation

Correlations: Use statistics to explore connections between characteristics and events. Utilizes the correlation coefficient to show a relationship between variables The stronger the correlation is, the greater the correlation coefficient is AWAY from zero 1.0 = strong positive correlation -1.0 = strong negative correlation The problem of a 3rd variable, confounding variable, is that it makes the correlation unclear. The third or second

independent variables could have caused the change/correlation. Illusory Correlation: Seeing a correlation where none exists. Is an illusion.

Experimental Method: Manipulating events to determine cause and effect relationships

Four Features of Experiments: Manipulates a variable(cause) to determine the results (effect) Done under controlled conditions Determine cause effect relationships Likely to occur after we have gathered information via the other research methods

Central Tendency: Measure of the “central” scores in a data set, or where a group tends to cluster. Measures of central tendency are:

Mean: Average Median: Middle score of data Mode: Where group tends to cluster

Standard Deviation: Measure of dispersion that takes into account how far each data point if from the mean. Is a bell curve

Normal Curve

Descriptive Statistics: Numbers that describe data. There are two major sets: Central Tendency Variability: A sense of how loosely or tightly bunched the scores are. Involves range.

Inferential Statistics: Mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population.* A finding can be statistically significant with no real world importance. Practical significance questions if material is useful.

Measurement: The process of quantifying observations on psychological variables for applied or research purposes.Reliability: Consistency of measurement. Reliability is necessary for validity because we need to measure something consistently before we can measure it well. i.e. Test-retest reliabilityValidity: Extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure.

Heuristic: Mental shortcut that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world. Humans use heuristics to have a shortcut in thinking.

Availability Heuristic: Heuristic that involved estimating the likelihood of an event based on the ease which it comes to our minds. i.e. asking about number of murders in Detroit vs. Michigan

Representative Heuristic: Heuristic that involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to an event.

Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts them.Base Rates: How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general population

Cognitive Biases: Systematic errors in thinking Hindsight Bias: Tendency to overestimate how well we could have successfully forecasted known outcomes Overconfidence: Tendency to overestimate our ability to make correct predictions

Parts of a Neuron: Neuron: Nerve cell specialized for communication.

Functioning of brain depends on cross talk of neurons. Neurons contain about 100 billion neurons and 160 trillion connections.

Dendrites: Extensions on neurons. Spread out to “listen” in on inform from neighboring neurons and pass it on to the cell body.

Soma: Cell body that contains the nucleus. Axons: Very thin, long, tail-like extensions protruding

from the cell body. Sends signals and creates trigger zone. Incased in myelin sheath.

Terminal Fields: Information is conveyed into other cells form here.

Myelin Sheath: Protective covering of axons.

Steps Involved in Neural Impulse (Action Potential):1. Electrical impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters. When this occurs, the neuron is either firing or not

firing.2. Originate in trigger cells of cell body and continue down axon to axon terminal Positive charged particles flow

rapidly into axon and quickly out causing a spike in positive charge and sudden decrease in charge. Inside charge ends up slightly negative to original resting value.

3. When electrical charge reaches axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters -- chemical messages -- into a synapse

Resting Potential: Electrical charge difference (-60 millivolts) across the neuronal membrane, when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited. More negative particles inside than outside the neuron.

Excitatory Signal:Inhibitory:Hyperpolarization:Depolarization:

Simple Reflex Pathway:

The Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Part of the nervous system that contains the brain and spinal cord that controls mind and behavior. Sensory info comes

in and decisions come out.

Brain Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves in the body that extend outside the CNS.

AutonomicFight, flight, feeling, and reproductive behavior.

ParasympatheticRest, energy storage

SympatheticAction, energy mobilization

SomaticInvoluntary movements and sensation. Rest and

digest. Reflexes

Sense Organ

Sensory Neuron

Motor Neuron

MuscleInterneurons

Lobes on Brain & Functions: Occipital: Back part of cerebral cortex responsible for vision Temporal: Object recognition as well as hearing, understanding, language, and memory. Is separated from the

rest of the cortex by lateral fissure.- Auditory Cortex: Part of cortex devoted to hearing- Wernicke’s Area: Language area of temporal responsible for understanding speech.- Agnosia: Defect in the ability to recognize objects- Prospagnosia: Disability in detecting faces.

Parietal: Spatial attention specializing in touch and perception.- Somatosensory Cortex: Sensitive to touch, including pressure, pain, and temperature. - Phantom Limb Syndrome: Capability to feel lost limb.- Neglect Syndrome: Neglect of half of space following injury to parietal cortex on one side of brain.

Frontal: “Executive Function”- Broca’s Area: Language area in prefrontal cortex responsible for speech production.- Motor Cortex: Responsible for body movement

Limbic System: Emotional center of brain that processes internal states. SMELL!- Amygdala: Key roles in fear, excitement, and arousal- Thalamus: Gateway from the sense organs to the primary sensory cortex. Main door to limbic system

organs. Hindbrain: Region below the Midbrain that contains the organs of the brain stem

- Cerebellum: Responsible for our sense of balance and enables us to coordinate movement and learn about motor skills. Contributes to executive, spatial, and linguistic abilities

- Pons: Connects the cortex with the cerebellum. Dreams- Medulla: Involved in heartbeat and breathing.

Corpus Collosum: Large band of fibers connecting the 2 cerebral hemispheres. Allows communication between both lobes of brain.

Basil Ganglia: Helps control movement. Allows us to perform movements to obtain rewards. Adrenal Gland: Manufactures adrenaline and cortisol, emergency glands. Cortisol regulates blood pressure and

cardiovascular functions.

Six Steps that Summarize Neural Communication at the Synapse: Nerve impulses arrives at synapse Neurotransmitter molecules released Neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptor molecules Channel molecules open up to let in positively or negatively charged ions This generates a small positive or negative current in postsynaptic cell Neurotransmitter molecules degraded, or recaptured by presynaptic cell

Neurotransmitters: Are released from presynaptic cell into the postsynaptic cell. Each neurotransmitter acts on multiple receptors, and has different effects depending on which receptor is

activated. Drugs work by increasing or decreasing the effectiveness of neurotransmitters. Increase neurotransmitter release (MAOIs) Block neurotransmitter clearance (Cocaine, Tricyclics, SSRI’s) Active agonist , mimics the neurotransmitter molecule (heroine) Decrease neurotransmitter Block receptor, antagonist Block channel

Neurotransmitters & Association with Drugs: Depression: Related neurotransmitters are serotonin & noepinephrine. Block reuptake of neurotransmitter

molecules. Prozac keeps more serotonin around. Schizophrenia:

Hebb’s Rule: Cells that fire together, wire together.Long Term Potentiation (LTP): A cellular phenomenon with high frequency stimulation increasing the ability of cell A to fire cell B. There are two stages, induction and maintenance:

Placing high frequency stimulation in Cell A, also called tetanus, induces LTP Biological changes involved in long term maintenance of LTP are growth of new dendrites, enlargement of

dendritic “spines,” and an increase in the number of excitatory receptors. The relationship between LTP and long term memory are that enhancing LTP enhances long term memories

while blocking LTP will prevent the formation of new memories.

Henry Molaison: Showed how difficult it was to remember episodic memories with a disorder called Amnesia. Declarative Memory: A type of long term memory that is the conscious memory for information and facts.

There are two forms: Semantic and episodic memory. Hippocampus: The hippocampus helps develop and form new memories. Helps us learn by looking at cues to

remember where something is. Evidence to support this is the Morris Water Maze which proved that an animal eventually learned how to find a submerged platform over time with spatial memory.

