Civil Rights Landmarks Display

CompiledbythestaffoftheOfficeofStudentAc9vi9esandLeadershipDevelopment,WesleyanUniversity

Fourhundredyearsago,in1607,Jamestown,VA,thefirstpermanentseKlementbyEuropeansinNorthAmericawasfounded.In1610,JohnRolfeintroducedastrainoftobaccowhichquicklybecamethecolony’seconomicfounda9on.By1619,morelaborwasneededtosupportthetobaccotradeand“indenturedservants”werebroughttothecolonyincludingabout20Africans.Asof1650,therewereabout300"Africans"livinginVirginia,about1%ofanes9mated30,000popula9on.Theyweres9llnotslaves,andtheyjoinedapproximately4000whiteindentured"servants"workingouttheirloansforpassagemoneytoVirginia.Theyweregranted50acreseachwhenfreedfromtheirindentures,sotheycouldraisetheirowntobacco.SlaverywasbroughttoNorthAmericain1654,whenAnthonyJohnson,inNorthamptonCounty,convincedthecourtthathewasen9tledtothelife9meservicesofJohnCasor,aBlackman.Thiswasthefirstjudicialapprovaloflifeservitude,exceptaspunishmentforacrime.AnthonyJohnsonwasaBlackman,oneoftheoriginal20broughttoJamestownin1619.By1623,hehadachievedhisfreedomandby1651wasprosperousenoughtoimportfive"servants"ofhisown,forwhichhewasgranted250acresas"headrights".However,theTransatlan9cslavetradefromAfricatotheAmericashadbeenaroundforoveracenturyalready,origina9ngaround1500,duringtheearlyperiodofEuropeandiscoveryofWestAfricaandtheestablishmentofAtlan9ccoloniesintheCaribbeanandSouthandNorthAmericawhengrowingsugarcane(andafewothercrops)wasfoundtobealucra9veenterprise.SlaveswereusuallycapturedbyAfricantribesinraidsoropenwarfareorpurchasedfromotherAfricantribes.Manytribeswerehappytogetridoftheirenemiesbycapturingandsellingthemfortradegoods--usuallywhiskey,swords,gunsandgold.Itisbelievedthatabout11millionmen,womenandchildrenweretransportedinshipsacrosstheAtlan9ctovariousportsintheAmericas,mostlytoBrazilandtheislandsintheCaribbean SlaveSalefrom1500to1850. inMarylandTheimporta9onofslavesintotheUnitedStateswasbannedin1808,bywhich9mebetween300,000-500,000hadbeenimported.SubsequentslaveswerenearlyallbornintheUnitedStates.By1800,nearlyallslaveryinnon-southernstateshadbeenbanned,withVermontbeingthefirststatetodosoin1791.

SlaveryinNorthAmerica1654-June19,1865?

However,condi9onswereunconscionable.Between1700and1865therewereveryfewrealrestric9onsoftheconductofamastertowardhisslave,exceptthosethatflowedfromwhat,atthe9me,wouldbeconsidered"Chris9andecency",andsocialnorms.Around1750,Quakersbegantofightfortheaboli9onofslavery.Beginningaround1825,slavesandWhiteaboli9onists,begantogaingroundintheirstruggleforindependence.SlavesintheUnitedStateswhoescapedownershipwouldokenmaketheirwaynorthwithWhiteandBlackaboli9onistsupporttothenorthernpartofthecountryorCanadathroughwhatbecameknownasthe"UndergroundRailroad".TheRussellHouse,hereatWesleyanwasonestoponthe“Railroad.”Famousac9veaboli9onistsoftheU.S.includeWilliamLloydGarrison,HarrietTubman,NatTurner,FrederickDouglassandJohnBrown.TheAmericanCivilWarbeganin1861whenelevensouthernstatesdeclaredtheirsecession,largelyovertheques9onofaboli9on.Atfirst,AbrahamLincolnreversedaKemptsatemancipa9onbySecretaryofWarCameronandGeneralsFremontandHunterinordertokeeptheloyaltyoftheborderstatesandtheWarDemocrats.Lincolnthentriedtopersuadetheborderstatestoaccepthisplanofgradual,compensatedemancipa9onandvoluntarycoloniza9on,whilewarningthemthatstrongermeasureswouldbeneededifthemoderateapproachwasrejected.OnlytheDistrictofColumbiaacceptedLincoln'sgradualplan.Thus,onJanuary1,1863,LincolnissuedtheEmancipa9onProclama9on,freeing,atleastonpaper,allslavesintheUnitedStates.Slaverywascons9tu9onallyabolishedbytheThirteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesCons9tu9onintheUnitedStatesin1865,freeingover4millionslaves.TheCivilWarresultedinthelossofabout600,000lives.OnJune19,1865,alsoknownasJuneteenth,UnionGeneralGordonGrangerand2,000federaltroopsarrivedonGalvestonIsland,Texastotakepossessionofthestateandenforceformerslaves’newfreedoms.ItisbelievedthatthiswasthelastplaceintheUnitedStatestoreceivethenewsoftheEmancipa9onProclama9on,twoandhalfyearsakeritwasmade.

