Civil Rights AP U.S. Government and Politics. Civil Rights – Civil rights or equal rights – the...
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Civil Rights AP U.S. Government and Politics. Civil Rights – Civil rights or equal rights – the right of every person to equal protection under the laws
Civil Rights Civil rights or equal rights the right of every
person to equal protection under the laws and equal access to
societys opportunities and public facilities. Throughout American
history, disadvantaged groups have rarely achieved a measure of
equality without a struggle. The equal-protection clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment forbids states to deny equal protection of the
laws to any individual within its jurisdiction. After Federal
Troops withdrew from the South in 1877, white majorities enacted
laws that prohibited blacks from using the same facilities as
whites. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) Supreme Court endorsed these laws
through the separate but equal justification.
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Segregation in Schools Substantial intervention finally
occurred for African Americans with Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka (1954). Brown overturned Plessy v. Fergusons concept of
separate but equal. The decision led to outrage in the south, with
some southerners pushing for the impeachment of Chief Justice Earl
Warren. 1954 Gallup Poll showed that a sizeable majority of
Southern whites were opposed to the Brown decision. Brown v. Board
of Education (1955) focused on the implementation of desegregation
of public schools. Today, Americas schools are actually becoming
less diverse.
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Judicial Tests of Equal Protection The Fourteenth Amendments
equal-protection clause doesnt require the government to treat all
groups equally in all circumstances. The courts use the
reasonable-basis test, which can deem laws that treat individuals
unequally constitutional if the purpose of the laws is reasonably
related to a legitimate government interest. The strict-scrutiny
test eliminates race or ethnicity as a legal classification when it
places minority group members at a disadvantage. The Supreme Courts
opinion is that race and national origin are suspect
classifications, and are unconstitutional.
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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Fourteenth Amendment prohibits
discrimination by government, but not private employers. The 1964
Civil Rights Act entitles all people to equal access to public
accommodations. This legislation also bars discrimination on the
basis of race, color, sex, religion, or national organization in
hiring, promotion, or wages. A few types of discrimination are
still legal under the Civil Rights Act. The black civil rights
movement was the main motivation for the Civil Rights Act. The
Montgomery bus boycott and the March on Washington for Jobs and
Freedom helped accelerate the passing of the Civil Rights Act.
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There was widespread resistance to the Civil Rights Act. Aside
from African Americans, women have been the most successful
disadvantaged group to gain more rights. Nineteenth Amendment
(1920) gave women the right to vote. Equal Pay Act of 1963
prohibits sex discrimination in salary and wages by some employers.
Title IX prohibits sex discrimination in education. Hispanics also
fought for civil rights. Farm workers strikes led to policy
changes, including better wages and working conditions, and a
congressional act that requires states to provide bilingual ballots
in areas with large numbers of non-English-speaking
minorities.
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Native Americans struggled more than other groups to gain civil
rights. They were not granted official citizenship until 1924. In
1974, Congress passed legislation that granted native Americans
living on reservations greater control over federal programs that
affect them. The Indian Bill of Rights gives native Americans
living on reservations constitutional guarantees similar to those
held by other Americans. Of all minority groups, native Americans
have the worst conditions in terms of poverty. Asian Americans also
faced a difficult struggle for equality. In 1965, Congress lifted
restrictions on Asian immigration. The 1964 Civil Rights Act
expanded Asian Americans rights.
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The Voting Rights Act of 1965 The Fifteenth Amendment gave
blacks the right to vote, but there were many obstacles for blacks
in exercising this right. Poll taxes, literacy tests, and
white-only primary elections kept blacks from registering and
voting. Poll taxes were outlawed by the 24 th Amendment. The major
step toward African American involvement in the political process
was the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Voting Rights Act of 1965
forbids discrimination in voting and registration. It empowered
federal agents to register voters and outlawed literacy tests as a
registration requirement. It had an immediate impact on black
participation, as 20% more blacks voted in the ensuing presidential
election.
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Affirmative Action Affirmative action refers to deliberate
efforts to provide full and equal opportunities in employment,
education, and other areas for members of traditionally
disadvantaged groups. It applies only to organizations that receive
federal funding. Affirmative action was designed to eliminate de
jure discrimination, discrimination that is based on law. Ex: state
laws requiring black and white children to attend separate schools.