Split-Brain Effect: When the corpus collosum is severed and the one side of the working brain learns and acquires the functions of the unusable brain if procedure is done at a young age; is usually done with patients suffering from seizures. When you see something in your right side you won’t see it if that part of the brain is unusable.

Chapter Four

Five Senses: Vision: Eye Audition: Ear Taste: Tongue Touch: Body Olfactory: Nose

Sensation: Receiving (sensing) physical signalsTransduction: Receptors that convert physical energy to electrical signals

All parts go into the brain

Parts of the Eye:Cornea: Part of the eye containing transparent cells that bends light to go to the retina.Pupil: Circular hole through which light enters the eye. Pupils dilate when we try to process complex info.Lens: Changes curvature to keep image in focus. Bends light and is completely transparent, allowing light to pass through.Retina: Responsible for converting light into neural activityFovea: Central portion of the retina and is responsible for acuity, sharpness of vision.Optic Nerve: Nerve that travels from the retina to the brain. Contains axons of ganglion cells.Blind Spots: Parts of the visual field we can’t see because of the absence of rods and cones.Rods: Photoreceptor cells in the retina allowing us to see low levels of light. Long and narrow allowing us to see basic shapes and forms. Located in receptor cells in retina. Sensitive to movement and vision in dim light.Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina allowing us to see in color. Less numerous than rods. Used in daylight vision and not as sensitive to light. Good for spatial vision

Absolute Threshold: Lowest level of a stimulus needed for the nervous system to detect a change 50% of the time.Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect. i.e. when you can start hearing music on iPod.Weber’s Laws: There is a constant proportional relationship between the JND and original stimulus.

Attention: Selective Attention: Process of selecting one sensory channel and ignoring others. Biases and personalities

contribute to false alarms or misses, response bias or observer bias. A liberal response bias would produce many false alarms.

Intentional Blindness: Failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere. Perceptual Set: Sets formed when expectations influence perceptions.

Perception: The brain’s interpretation of raw sensory inputs Orientation occurs in the receptive field. Neurons only respond to preferred signals, then firing when it

is signaled. Location occurs Color is represented by hue, saturation, and lightness. Certain neurons respond to different colors Motion Is seen by a front end receptor sensing g light and excites , delays, and then fires if both

neurons are firing.Bi-Stable Figures: A figure can produce multiple illusions. Brain tries to figure out what the image is exactly.

Features of Light & Color: Trichromatic Theory: Idea that color vision is based on our sensitivity to 3 primary colors. Coincides with theory

regarding 3 kinds of cones, each maximally sensitive to different wavelengths of light. Opponent Color Theory: Theory that we perceive colors in terms of 3 pairs of opponent colors; red & green,

blue & yellow, or black & white. After images arise from the visual cortex’s processing of information from our rods and cones.

Illusions: Moon Illusion: When the moon looks like its closer to the Earth, when it

really is all in the current position in the moon. Ames Room: Room is shaped oddly like picture.

Subliminal Perception: is the processing of sensory information that occurs below the level of conscious. Chapter Five: Consciousness

Features of REM Sleep

Dreams in REM are more complex REM sleep is important for health Rapid eye movements occur Middle ear muscle activity (MEMA) increases Body is paralyzed (paradoxical sleep b/c brain is active but body is paralyzed)

Split Brain Effect: Severing the corpus collosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizures. When info is delivered to one side of the brain it can’t transfer to the other side.

Corpus Collosum: Sharing of information to the left to right side of the brain. Connect the info together. Broca’s Area: Language area in the prefrontal cortex that controls speech production Wernicke’s Area: Language area in the prefrontal cortex understanding speech. An object seen on the left field of vision is processed in the right side of the brain

Chapter Seven: Memory

Sensory Memory: Sustains sensations for identification. Has a large capacity and has a very short duration lasting ½ - 3 seconds.

Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory. Lasts about 1 second

Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory. Lasts 5-10 seconds

Short Term Memory (working memory): Does conscious work in memory and thinks where construction occurs. Capacity is 7 +/- 2 and duration lasts around 10-15 seconds.

Chunking: Organizing info into meaningful groupings allowing us to extend the span of short term memory. Form of elaborative rehearsal.

Control Processes of Working Memory:- Attention: Selects info from sensory memory- Encoding: Sends info to LTM- Retrieval: Brings info from LTM to working memory- Rehearsal: Maintains info to working memory

Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating stimuli in their original form to retain memory. Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking stimuli to reach others in a meaningful way to improve retention

* Peterson’s studied memory by giving subjects lists with three letter stings and asking them to recall these three letter strings. They made some subjects wait longer than others but made both count backwards from time given. They found out that STM lasts only about 10-15 seconds.

Long Term Memory: Ties together past with present with relatively enduring retention. Info stored regards our facts, experiences, and skills. Capacity is huge and is usually permanent.

Three Levels of Processing: Encoding: Process of getting info into our memory banks. Many memory failures are a fail due to encoding.

- To encode something we must attend to it- Not every detail gets encoded into our brains

Storage: Process of keeping info in memory. How we store things depends on our interpretations and expectations.

Retrieval: Reactivation or reconstruction of experience from our memory stores. Memory retrieved is usually not 100% the same as memory encoded. Memories are reconstructive, transforming our recollections to fit our beliefs and expectations.

- Recall: Generating previously remembered info. (Open ended response)- Recognition: Selecting previously remembered info from options (Multiple Choice)- Relearning: Reacquiring knowledge that we’d previously learned but largely forgotten over time. Also

called method of savings. Is the most sensitive retrieval method.

* Ebbinghaus founded the concept of learning. Forgetting curve showed that most forgetting occurs almost immediately after learning new material, with less and less forgetting after that. Also found that when relearning material, it was quicker.

Serial Position Effect/Graph: Graph depicting primacy and recency effects on people’s ability to recall items on a list. Recency: Tendency to remember words at the end of a list well Primacy: Tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list well

Decay and Interference: Decay: Fading of information of memory over time Interference: Loss of info from memory because of competition from additional incoming info

- Proactive Interference: Interference with the acquisition of new info due to previously learned info- Retroactive Interference: Interference with retention of old info due to acquisition of new information.

* Retro = Old/Past

Roles of Brain in Memory: Amygdala: Where emotional components of these and other memories, especially those of fear provoking

events are Hippocampus: Retaining of actual events. When damaged affects our retention of learning new memories.

Consolidates memories

Long Term Memory

Explicit Memory Memories we recall

intentionally of of which we have conscious awareness

of. SPECIFIC!

Episodic Memory Memories of events (18th b-day, etc) Includes flashbulb

memory. Right Frontal

Semantic Memory Our knowledge for facts

around the world . Names, dates, etc. Left Frontal

Implicit Memory Memories we don't reflect or remember consciously.

Procedural Memory Knowing how to do

something (driving a car)

Classical Conditioning UCS w/ CS creates UCR & CR

(Pavlov & Dogs)

Priming Our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or

quicker when we've encountered similiar stimuli

Habituation Adapting to something or

making something become a habit

Long Term Potentiation (LTP): Gradual strengthening of connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation. “Neurons that fire together, wire together.”

Amnesia: Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to encode new memories from our experiences. Can result from physical

trauma. Retroactive Amnesia: Loss of memories from our past.

Types of Failed Memories: Flashbulb Memory: Emotional memory that is extraordinary vivid and detailed. Many times our flashbulb

memory is false, especially after a long period of time. Source Monitoring Conclusion: Lack of clarity about the origin of memory. People do so by seeking clues about

how we encoded memories. Misinformation Effect: Creation of false memories by providing false info about an event after it takes place.

*Elizabeth Loftus conducted a “Lost in the Mall study” where she demonstrated that we can implant elaborate memories of a made-up event that never happened. She used suggestive questioning and statements to conduct this study. Also found out misinformation effect.