SlaveryinNorthAmerica(con9nued)1654-June19,1865?

Theworlddidn’tknowherasSojournerTruthwhensheentereditinthelate1790’s.Borntoslaveparents,IsabellaBaumfree,aswasthenamegiventoher,grewupontheColonelJohannesHardenberghestateinSwartekill,inUlsterCounty,aDutchseKlementinNewYork-astatethatallowedslaveryun9lanemancipa9ondecreewaspassedin1827.IsabellawasoneofthirteenchildrenborntoElizabethandJamesBaumfree,whowereforcedtoliveinthecramped,drakycellarsoftheirmasters.Herearliestmemorieswereofhardshipanddepriva9on.ShespokeDutchun9lshewassoldfromherfamilyaroundtheageof9.In1808,JohnNeelypurchasedheralongwithaherdofsheep,for$100.Neely’swifeandfamilyonlyspokeEnglishandbeatIsabellafiercelyforthefrequentmiscommunica9onsandbecauseofthiscrueltreatment,shelearnedtospeakEnglishquickly.Itwasalsoduringthis9methatshebegantofindrefugeinreligionandbeganherjourneywithGod.Overthenextfewyears,shewasboughtandsoldbyasuccessionofmasters.Tiredoftheuncertaintythatfilledherlife,Isabelladecidedtotakeac9on.Withthehelpofherfather(consideredafreemanasaresultofillness)whointercededonherbehalftoatavernowner,shewaspurchasedfor$105.Althoughtheworkatmospherewascrudeandmorallyques9onable,itwasasaferhavenforher.Butayearandahalflater,in1810,IsabellawasonceagainsoldtoanewmasterinNewYorkstate,andcon9nuedtosuffermanyhardships.Some9mearound1815,shefellinlovewithafellowslavenamedRobert.Robert’sownerforbadetherela9onshipbecausehedidnotwanthisslavehavingchildrenwithaslavehedidnotown.OnenightRobertvisitedIsabella,butwasfollowedbyhisownerandson,whobeathimsavagely,boundhimanddraggedhimaway.Robertneverreturned.Isabellahadadaughtershortlyaker,namedDiana.In1817,forcedtosubmittothewillofanewowner,JohnDumont,shemarriedanolderslavenamedThomas.Theyhadfourchildren:Peter,James,ElizabethandSophia.In1799,thestateofNewYorkbegantolegislatethegradualaboli9onofslaves,whichwastohappenonJuly4,1827.DumonthadpromisedIsabellafreedomayearbeforethestateemancipa9on“ifshewoulddowellandbefaithful.”However,herenegedonhispromise,claimingahandinjuryhadmadeherlessproduc9ve.