De jure discrimination has been made illegal by Supreme Court
decisions. Affirmative action also aims to reduce de facto
discrimination, which refers to discrimination that results from
social, economic, and cultural biases and conditions.
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Affirmative action is a very controversial topic. Most
Americans support programs that give historically disadvantaged
Americans equal treatment, but oppose programs that give them
preferential treatment. In University of California Regents v.
Bakke (1978) the Supreme Court ruled that the school violated the
equal protection clause by having a quota for minority admissions.
Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) Supreme Court invalidated Michigans
undergraduate admissions policy because points were assigned based
on race. Bollinger v. Grutter (2003) upheld Michigan's affirmative
action policy, which gave preference to minority students because
it allowed for educational benefits from having a diverse student
body.
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The Continuing Struggle for Equality Although progress has been
made toward a more equal America, traditionally disadvantaged
groups are still substantially unequal in their daily lives.
African Americans In modern America, poverty is a major problem for
African Americans. African Americans are more likely than whites to
be convicted of crimes. Crime rates are higher among African
Americans than other groups. African American children are more
likely than others to grow up in a household without both parents
present. African Americans have made substantial progress in
getting elected to office since the 1960s.
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Women Women have also made substantial gains in the area of
appointive and elective offices. Despite this, they are still a
long way from political parity. Although many more women have
entered the job market in recent decades, they still havent
achieved job equality. They make less money than men and have
difficulty getting top jobs with their companies. In 1993, Congress
passed the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), granting women up
to twelve weeks leave when they have a child and allowing them to
return to their position. Most single-parent households are headed
by women, who struggle to find jobs that pay significantly more
than the child-care expenses they incur.
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Native Americans Over 2 million Native Americans live on
reservations set aside by the federal government. U.S. policy
toward reservations has changed over time. Currently, preservation
of Native American culture is a policy goal. Native Americans have
filed suit to reclaim their lost lands. In most cases, these suits
are unsuccessful. Many tribes have built casinos on their lands to
gain revenue. Despite this, their income is far below the national
average, their infant mortality rate is high, and their rates of
alcoholism and suicide are higher than average. Native Americans
are less than half as likely as other Americans to attend
college.
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Hispanic Americans Hispanics are the fastest growing minority
group in the U.S. A significant number of Hispanics are in the U.S.
illegally. Americans are divided on the long-term answer to illegal
immigration. Hispanics household income is far below the national
average. The number of Hispanics holding office is growing.
Hispanics have been elected to state offices in several states, and
there are roughly two dozen Hispanics in the House of
Representatives. The number of Hispanics in states such as Texas
and California will make the group a political force in upcoming
years.
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Asian Americans Most Asian Americans live on the West Coast.
Asian Americans are an upwardly mobile group. Asian cultures
emphasize self-reliance and education. Asian Americans have the
highest percentage of two-parent families of all minority groups.
Asian Americans account for a disproportionately low amount of top
business positions. They are also underrepresented in politics
compared to blacks and Hispanics.
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Homosexuals The Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not legally
protect homosexuals. Gays and Lesbians have resorted to judicial
action to gain equality and protection under the law. In Romer v.
Evans (1996), the Supreme Court ruled that people cant be
discriminated on based on their sexual orientation. Homosexuals
have had some success gaining the rights and privileges afforded to
opposite-sex couples. In some states, homosexuals can marry and
share health benefits. Same-sex marriages are not currently
recognized under federal law.
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Overall, the American public has become more accepting of gay
and lesbian relationships. A 2009 CNN Poll has found that younger
adults are more supportive of same-sex marriage than older adults
are.
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Other Disadvantaged Groups Legislation has been passed to ban
discrimination against older workers in hiring, as long as age is
not a critical factor for job performance. Age discrimination is
not prohibited by the U.S. Constitution. Discrimination against the
disabled is also not prohibited by the Constitution. The disabled
are protected through statutes including the Americans with
Disabilities Act (1990). The law requires employers and public
facilities to make reasonable accommodations for people with
disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals
in employment. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
1975 required that schools provide all children with a free and
appropriate public education, regardless of their disability.
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Equality is a difficult idea in practice because it requires
people to shed preconceived notions about how other people think,
behave, and feel. Equality has been, and continues to be Americas
most elusive ideal.