Chapter Eight: Language

Language: Largely flexible system of communication that combines symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning. Sounds, words, and sentences bear no clear relation to their meaning.

Phoneme (Ingredients): Sounds of our language- Categories in sound our vocal apparatus produces- Influenced by elements of vocal tract, including lips, tongue placement, etc.- About 100 phonemes in the world

Morphemes (Menu Items): The smallest units of meaningful speech.- Smallest units of measuring a language- Created by stringing phonemes together- Convey info about meaning from words/sentences- Ex. Re = repeat/redo

Syntax (Putting Meal Together): Grammatical rules that govern how we compose words into meaningful strings.- Rules of language- Word order, morphological markers, sentence structure (formal language)

Extralinguistic Information: Elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to the meaning.

- Nonverbal cues including body language, tone, posture, gestures, etc.

* Semantics: Meaning derived from words or sentences

Language Stages in Infants:1. Babies first begin to learn language in their mother’s womb2. Babbling: Intentional vocalization without any specific meaning. Important for language development. All babies

initially share the same phonemes at first.3. Infants acquire sounds of language during their first year of life. By comprehension precedes production,

children learn language before they speak it. Children start to speak their first words around their first birthdays. First major milestone is combining words into phrases.

4. One Word Stage: Early stage of language development when children use one word to convey thoughts.5. Two Word Stage and so on to eventually making sentences

Heuristics vs. Algorithms:

Heuristics: “Rules of thumb” that produce quick solutions at the cost of possible errors. People use heuristics everyday. Availability Heuristics: What’s easier to recall? Frequency that you see something. Representative Heuristic: What do I expect? Prototypes. (Stereotypes)

Algorithm: Procedure that always produces a correct solution. Computers execute algorithms.

Reasoning:Inductive Reasoning: Specific General

Biases in inductive reasoning are ignoring base rates, confirmation bias, prior knowledge, the representative and the availability heuristic.

Deductive Reasoning: General Specific Flaws include prior knowledge and imagery. Used for syllogisms, starts with major premise and adds minor premise to validate a claim Ex. proofs in math

Approaches in Reasoning:Base Rates: How common a characteristic or behavior is in the general populationConfirmation Bias: Seeking out information that supports our beliefs

Expert and Novices do NOT differ in their use of weak methods. They do differ in domain knowledge. Paradox of Memory is when experts cannot tell you how they get to the goal state after they are extremely

good at something.

Problem Solving: Generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal Functional Fixedness: Difficulty in realizing that one object may have many uses

Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis: View that all thoughts are represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking. False! Linguistic Relativity/ Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Characteristics of language shape our thought process. Implication is that people who speak different languages perceive, think about, and remember the world differently.

Conclusion is that language can influence our ability to perceive, remember, and solve problems. The ability of language to determine how we perceive, remember, and solve problems is limited. How limited remains to be seen!

Chapter Six: Learning

Learning: Change in an organisms thought and behavior as a result of experience. Habituation: The process by which we respond less strongly over time to a repeated stimuli.

- Simplest and earliest form of learning.- Aplysia shows sensation and habituation

Sensitization: Same as habituation

Classical Conditioning Pavlov and WatsonPavlov: Conducted research on dogs and salivation where he stumbled upon classical (Pavlovian) conditioning. Placed dogs in a harness and inserted a cannula, collection tube, into their salivary glands to measure salivation responses to meat powder. Found that dogs salivate with food and neutral stimulus, which led to classical conditioning.

Event-Event Learning: Associating 2 events together. Law of Contiguity: 2 events have to be related to each other in time with UCS and CS.

Stimulates and Responses in Classical Conditioning: Uncontrolled Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that elicits an automatic response. Uncontrolled Response (UCR): An automatic response to a stimulus that doesn’t need to be learned Controlled Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response due to an association with an

unconditioned stimulus

Controlled Response (CR): A response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that comes to be elicited as a neutral stimulus

* Classical conditioning can be used to produce a fear response by associating a UCS with a negative CS to receive a negative CR that could soon be associated with a UCR

- Amygdala is associated with fear conditioning- Classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to foods. In a conditioned taste aversion, we

only need to try a food once to know we don’t like it. This is what makes it different than other models because it only takes one interaction. The delayed association between the CS and UCS is adaptive. Contradicts the assumptions of equipotentiality, claim that we can classically condition all CSs equally well to UCSs.

Principles of Classical Conditioning:1. Acquisition: Gradually learning a conditional response. Is strengthened when time interval between UCS and CS

is short.2. Extinction: CR decreases in magnitude and eventually disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented alone

without the UCS. * like forgetting occurs when we stop reinforcing behaviors3. Spontaneous Recovery: A weaker CR appears when a CS is presented again

- Stimulus Generalization: The process by which CSs that are similar elicit the same CR.- Stimulus Discrimination: Exhibit a less apparent CR to a different CS

* Little Albert is the baby who was exposed to rats and developed a phobia with them as he was given a negative CS with the rat. He eventually developed a phobia for all furry animals, also known as stimulus generalization.* Learning depends upon the particulars of the situation, including specific factors, prior learning history, stimulus novelty, stimulus salience. Learning is a complex function

Operant Conditioning: Learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behavior. Involves reinforcement and punishment. Thorndike and Skinner *Dopamine is the neurotransmitter associated with operant conditioning

Thorndike Instrumental Conditioning, Law of Effect,& Insight- Instrumental Conditioning: Learning from the relationships between learning and its consequences- Law of Effect: If we’re rewarded for a response to a stimulus, we’re more likely to repeat it. S-R theorists

believe that almost everything we do voluntarily results from the gradual build-up of S-R bonds.- Insight: Grasping the underlying nature of a problem

Skinner Shaping, Chaining, Skinner Box- Shaping: Progressively reinforcing behaviors that become closer and closer to the target. Skinner and

students discovered shaping on accident at the UofM.- Chaining: Linking behaviors together- Skinner Box: A box that electronically records an animal’s response and prints out a cumulative record,

or graph, of the animal’s activity.

Classical Conditioning

Elicited automaticallyReward is provided unconditionallyBehavior depends on autonomic nervous system

Both

Have aquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

Operant Conditioning

Emitted voluntarilyReward is contingent on behaviorBehavior depends on skeletal muscles

Skinner’s Behavior Analysis: Behavior changes due to ABCs Antecedents, Behaviors, and ConsequencesRespondent is stimulus with stimulus

Operant Environment plays a roleDiscrimitive Stimulus: Any stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement. Signals/antecedents that occurs after behavior. Ex. Waving at someone and getting a wave back.

Reinforcement and Punishment: Reinforcement: Any outcome that strengthens the probability of a response to occur in the future

- Positive Reinforcement: Presentation that strengthens the probability of a behavior- Negative Reinforcement: Removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of a behavior

Primary Reinforcement: Something that isn’t learned and increases the target behavior. Biologically learned/known.

Secondary Reinforcement: Neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforce Punishment: Outcome or consequence of behavior that weakens the probability of a behavior

- Positive Punishment: Getting something you don’t want- Negative Punishment: Taking something away that you don’t want taken away

Disadvantages of Punishment:- Tells only what not to do- Creates anxiety- Encourages sneaky behavior- Model for aggressive behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement: Pattern of delivering reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. Allows behaviors to adapt quicker Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing behaviors only some of the time. Leads to greater resistance to extinction

Reinforcement Schedules: Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: Providing reinforcement after a regular number of responses Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: Pattern in which we provide reinforcement for producing the response at least

once after a specific time interval Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: Pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses

on average with the number varying randomly

Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: Reinforcement for producing the response after an average time interval with the actual interval varying randomly.