Sojourner:WitnessofTruth(IsabellaBaumfree~1797-1883

Isabelladecidedshecouldnolongerliveunderthesecondi9ons.Shebegantomakeplanstoescapewithherinfantdaughter,Sophia,andwasforcedtoleaveherotherchildrenbehind.Inlateryears,shespokeofhowGodremainedwithherduringthisuncertain9me,givingherdirec9onanddeclared,“Ididnotrunoff,forIthoughtthatwicked,butIwalkedoff,believingthattobeallright.”Duringherflighttofreedom,aQuakercouple,IsaacandMariaVanWagenen,learnedofherpredicamentandtookherinun9lthestate’semancipa9ontookeffect.BecauseoftheVanWagenen’sbenevolence,shebegantolearnwhatitmeanttolovethosewhohadoppressedherandhadalife-changingreligiousexperience-becoming“overwhelmedwiththegreatnessoftheDivinepresence”,andwasinspiredtopreach.Nowthatshewasfinallyfree,shemovedtoNewYorkCityandfoundworkasadomes9cservantandsoonbecameac9veinaMethodistchurch.LaterjoiningtheAfricanMethodistEpiscopaldenomina9on,shedidvolunteersocialworkhelpingformerslaves.OnJune1,1843,shechangedhernameto‘Sojourner[Traveler}Truth’andtoldfriends,“TheSpiritcallsme[East],andImustgo....theLordgavemeTruth,becauseIwastodeclarethetruthtothepeople.”Shewanderedinrela9veobscurity,dependingonthekindnessofstrangers.In1844,shejoinedtheNorthamptonAssocia9onofEduca9onandIndustryinMassachuseKs,foundedbyaboli9oniststopromotecoopera9veandproduc9velabor.Theywerestronglyan9-slavery,religiouslytolerant,women’srightssupporters,andpacifistinprinciples.Shebegandicta9nghermemoirstoOliveGilbert,oneoftheAssocia9on’smembers.TheNarra(veofSojournerTruth:ANorthernSlavewaspublishedprivatelyin1850byWilliamLloydGarrison.Itgaveherincomeandincreasedherspeakingengagements.In1854,attheOhioWomen’sRightsConven9oninAkron,Ohio,shegavehermostfamousspeech,withthelegendaryphrase,“Ain'tIaWoman?”.Sojournerwaswellintoher60swhentheCivilWarbrokeout,butshesolicitedsuppliesfortheUnionArmy’sBlackvolunteerregiments.ShemetPresidentLincolnin1864.Shealsoservedasacounselorinthena9onalFreedmen’sAssocia9onforayear,helpingemancipatedslavesgetestablishedinthe“newWest.”Shecon9nuedtoteachandlectureakerthewar.Whenatlastshere9red,SojournermovedtoBaKleCreek,Michigan,whereshediedonNovember26,1883.IsabellaBaumfreenotonlylekagivenbirthnamebehind,butalsoamagnificentlegacy.Excerptstakenfromadapta9onsof“GreatWomeninAmericanHistory”,byRebeccaPriceJanney.

Sojourner:WitnessofTruth(con9nued)(IsabellaBaumfree~1797-1883

TheUndergroundRailroadwasanetworkofroutesbywhichAfricanslavesinthe19thcenturyUnitedStatesaKemptedtoescapetofreestates,orasfarnorthasCanada,withtheaidofaboli9onists.OtherroutesledtoMexicooroverseas.Atitsheightbetween1810and1850,anes9mated30,000to100,000peopleescapedenslavementviatheUndergroundRailroad,thoughCensusfiguresonlyaccountfor6,000.Theescapenetworkwas"underground"inthesenseofundergroundresistancebutwasseldomliterallysubterranean.TheUndergroundRailroadconsistedofclandes9neroutes,transporta9on,mee9ngpoints,safehousesandotherhavens,andassistancemaintainedbyaboli9onistsympathizers.Theseindividualswereorganizedintosmall,independentgroupswho,forthepurposeofmaintainingsecrecy,knewofconnec9ng"sta9ons"alongtheroutebutfewdetailsoftheirimmediatearea.Escapedslaveswouldpassfromonewaysta9ontothenext,steadilymakingtheirwaynorth.Thediverse"conductors"ontherailroadincludedfree-bornBlacks,whiteaboli9onists,formerslaves(eitherescapedormanumiKed),andNa9veAmericans.Churchesandreligiousdenomina9onsplayedkeyroles,especiallytheReligiousSocietyofFriends(Quakers),Congrega9onalists,Wesleyans,andReformedPresbyteriansaswellasbreakawaysectsofmainstreamdenomina9onssuchasbranchesoftheMethodistchurchandAmericanBap9sts.In1820,97slavesand7,844freepeopleofcolorlivedinConnec9cut.Accordingtothe1830census,Middletown’spopula9onwas6,892.MapofGeneralOftheseresidents,209werepeopleofcolor,allofthemfree.Freedom,however,didnotautoma9callybringbasicrights.Educa9onandrouteonthevo9ngrightswerehardtocomebyinConnec9cutintheearly19thcentury.AlthoughtherewerenomoreslavesinMiddletownby1830, Undergroundslaverywasnotfullyabolishedinthestateun9l1848. RailroadSlaverywasaburningissueinNewEnglandinthe1830s.In1831,thesameyearthatJehielBeman,firstregularpastorattheA.M.E.CrossStreetChurch,broughthisfamilytoMiddletownandWesleyanUniversitywasfounded,WilliamLloydGarrisonbeganpublishinghisan9-slaverypaper,TheLiberator.GarrisonwasindeedheardinMiddletown.TheNewEnglandAn9-SlaverySociety(laterknownastheAmericanAn9-SlaverySociety)wasfoundedinBostonin1832,andthecausespreadthroughouttheNorthinresponsetoGarrison’scall.Withinjustfiveyears,thereweretwenty-ninean9-slaverysocie9esinConnec9cutalone.