* Ratio schedules yield higher rates of responding than interval schedules. Variable is more resistant to extinction

Two-Factory Learning Theory: Conditional and Instrumental conditioning in interaction with one another. Situation (CS), paired with trauma (UCS-UCR), leads to fear (CR) the conditioned fear is an aversion

motivational state Examples:

- Rat sees light turn on and electrical shocks turn on. The rat escapes to the other side to avoid shocks, which is a negative reinforcement.

- A person is in the environment where they take drugs (CS) this signals a (CR) which is the withdrawal symptoms. The person experiences the withdrawal symptoms and take the drug (UCS) to relieve the withdrawal symptoms (UCR)

Cognitive Models of Learning: Ed Tolman suspected that reinforcement wasn’t necessary for learning. Applied concept of latent learning,

learning that isn’t directly observable.- Cognitive Maps: Spatial representations of how a physical space is organized.- Observational Learning: Learning by watching others. Learn by watching models, parents or role models

who influence us.- Mirror Neurons: Cells in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated by specific motions when an

animal both performs and observes that action. Albert Bandura demonstrated how children can learn to act aggressively by watching aggressive role models.

Conducted a Bobo doll experiement where he showed preschoolers videos of adults with a large Bobo doll. He showed some kids with a model abusing a doll while others did not show this. Proved that children copy model behaviors, good or bad. This coincides with the media and violence

Chapter Eleven: Emotion

Ekman’s Basic Emotions: Fear, Happiness, Disgust, Anger, Sadness, Surprise (FHDASS)

* We can study emotions by testing on rodents, asking humans, etc. Usually can’t measure emotion by faces.

- Fear potentiated startle (going from a relaxed state to another such as fear. Being fearful) Is a reliable source to measure in humans and animals.

International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Standardized tests or stimuli presented to people. Measures how pleasant and arousing the pictures are. 800+ ratings of valence (present vs. unpleasant & arousal)

Pleasant: Puppies, babies Unpleasant: Spiders, spoiled food, snakes, gross

Something is added

Something is lost Something is taken away

Something is gained

Psychopath w/ neutral stimulus

+ Reinforcement

+ Punishment

- Reinforcement - Punishment

Arousal: Hot people, romantic, intimacy

Amygdala: “Hub of fear.” Role is project stimulates to the brain to coordinate the responses in a state of fear or anxiety. Helps potentiate startle.

When amygdala is lesioned our sense of fear is lost. Symptoms associated with anxiety: Breathing, panting, sweating,

Exposure Therapy: Most effective treatment for anxiety where you expose people to the phobic object and they gradually become comfortable with their phobias.

Can treat PTSD or fear of flying with virtual reality goggles to relive experiences that are difficult to replicate

Extinction of Fear Response: Pairing the scared stimulus with something positive. Acquisition of Fear: CS Shock Extinction of Fear: CS No Shock Memory is not erased. It is just replaced with the neutral response that is positive and safe. Extinction brings in

new memories. DCS (D-cycloserine) is an antibiotic that can be used to speed

up extinction by speeding up learning to inhibit fear. Flashbulb Memories: Storage and/or retrieval of memories is

enhanced by a high state of arousal at the time of encoding. Beta Blockers can be used to treat PTSD by blocking receptors

for norepinephrine, which is important for stress related situations, released when aroused so you are able to remember better. People who have PTSD report having less stressful disorders because they aren’t in stressed states.

Rewards: Stimuli that motivate behavior. Dopamine is the neurotransmitter associated with reward. Reward pathway goes from VTA (dopamine holder) Nucleus Accumbens Prefrontal Cortex. Typical rewards for humans are food, money, sex, positive behaviors.

Primary Rewards: Fulfill our needs Secondary Rewards: Extra things

Drug Addiction: Habitual drug use, despite adverse affects on health and social life and, generally, despite efforts to quit. Occurs when drugs “hijack” the brain’s rewards system.

Mechanism for addiction is:- High- Craving- Withdrawal

Two Factor Theory of Emotion: Theory proposed by Schachter and Singer, proposing that emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with an attribution (explanation) of that arousal. Two psychological events are required to produce an emotion:

Phobias are things that you are extremely scared of that initiate your fear potentiated startle

Fear response diminishes

After encountering an emotionally provoking event we experience an arousal that is undifferentiated (same across all emotions).

Once we have an arousal we explain it by labeling an emotion with it.

Mere Exposure Effect: Proposed by Zjonc, repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Proposed by Zjonc, you’re more likely to feel emotions that correspond to your facial features; also a theory that blood vessels in the face feedback temperature info to the brain, altering our experience of emotion.

Things that Make People Happier: Marriage, friendships, college, religion, politics, exercise, health, gratitude, giving, and flow. (11.5-11.6)

Drive Reduction Theory: Formulated by Hull and Hebb. Certain drives, like hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration, motivate us to minimize aversion states. All of these drives are unpleasant, but the satisfaction in them results in pleasure. Theory is motivated by effort to maintain homeostasis.

Predictors of Attraction: Proximity: Physical closeness Similarity: The extent to where we have things in common with others Reciprocity: The rule of give and take

Chapter Nine: Intelligence

Study of Individual Differences: Area of psychology devoted to investigating the nature, origin, and consequences of individual differences in behavior. Major domains include:

Intellectual Achievement Personality & Emotion Interests & Values Psychopathology

Nature vs. Nurture Controversy:

Differential Psychology Controversies: Casual interference from observational research Correlation does not imply causation Challenging cherished beliefs

Eugenics Movement: Movement in the 20th century to improve a population’s genetics by having people with positive genetics reproduce. Galton was a strong supporter, such as with Hitler. Problems included:

IQ test takers didn’t consider intelligence of non-English speakers States sterilized people with low IQs

Sir Francis Galton: Cousin of Believed that nature prevails enormously over nurture. Proposed that intelligence is a by-product of sensory capacity. Coined the role of eugenics.

Alfred Binet: Started intelligence testing. Relied on higher mental processes—reasoning, understanding, and judgments. Had high positive correlation.

Basic Knowledge of a Behavioral Genetics Study: Monozygotic Apart Twins (MZA): Identical twins that are reared apart from one another Monozygotic Together Twins (MZT): Identical twins that are raised together. Dizygotic Apart Twins (DZA): Twins that are reared apart from one another

Lacks Replicability

Dizygotic Together Twins (DZT): Twins that are raised together. Biologically Unrelated Siblings (URT): Siblings that are not biologically related but raised together.

* This method can be used to study nature vs. nurture because you can compared the results between the twin studies, which would account for the same nature and nurture, and compare it with UTR siblings, where similaries would result 100% by the environment and not genetics.* Looking for converging lines of evidence is similar to the

Intelligence: To understand and use complex ideas To adapt effectively to the environment To learn from experience To engage in of abstract reasoning

* Some things that correlate with intelligence are how well people do in school, ability to advance or follow complex arguments, and ability at mental arithmetic

General Intelligence (g): Hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people. People who are usually smart at one concept are usually smart in many aspects of their lives. Proposed by Spearman.

Multiple Intelligences Perspective: Theory that people have intelligence in specific “frames of mind” where each frame is different and fully independent. Made about 8 intelligence types. Is criticized because this theory is difficult to falsify. Proposed by Gardner.

Intelligence Theories by Horn and Cattell: Crystallized Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge of the world over time. Get better as we age. Fluid Intelligence: Capacity to learn new ways of solving problems. More likely to decline with age.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ): Stern’s formula for computing intelligence. Shows differences in intelligence with people. Intelligence is calculated with formula:

x 100 *Mental Age is the age your abilities are at where chronological age is th the actual age of a person

Evaluation of a Good Test Must Have:Validity: Does a test measure what it purports to measure?Reliability: Does the test produce consistent scores? * IQ is generally stable over short time periods but can have random spurts as we age.