TheUndergroundRailroadinMiddletown

JehielBemanwas9relessinhisfightagainstslavery.AfoundingmemberoftheMiddletownAn9-SlaverySocietyin1834,hebecameoneofitsfivemanagers.Bothofhissons,AmosandLevereK,werealsoac9veinthecause.ClarissaBeman,LevereK’swife,wasoneofthefoundersofMiddletown’sColoredFemaleAn9-SlaverySocietyinthesameyear.Thisgroupwasoneoftheearliestwomen’saboli9onistsocie9esintheUnitedStates.CrossStreetChurchwassocloselyalliedwiththean9-slaverymovementthatitwasknownas“FreedomChurch”inthisperiod.Amorehiddenaspectoftheaboli9onistmovementwastheundergroundrailroad.SeveralMiddletownci9zens,bothwhiteandBlack,servedasundergroundrailroadconductors,shelteringslaveswhowerefleeingtheSouthinsearchoffreedominCanadaorelsewhere.Withthepassageofthe1850Fugi9veSlaveLaw,theneedfortheundergroundrailroadincreased.Alongwithprominentwhiteci9zensJesseBaldwinandBenjaminDouglas,JehielBemanandhissecondwife,Nancy,servedasundergroundrailroadconductorsakertheyreturnedtoMiddletownin1854,andperhapsbefore.CrossStreetChurchwasverylikelyawaysta9onontherailroad.Middletownwashometoaboli9onists,bothBlackandwhite,aswellastopro-slaveryfac9ons,andtothosewhobelievedthatBlackemigra9ontoAfricaheldtheanswertoendingracialstrife.In1835,CrossStreetwasthesceneofanan9-Black,an9-aboli9onistriot.LevereKBemanwrotethatCrossStreetwas“crowdedwiththoseworsethanSouthernbloodhounds.”Wesleyan’sfirstPresident,WillburFisk,amemberofthemostly-whiteColoniza9onSociety,believedthatslaverywaswrong,butmaintainedthatthesolu9ontotheproblemofslaverylayinthevoluntaryemigra9onofBlackstoAfrica,ratherthanintheaboli9onistmovement.MostBlack HarrietTubman,Americans,includingtheBemans,deploredtheac9vi9esoftheColoniza9onSociety.Inthesummerof1831,BlackpeoplegatheredfamousconductorattheCrossStreetChurchtoprotestcoloniza9on.AmosBemanwaselectedsecretaryofthegroup,andwrote,“WhyshouldweleaveontheUndergroundthisland,sodearlyboughtbytheblood,groansandtearsofourfathers?Trulythisisourhome,hereletusliveandhereletusdie.”Railroad

TheUndergroundRailroadinMiddletown(con9nued)