Flynn Effect: Finding that IQ scores increase about 3 points per decade, by environmental influences. Possible explanations include:

Increased test sophistication Increased complexity of the modern world Better nutrition Changes at home and school

IQ Differences:Men: Usually have higher IQs than women by about 3 points. More variable with more people in high and low ends. Better at spatial abilities.Women: Generally better at verbalizing and perceptual abilities.* Socialization theory may explain these differences because there are stereotypes explaining appropriate gender behaviors that are encouraged/discouraged by society. As a consequence we develop gender schemas, which guide our behavior* Biological theory may be different sex hormones that each gender has that may contribute to differences.

Intelligence is a theoretical construct because it is unobservable, difficult to measure, and has no universal definition.

Mental Age (MA)Chronological Age (CA)

IQ =

Parental Investment Theory: Sex that invests greatest resources in offspring rearing will be more selective. Sex that invests less in offspring rearing will compete for access. Explains the differences between men and women because women are generally more nurturing so kids connect with mother more but go to father for fun since they are usually more physical and friendly with kids. Example is with seahorse or pipefish

Congenial Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): Genetic condition where adrenal glands over-secretes androgens. Info is sent to feedback loop to tell adrenal glands when to shut off. CAH does not have feedback loop so there is an overproduction of androgens. Females exposed to CAH are exposed to male hormones prenatally. Can reorganize structures in brain, genital region, grow ambiguous body regions ect.

In twin study, the boy who had his genitalia cut off to become a female still had male thoughts but was in a female external.

Shows that rearing gender in the environment is extremely influential in shaping a child’s psychosexual differentiation and the ultimate outcome of a female or male gender identity

Mental Retardation: Condition characterized by an onset prior to adulthood, IQ below 70, and an inability to engage in adequate daily functioning. Is classified into four levels with Mild (educatable stage) having 85% of those diagnosed in this stage.

Terman’s Study: Terman selected 1,500 high school juniors with IQs about 135 to track these indiciduals, “Terman’s Termites,” for several decades. Most of his termites had doctoral, Phds, MDs, or law degrees. * Someone who is gifted has an IQ in the top 2% of the population, usually around 180.* To attain remarkable intelligence, 10 years of devout research/study is required, or 10,000 hours.

Person-Situation Debate: Is behavior controlled by personality or the situation? Walter Mischel looked at links between certain personality traits and their outcomes and found that personality

doesn’t predict personality that well. Variants of behavior are because of the situation you are in that provokes your behavior.

Personality Assessments:Self-Report Measure: Direct, face valid measures. Are usually very good at measuring things, although sometimes people lie to make themselves look good.

MN Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI): Widely used structures personality test designed to assess symptoms of mental disorders, consisted of 10 basic scales. Designed empirically. Is generally valid but many tests are highly correlated, producing results that are not very useful.

CA Psychological Inventory (CPI): Like the MPI but is designed primarily for associating for assessing personality traits in the normal range, such as dominance, flexibility and sociability. Most CPI tests are reliable and valid except many CPI test are highly correlated with each other.

Projective Tests: Used indirect measures to get at deeper, unconscious aspects of personality. In this process of projecting ambiguous stimuli, examinees project aspects of their personality onto a stimuli.

Thematic Apperception Test: Test requiring examinees to tell a story in response to ambiguous pictures Rorschach Test: The first projective test developed. Measures some of the more primitive instincts and motives

such as sexual desire. Test consists of 10 cards that are ambiguous. Because it is difficult to score, it is not reliable. Sometimes the test does a successful job at predicting some things, but should be used in accompany with other tests.

Factor Analysis: The way we identify traits in personality. Analyzes the correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures. Is useful to identify personality traits such as the Big 5.

Approaches to Personality:Idiographic Approach: Focuses on identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within a person.

Gordon Allport Proposed a Three Level Approach:

- Cardinal: Extremely pervasive dispositions that describe what a person does in almost every single aspect of their lives.

- Central Dispositions: A few traits that stand out in a person.- Secondary Dispositions: Characteristics that only appear in certain aspects of our lives.

Nomethetic Approach: Focuses on identifying the general laws that govern the behaviors of all individuals.

Lexical Hypothesis: Proposes that the most crucial features of personality are embedded in our language. Ex. If a word is represented with many more words in a language, it is likely that the word is important for that

culture. The word “snow” has 50 different words that mean the same thing in the Inuit language.

Big Five (Five Factor Model): 5 traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures. Describes personality at the broadest levels and is organized heirarhically.

Extraversion: High = Extroverted Low = Introverted Agreeableness: High = Agreeable Low = Not Agreeable Conscientiousness: High = Careful, Conscientious Low = Careless, Not Conscientious Neuroticism: High = Crazy, Perfectionist, Moody, Anxious Low = Poised, Steady, Relaxed Openness to Experience: High = Curious, Creative, Unconventional Low = Traditional, Inflexible

Big Five are Basic: Real: Stable over time where others agree with them Pervasive: Emerge consistently in factor analysis Universal: Consistent across many cultures Heritable: Due to our genes in some aspects

* The Big Five are generally heritable. Has a .50 mean correlation.

Sigmund Freud: Believer in the psychoanalytic theory for personality. Assumed that all psychological events have a cause. Symbolism in everything. Also believed that we aren’t free to choose our actions because we’re at the mercy of powerful inner forces. Adult personality in influenced by childhood experiences. Agencies of the Psyche:

- ID: Reservoir of our most primitive impulses that provides the driving force for much of our behavior. “Devil on our shoulder”

- Ego: Psyche’s executive decision maker. Is governed by the reality principle, tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet. We use defensive mechanisms

here when we are overwhelmed. - Superego: Sense of morality. Contains our senses of right and wrong.

Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious maneuvers intended to minimize anxiety. Distortions of reality. Repression: Forgetting emotionally threatening memories Regression: Returning psychologically to a younger age Projection: Putting our negative attributes onto others

Displacement: Directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more socially acceptable target

Neo-Freudians: Placed more emphasis on social drives versus sexual drives. They were more optimistic than Freud and looked into the conscious personality of people.Alfred Adler: Believed that the striving force in humans is striving for superiority. Our overriding goal in life is to be better than others. We aim to accomplish this goal by crafting our distinctive style of life, longstanding pattern of achieving superiority over our peers. Said that people who have neurotic difficulties in childhood are at risk for an inferiority complex, being prone to low self-esteem and tend to overcompensate for this feeling.Carl Jung: One of Freud’s former students that argued that there is a collective unconscious in people, comprises the memories that ancestors have passed down to us from generations. Archetypes, cross culturally universal symbols, in the collective unconscious explain similarities between people and why they do things. Also believed in the personal unconscious, which is Freud’s unconscious of not understanding why we do things.

Humanistic “Third Force” Approach: Embrace the notion of free will and view human nature as constructive. Believe that the core motive in personality is self actualization, the drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent.Carl Rogers: Humanist theorists that believed that we could all achieve our full potential if society allowed it. Believed that personality consisted of 3 major components:

Organism: Innate and genetically influenced blueprint. Rogers viewed the organism as helpful and positive towards others

Self: Self-concept and our beliefs about who we are. Conditions of Worth: Expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate

behavior. Result in incongruence, inconsistencies between our personalities and innate dispositions.Abraham Maslow: Focused on individuals who were self-actualized. Self-actualized people tend to be create, spontaneous, and accepting of themselves and others. Focus on real world intellectual problems and have a few deep friendships. Typically crave privacy and can come off mean. They’re also prone to peak experience, transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a past found sense of connection with the world.