WhenWoodrowWilsonarrivedinWashington,D.C.onMarch3,1913,heexpectedtobemetbycrowdsofpeoplewelcominghimforhisinaugura9onasUnitedStatesPresidentthenextday.Butveryfewpeoplecametomeethistrain.Instead,hundredsofthousandsofpeoplelinedPennsylvaniaAvenuetowatchaWomanSuffrageParade.Todemandtheirrighttovote,fivethousandwomenhadunitedundertheleadershipofsuffragist,AlicePaul,andmarchedthroughWashingtononthedaythatwouldgivemaximumexposuretotheircause.Womendemandedsuffrageasearlyas1848.TheSenecaFallsconven9oninJulyof1848,broughttogethertwohundredwomenandfortymen,includingfeministsElizabethCadyStantonandLucre9aMoK,tomaketheclaimforfullci9zenship.Thedelegatesbelievedwomentobeci9zensnotlimitedinanywaytotheirrolesaswivesormothers.Inthelanguageofthefoundingfathers,theywrote,“Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evidentthatallmenandwomenarecreatedequal.”TheyrejectedVictoriandomes9cityanditssepara9onofwomenandmenintoprivateandpublicspheres,respec9vely.ItwasatSenecaFallsthatthesuffragemovementfirstbegan.Asthemovementprogressed,othersspokeloudly,includingSusanB.Anthony,whostated,“IwillcutoffthisrightarmofminebeforeIwilleverworkordemandtheballotfortheNegroandnotthewoman.”WhiteandBlackwomenfoughtamongandbetweenthemselvesoverthebestcourseofac9on.SojournerTruth,whohadalreadyexperiencedherownpersonalstruggletowardfreedomfromslavery,remainedunwaveringinhersupportofwomen’srights.Inheruniqueway,Sojournercommentedontheissuein1867,whenfemalesuffragewass9llverymuchbeingdebated:“IfeelthatIhavetherighttohavejustasmuchasaman.Thereisagreats9raboutcoloredmengewngtheirrights,butnotawordaboutthecoloredwomen;andifcoloredmengettheirrights,andcoloredwomennottheirs,thecoloredmenwillbemastersoverthewomen,anditwillbejustasbadasitwasbefore.”

BlackWomen&TheSuffrageMovement1848-1923“Thereisnoslave,aBerall,likeawife…Poorwomen,pporslaves…Allmarriedwomen,allchildrenandgirlswho

liveintheirfather’shouseareslaves”~MaryBoykinChestnut,ADiaryfromDixie,1861

WomanSuffrageAssocia9on(NWSA)andtheAmericanWomanSuffrageAssocia9on(AWSA).ThevastmajorityofAmericanwomen,BlackandWhite,didnotbelongtoeitherorganiza9on.Theyseemedtoacceptsociety’sclaimthattheytrulywereapoli9calbeingsandbelongednotinthevo9ngbooth,butathome,takingcareoftheirfamilies.Somehousewivesevendenouncedfemalesuffrage,claimingthatifwomenweretovotedifferentlyfromtheirhusbands,domes9cunrestwouldsurelyfollow.Duringthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury,WhiteandBlackwomen,however,didreturntotheirroleassocialreformers.ThelargestandbestknownwastheWoman’sChris9anTemperanceUnion,(WCTU)foundedin1874.TheirpoliciesencouragedseparateBlackandWhiteunions,butatleastoneWhitewoman,AmeliaBloomer,campaignedagainstracismwithinthemovement,andsomeBlackwomendidrisetoposi9onsofprominence.FrancesHarper,forone,wasmosteffec9veinrecrui9ngBlackwomentothecauseandwaseventuallyappointedtothena9onaloffice.AmongBlackwomenwhowerestaunchsuffragistswasAnnaJuliaCooper,bestknownforherstatement:“OnlytheBLACKWOMANcansaywhenandwhereIenterinthequietundisputeddignityofmywomanhood,withoutviolenceorspecialpatronage;thenandtherethewholeNegroraceenterswithme.”Cooperwaspar9cularlyeffec9veinemphasizingtoBlackwomenthattheyrequiredtheballottocounterthebeliefthat“Blackmen’s”experiencesandneedswerethesameastheirs.Despitetheracialdivisions,Blackwomenwerecollec9veintheircourageinthefightforequality.IdaB.Wells-BarneK,thejournalistwholedanan9-lynchingcampaigninthelatenineteenthcentury,organizedtheAlphaSuffrageClubamongBlackwomeninChicagoandbroughtmemberswithhertopar9cipateinthe1913suffrageparadeinWashington,D.C.Theorganizersofthemarchaskedthattheywalkattheendoftheparade.ShetriedtogettheWhiteIllinoisdelega9ontosupportheropposi9onofthissegrega9on,butfoundfewsupporters.Theyeitherwouldmarchattheendornotatall.Idarefusedtomarch,butastheparadeprogressed,IdaemergedfromthecrowdandjoinedtheWhiteIllinoisdelega9on,marchingbetweentwoWhitesupporters.Sherefusedtocomplywiththesegrega9on.ExcerptstakenfromOneofDividedSisters:BridgingtheGapBetweenBlackandWhiteWomenbyMidgeWilson&KathyRussell,Anchor,1996—andPBS.org