Parental Investment Theory: Compared to other species, human babies are born “prematurely.” In the EEA, the survival of human children

depended on the investment of both parents

Chapter Fourteen: Evolutionary Psychology

Gender Theories: Women are picker than men in who they mate with because females invest more in offspring and can produce

fewer offspring than men. Males Detect:

- Women who can have viable children- Are not likely to mate with other men

Females Detect:- Will pass desirable traits onto their offspring- Will invest resources in them/their offspring

Female Tradeoffs: Women trade off good provision for good genes when choosing mates

Male Tradeoffs: Men don’t have good genes attributes. The best way for them to attract a mate is to provide for good provisions.

Inclusive Fitness: You share a different degree of genes with a different relation.

Chapter Ten: Human Development

How to Study Infant Characteristics: Cohort Effect: Effects due to the fact that sets of people who lived during

one period, cohort, can differ in some systematic way from sets of people who lived during a different time period.

Cross Sectional Design: Research design that measure people of different ages at a single point in time. Longitudal Design: Research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple

occasions over time.- Allows us to measure true development effects- Only sure way to go against the cohort effect.- Cons: attrition, long, costly, can’t determine cause and effect.

Habituation: Decreased response to a stimulation with longer exposure Is used to study infant abilities because they can see their early abilities. Can study:

- Pattern discrimination, face perception, learning and memory, emotion expression, and responsiveness.- Babies are born with facial expressions, physical reflexes (sucking, grasping, stepping), and emotional

expressiveness (interest, disgust, distress, contentment)

Abilities Present at Birth: Pattern Discrimination/Face Perception: Infants need to protect themselves from strangers. Only know primary

caregivers at birth Learning and Memory: Need to remember how to drink milk to attain bodily needs Emotion Expression/Responsiveness: Need to display if they are content or angry

Emotions Present in Children:Birth:

Interest, Disgust, Distress, & Contentment2-6 Months:

Anger, Sadness, Surprise, & FearSocial Reflexes:

Newborns imitate facial expressions and fixate on eyes to track gaze.

Harmful Substances on Children:Teratogens: Chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus and cause harm.

Ex. Irradiation, rubella, cortisone, alcoholFetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Impaired growth and neurological abnormalities resulting from heavy exposure to alcohol during gestation

Occurs within first 3 months of fetal development 5 or more drinks per day

Experiments with Children:Visual Cliff: Psychological apparatus for studying depth perception. Has shown that infants that just start crawling do not have depth perception at first but as time progresses, they develop depth perception and sometimes a fear of heightsSticky Mittens Intervention: When 3 month old babies who had not acquired the concept of grasping were given Velcro mittens to grab Velcro objects. Results were that 3 month olds had perception of 6 month olds because they gained grasping concept faster than normal babies.* 2 Experiences show that infants experiences can influence their perceptions.

Janet Werker’s Study: Taught infants to turn heads whenever they detected a different phoneme or sound in a word. Whenever they had a correct head turn they were rewarded with a toy. Found that infants are universally adaptive (capacity of infants to detect all sounds of speech) and are able to learn languages better.

Stages of Infant Language Development:1. Babbling: Comes to sound like native language2. One-Word Stage: Babies start by saying what they can pronounce3. Two-Word Stage: Function words are omitted (a, the, of)4. Increasing syntactic competence

Jean Piaget: First to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development. Showed that children aren’t miniature adults. They also are not passive learners. They are actually active learners who seek info and observe the consequences of their actions. Piaget was a stage theorist who agreed with the domain-general account (cross cutting changes in kids cognitive skills that affect most/all areas of cognitive development at once) proposed that change is marked by equilibration (maintain a balance between our experience of the world and our thoughts about it).

Assimilation: Process of absorbing new experience into current schemas. Cognitive skill and worldviews remain unchanged, puts new info with learned info.

Accommodation: Altering of a schema to make it more compatible with experience. Forces people to change view on the world.

Schemas: Cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Allows us to take shortcuts when interpreting information.

Piaget’s Stages of Development:1. Sensorimotor Stage: (Birth-2 years) Focuses on the here and now. No thought beyond immediate physical

experiences. Children lack object permanence (the idea that objects continue to exist when out of view) Baillargeon did an experiment with a block and a car hidden behind a screen. Showed that since infants as young as age 3.5 stared at the car when it was impossible for it to pass the roadblock. Infants are able to reason with hidden objects.

2. Preoperational: (2-7 years) Able to think beyond the here and now, but egocentric, an inability to see the world from others point of view, and unable to perform mental transformations. Fail conservation tasks, a test children’s ability to perform mental operations. In a study of pouring water into different size cups that were equal in volume, most failed to pass this because they deemed the cups as having different volumes.

3. Concrete Operations: (7-11 years) Able to perform mental transformations, tests such as sorting coins, setting up a battle scene, etc, but only on concrete physical objects

4. Formal Operations: (11 years-adulthood) Able to perform hypothetical and abstract, difficult questions with no defined answers such as the meaning of life, reasoning.

Theory of Mind: Ability to reason about what other people know or believe. Some children develop this at ages 1 or 2 years old.False Belief Task: Tests children’s ability to understand that someone else believes something they know to be wrong. Children usually hear a story, such as hiding a candy bar somewhere, and later have the mom move the candy bar without their knowledge.

ATTACHMENT!

Parenting Styles: Permissive- Lenient, lots of freedom, little discipline, show affection Authoritarian- strict, little freedom, lots of punishment, little affection Authoritative- combine permissive and authoritarian, supportive but have set rules and limits Uninvolved- ignore kids, no attention to negative or positive behavior

Studies found that authoritative show the best social and emotional adjustment and lowest levels of behavioral problem

Chapter Twelve: Stress

Corticosteroids: Stress hormones that prepares is to respond to stressful circumstances. Occurs in the stress as a response category.

Hans Selye: Canadian physician who published The Stress of Life that unveiled the effects of prolonged stress on the body. Believed that too much stress leads to breakdowns. Argued that we’re equipped with a sensitive physiology that responds to stressful circumstances by kicking us into high gear. Called the pattern to stress general adaptation syndrome (GAS).

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Stress Response patterns proposed by Hans Selye that consists of 3 stages: Alarm: Excitation of the autonomic nervous system, the discharge of stress hormone adrenaline, and physical

symptoms of anxiety (seated within the limbic system). A mind body link known as the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is when the hypothalamus (H) receives signals of fear, the sympathetic nervous system activates the adrenal gland (A), which secretes stress hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine

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(noradrenaline). The hypothalamus and pituitary gland (P) activate the adrenal gland’s release of cortisol to flood recipient of energy.

Resistance: Adapting to stressors and finding ways to cope with it. Exhaustion: When our personal resources are limited and we lack good coping measures, our resistance may

break down and cause our levels of activation to bottom out.

Fight-or-Flight: First described by Walter Cannon in 1915, physical and psychological reaction allowing us to fight or flee a threatening situation. Occurs in the alarm stage in GAS syndrome

Personality Types:Type A Personality: Personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitiousType B Personality: Personality type that describes people who are quiet, reserved, and mellow* Anger and hostility are two traits that are the most predictive of coronary heart disease.

Chapter Fifteen: Psychological Disorders:

Models of Abnormal Behavior:Demonic Model: Odd behavior, hearing voices, or talking to oneself that is attributed to evil spirits infesting the bodyMedical Model: Physical disorder requiring medical treatment. Housed people in asylums, institution for people with mental illness, created in the 15th century.

Manuels for Mental Disorders:Diagnostic Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders (DSM): Diagnostic system containing the American Psychiatric Association (ASA) criteria for mental disorders. Is the most commonly used criteria of abnormality, deviance, maladaptive, behavior, and personal distress.

Doctors should think of natural causes first People who may have a mental disorder need to have 5/9 criteria to be diagnosed DSM looks at prevalence, the percentage of people with a specific mental disorder DSM looks at axis, dimension of functioning.

DSM-IV axes are:I. Major mental disorders

II. Personality disorders and mental retardationIII. Associated mental conditionsIV. Life stressorsV. Overall level of daily functioning

Schizophrenia: Symptoms:

- Positive (Abnormal by presence of behavior that should NOT be there): Hallucinations (false sense perceptions), delusions (fixed false beliefs), and grossly disorganized behavior

- Negative (Abrnomal by absence of behavior that should be there): Avolition (disinterest), alogia (decreased speech), asociality

Nithsdale Study:- Most patients were unmarried, unemployed, had no children, on welfare, withdrawn, talking to oneself,

etc. 97% were abnormal in some way.- The frequency of schizophrenia in the general population is about 1%

Lab Test Abnormalities:- Enlarged cerebral ventricles- Small misshapen neurons- Bad smooth pursuit eye tracking

Neuroleptic Drugs:

- Neuroleptics block dopamine receptors so they remain tin the synapse or post-synaptic cell. 97% of people improve on neuroleptics.

- Side effects of neuroleptics include Parkinson’s side effects such as rigidity and tremors. Others include akathisia (restlessness), and lead to noncompliance

- Tardive Dyskinesia (TD): Abnormal involuntary movements as a result of early antipsychotic medications. Usually occurs within 4 months of taking medication and effects 4-15% of patients. Usually subsides if drug use is stoped.

Heritability:- Parents: 6%- Siblings: 10%

MZ Co-Twins: 46%- Children: 13%

2 Parents Affected: 46% Adopted Away Children: 6-17%

Major Depressive Disorder: Symptoms:

- Vegetative: Sleep, appetite, sex drive, speech/motor, lack of energy- Cognitive: Concentration, disinterest, guilt/worthlessness, suicidality- Exhibit excess cortisol levels as if under chronic stress.

Treatment:- Most SSRIs increase serotonin levels at the synapse to block reuptake of serotonin. Leaves more

serotonin available at the cleft.- Other drugs work on norepinephrine or dopamine

Heritability:- Depression runs in families but transmission patterns are inconsistent and run in families- Other disorders that are common with families with depression are bulimia, alcohol/drug use, and

anxiety disorders.- Suicide rate is about 19%

Cognitive Model of Depression: Theory that depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations. Have depressed feelings about the world, oneself, and the future. Have a generally bleak outlook on the world. Attribute problems in:

- Learned Helplessness: Tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we can’t control. Depressed people lack internal confidence.

Global & Stable: Tend to see problems as general and fixed aspects of their personality Internal: Problems are due to internal conflicts whereas successes are due to external stimulus

Seasonal Affective Disorder: Depression during the winter months of the year that may be due to a lack of vitamin D from the sun. Treatment for seasonal affective disorder is usually half and hour of full spectrum light therapy daily

Electroconvulsive Therapy: Patients receive brief electrical pulses to the brain that produce a seizure to treat serious psychological problems. Most effective in treating depression.

- Studies show that many people benefit from ECTs- Increases the levels of serotonin in the brain- Memory problems can occur shortly after- Safer for elderly and pregnant women

Bi-Polar Disorder/Mania: Symptoms:

- Elation or irritability, Increased goal directed activity, Decreased need for sleep, Hyperactivity or restlessness, Pressure of speech; flight of ideas, Distractibility ,Hypersexuality, Grandiosity, Reckless behavior

- Elevated/expansive mood

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- Usually angry when thwarted- Much less need for sleep- Pressured speech derailments, “Flight of ideas”- 10-15% of depressed patients become bipolar

Heritability:- Runs very strongly within in families- 70% risk for MZ twins. Most heritable psychological disease.- Suicide rate is about 10% before effective treatment

Treatment:- Lithium: An element that involves a second messenger system that operates in the post-synaptic

neuron that transmit the nerve impulse to the end of the molecule that goes to the new neuron. Lithium influences the way the chemical stages in this process. Rapid results in about three weeks.

- Anticonvulsants: Alternative to lithium. Given usually to pregnant women.

Misconceptions About Suicide: Suicide is almost always completed with no warning Talking to a persons with depression about suicide often makes them more likely to commit the act As a severe depression lifts, people’s suicide risk decreases Most people who threaten suicide are seeking attention People who talk a lot about suicide almost never commit it

Anxiety Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAS): Continual feelings of worry, anxiety, physical tension, and irritability

across many areas of life functioning. May be the core anxiety disorder that others arise off from. Phobia: Intense fear of an object or situation that’s greatly out of proportion to its actual threat. Most common

of all anxiety disorders.- Agoraphobia: Fear of being in a place that is difficult or embarrassing to escape when a panic attack

occurs. Panic Disorder: Repeated and unexpected panic attacks along with either persistent concerns about future

attacks or change in personal behavior in an attempt to avoid them. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Marked by emotional disturbance after experiencing or witnessing a

severely stressful event. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Condition marked by repeated and lengthy immersion in obsessions,

compulsions, or both.- Obsession: Persistent idea, thought, or impulse that is unwanted and inappropriate, causing marked

distress- Compulsion: Repetitive behavior or mental act performed to reduce or prevent stress- Common Rituals: Repeatedly checking if doors are locked, performing tasks in a specific way,

repeatedly arranging and rearranging objects, washing and cleaning, counting, and hoarding.- Treatments: Exposure and cognitive therapy

Alcohol and Drug Use:- Abuse: Someone who occasionally overuses alcohol- Dependence: Someone who is dependent on alcohol- Genetic Basis:

Differs by sex. Males have a higher risk than women to develop abuse problems. About 25-50% of being passed down.

Female relatives usually don’t get alcoholism Environmental effects of alcoholism are family members using alcohol, depression, etc.

- Treatments: Antabuse (alcohol antagonists): Anticonvulsant for cravings of other drugs 12 Step Program (AA)

Personality Disorders: Condition in which personality traits, appearing first in adolescence are inflexible, stable, expressed in a wide variety of situations, and lead to distress or impairment. Are least reliably diagnosed.

- Odd-Eccentric: Distrust, intense discomfort, detachment from social relationships- Anxious-Fearful: Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive - Dramatic-Emotional: Seeking attention, antisocial behavior, sense of self importance, instability in

various areas.- Anti-Social Personality Disorder: Antisocial behavior, violate or disregards the rights of others, lying,

stealing, irresponsibility, and lack of remorse.* These differ than abnormal disorders because these are long standing personality traits that color the expression of these disorders.

Chapter Sixteen: Treatments of Psychological Disorders

Psychoanalysis: Goal is to decrease guilt and frustration and make the unconscious conscious by bringing to awareness previously repressed impulses, conflicts, and memories.

Common beliefs are:- Causes of abnormal behaviors are unconscious conflicts, wishes, and impulses, that stem from traumatic

or other adverse childhood experiences.- Strive to analyze: (a) distressing thoughts and feelings clients wish to avoid (b) wishes and fantasies (c)

recurring themes and life patterns (d) significant life patterns (e) the therapeutic relationship- Believe that when clients achieve insight into previously unconscious material, the causes and the

significance of symptoms will become evident, often causing symptoms to disappear. Approaches:

- Free Association: Technique in which clients express themselves without censorship of any sort- Interpretation: Explaining the symbols or meaning of dreams and other events- Dream Analysis: Interprets the clients dreams- Resistance: Attempts to avoid confrontation and anxiety associated with uncovering previously

repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses- Transference: Projecting intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from the past onto a therapist.

Behavioral Approach: Focus on specific behaviors and problems that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Systematic Desensitization: Clients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear in a stepwise manner. First type of exposure therapy.

Exposure Therapy: Therapy that confronts clients with what they fear with the goal of reducing fear. Aversion Therapy: Treatment that uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors Token Economy: Method in which desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens that clients can exchange

for tangible rewards.

Cognitive Behavioral Approach: Treatments that attempt to replace maladaptive or irrational cognitions with more adaptive, rational, cognitions.

Core assumptions are:- Cognitions are identifiable and measurable- Cognitions are the key players in healthy and unhealthy psychological functioning- Irrational beliefs or catastrophic thinking can be replaced

Albert Ellis developed the ABCs approach- (a) Event (b) Reponses to an event is due to beliefs (c) Consequences- Irrational beliefs are associated with unrealistic demands about the self.

* According to meta analysis many therapies are equally beneficial except for a few exceptions. About 90% improve well.

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* Empathetic listening, instilling hope, establishing a strong bond with clients, providing clear rationale for treatment, and implementing new techniques of thinking, feeling, and behaving are common factors that help therapies work. Chapter Thirteen: Social Psychology

Kurt Lewin: A German Jew who fled the Nazis and was influenced by Gestalt Worked to address how to execute World War II Recycling, purchases Action Research: The use of rigorous scientific methods and theories in the interest of solving social problems

outside the normal issues. The doing of social psychology changed after the Korean War and WWII. Moved from casual to highly controlled

research in laboratories. Focused more on larger problems to help others.

Social Cognition: How we interpret or reason about social information—about ourselves and other people. Ask what is the nature of human social cognitive nature.

Flawed Scientists: If you give us something to figure out we’ll go and take the time to figure it out. Use three types of information:

- Consistency: How do people behave over time? Is their behavior consistent over time- Distinctiveness: The extent to which the person responds to a similar or different way- Consensus Information: How have others reacted to the situation

Cognitive Misers: We’re likely to look for something efficiently versus taking a time to maker sure something is accurate.

Motivated Tacticians: People can be either one it depends on the situation

Attribution: Process of assigning causes to behavior. Usually when we don’t have enough information. Types of Attributions are:

- External Attribution: Situation- Internal Attribution: How the person really is

Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to be bias when we are not given enough information about other people.

Actor Observer Bias: We tend to attribute others action to their internal attributions versus external (situation) when talking about ourselves.

* Attribution differs by culture because more independent cultures (USA) because we have a desire to be right and feel right versus Eastern cultures such as China

Types of Processing: Automatic: Unconscious, unintentionally, involuntary, effortless. The tool of cognitive misers. Also attending to

just specific shortcuts (male vs. female knowledge, talking fast, etc.) Controlled: Conscious, intentionally, voluntary, making an effort. Tool of flawed scientists (are facts accurate,

reasonable)

Persuasion Techniques: Foot-in-the-Door: Marking a small request before making a bigger one Door-in-the-Face: Making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we’re hoping to have

granted Low-Ball: The seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price, and then mentions all of the “add-on”

costs once the customer has agreed to purchase the product

Social Influences: Direct Influence: Conscious influence Indirect Influence: The mere presence of others

- Social Facilitation: The tendency for people to do better at simple tasks versus complex tasks when in the presence of others

In Zajonc’s study with cockroaches, most did better at escaping light when others were watching when they could escape forwards, but did worse when they were required to turn to escape the light with an audience.

In the playing pool study, experts at pool did better with an audience where beginners did worse with an audience.

Arousal impedes performance on complex or under-practiced tasks Arousal enhances performance on simple or well practiced tasks

Social Loafing: Phenomenon whereby individuals become less productive in groups Anonymity: We feel less personal responsibility for doing a good job. Contributions are anonymous and we

usually perform worse Accountability: When we are accountable for our actions. Tend to contribute more when we know we’re

accountable. Evaluation: When we see and rate how well a participant did. Were they accountable? Groups can be

structured to get higher performance by making group members evaluate one another

Bystander Effect: When we don’t react to help when others are around us. Pluralistic Ignorance: Error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do Diffusion of Responsibility: Reduction in feelings of personal responsibility in the presence of others Enlightenment Effect: Learning about psychological research can change real world behavior for the better Other influences that can stop the bystander effect are extroverts, trained lifesavers, altruistic behavior, etc.

Conforming: Tendency of people to alter their behavior as a result of group pressure. Is influenced by unanimity, differences in answers, and the size of a groupObedience: Adherence to instructions from those of higher authority. Is essential for life, but can be contradicting in some aspects.

Group Polarization: Tendency of group discussion to strengthen the dominant positions held by individual group members. Is bad because it enforces original views without nay rebuttal

Deindividualization: Tendency of people to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when they are stripped of their usual identities. We conform more here.

Inoculation Effect: Proposed by McGuire, an approach to convincing people to change their minds about something by first introducing reasons why their perspective might be correct and then proving them wrong

Group Think: Emphasis on group unanimiity at the expense of critical thinking. Usually gives off bad results because it relies on common knowledge. Best treatment is to assign a devil’s advocate to counter all responses

Asch: Studied conformity by having a participant sit in a room with confederates to tell what line is the longest. Confederates all said the wrong answer and the test measured if the participant conformed to the confederates. 75% of people did conform at least once.

Found that there are three social factors that make people conform:- Unanimity, difference in the wrong answer, and size- Conformity is associated with differences in the occipital and parietal lobes of the brain as well as

anxiety

Milgrim: Studied obedience by having participants give shocks to learners on memory. If they were wrong they received a shock with its intensity increasing more each time. Found that 62% of people had complete compliance with teacher and delivered shocks to XXX stage and 100% of participants administered some shocks.

Found that people who are more moral defied the experimenter and stopped the shocks People who value authoritarianism, people who view people as a social hierarchy, were more likely to comply

with the experimenter

Zimbardo: Conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment where he wanted to see if people’s actions in prisons stemmed from their personalities or the roles they were required to fulfill. Had 24 men fulfill these roles for 2 weeks for his experiment and found that guards began to treat prisoners cruelly and subject them to harsh punishment. Once he

ended the study early he found that some were relieved and some guards were sad. Since they had been taken away from their individuality they just assumed their roles into themselves.

Cognitive Dissonance: Unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from 2 conflicting thoughts or beliefs.

Components of Attitude: Belief that includes an emotional component Prejudice: Drawing negative conclusions about a person, group of people, or situation prior to evaluating

evidence- Robbers Cave Study: Students were divided into two groups and were very hostile to one another at

summer camp. To combat this, Robbers gave the two groups one higher purpose to focus on where they can come together.

- To reduce prejudice people can implement a jigsaw classroom, teachers assign students to separate tasks that all need to be fitted together to complete a project. Can also employ equal status contact, secure sanction by authorities, and work together

Discrimination: Negative behavior toward members of out groups- Consequences include: Less chance of acquiring jobs, unequal treatment, etc.

Stereotypes: A belief, positive or negative, about the characteristics of members of a group that is applied generally to most members of a group. People make stereotypes because it’s easier to judge people as a while versus individually. (cognitive misers)

Racism:- Modern Racism: Tied to cognitions (beliefs & stereotypes)- Aversion Racism: Tied to automatic processes (unconscious affect and behaviors)

In-Group Bias: Tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group. View as heterogeneous Out-Group Homogeneity: Tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar. View as more homogeneous

*People feel the need to belong because humans have a personal need to have interpersonal connections with others. Without it, people can become self destructive and anxious, as well as engage in unhealthy behaviors. People who are rejected feel pain in their cingulated cortex, just like physical pain

Social Comparison Theory: We seek to evaluate our abilities and beliefs by comparing them with those of others. Upward Social Comparison: Comparing with people above us Downward Social Comparison: Comparing with people below us to make us feel better