BlackWomen&TheSuffrageMovement1848-1923(con9nued)“Thereisnoslave,aBerall,likeawife…Poorwomen,pporslaves…Allmarriedwomen,allchildrenandgirlswho

liveintheirfather’shouseareslaves”~MaryBoykinChestnut,ADiaryfromDixie,1861

HistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversi9es(HBCUs)arecollegesoruniversi9esthatwereestablishedbefore1964withtheinten9onofservingtheAfricanAmericancommunity.Therearemorethan100historicallyblackcollegesintheUnitedStates,locatedalmostexclusivelyinthesouthernandeasternstates.SouthernUniversityisthelargestHBCUandoneofthemostpres9giousuniversi9es.LocatedinLouisiana,SouthernUniversityhascampusesinBatonRouge,NewOrleans,Shreveport,theSouthernUniversityLawCenterandtheSouthernUniversityAgriculturalandExtensionCenter.SouthernUniversityhasbecometheonlyHBCUsystemintheUnitedStateswithanenrollmentofover15,000students.TheSystemencompassesfiveins9tu9onsofferingtwo-year,four-year,graduate,professional,anddoctoraldegrees.CheyneyUniversityinCheney,Pennsylvaniahasbeenknownforgradua9ngprominentalumnithroughitseduca9onandjournalismdepartments.Cheyney,foundedin1837,istheoldestHBCU,establishedforthepurposeofeduca9ngyouthofAfricandescent.HamptonUniversitywasfoundedin1868andislocatedinHampton,Virginia.Withanendowmentofmorethan$185.8million,HamptonisoneofthewealthiestHBCUs.Theschoolconfersapproximately848undergraduatedegreesyearlyandconsistentlyranksinthetop10ingradua9ngAfricanAmericanswithdegreesinbiology,businessadministra9on,communica9ons,English,journalism,pharmacy,nursingandpsychology.HamptonUniversityHowardUniversity,locatedinWashington,D.C.,isoneofthemostprominenthistoricallyBlackhighereduca9onins9tu9onsintheUnitedStates.HowardUniversityisacomprehensive,research-oriented,privateuniversityprovidinganeduca9onalexperienceofexcep9onalqualitytostudentsofhighacademicpoten9al.Par9cularemphasisisplaceduponprovidingeduca9onalopportuni9estopromisingBlackstudents.HowardhasproducedmoreAfricanAmericandoctoratedegreeholdersthananyotherins9tu9onintheworld.HowardistheonlyHBCUtomaketheU.S.NewsandWorldReport’stop100collegesanduniversi9es.FloridaA&MUniversitywasannouncedasthebestschoolforAfricanAmericansin2006bytheBlackEnterprisemagazine.Foundedin1887astheStateNormalCollegeforColoredStudents,thevenerableHBCUoffers62bachelorsdegreesin103majors/tracksand36master’sdegreesin56majors/tracks.

HistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversi9es:AndaSpotlightonMaryMcLeodBethune,1875-1955

FloridaA&MUniversitywasannouncedasthebestschoolforAfricanAmericansin2006bytheBlackEnterprisemagazine.Foundedin1887astheStateNormalCollegeforColoredStudents,thevenerableHBCUoffers62bachelorsdegreesin103majors/tracksand36master’sdegreesin56majors/tracks.XavierUniversityofNewOrleans,Louisianaisthetopschoolinthena9onintheplacementofBlackstudentsintomedicalschoolsandhasthelargestnumberofBlackundergraduatesreceivingdegreesinbiologyorlifesciences.Xavieralsohasthedis9nc9onofbeingtheonlyhistoricallyBlackandCatholicuniversityintheWesternHemisphere.NorthCarolinaCentralUniversity(NCCU)isarapidlygrowingins9tu9on.ItisthefirstliberalartscollegeforAfricanAmericansinthecountry.ItsSchoolofLawisrankedasoneofAmerica’stoplawschoolsinthena9onbythePrincetonReview.Withastudentpopula9onof9,000,NCCUistheninthlargestHBCU.NCCUalsohasthehighestHBCUgradua9onrateinNorthCarolina.In2005,NCCUrankedthirdinNorthCarolinainadmiwngthemostNa9onalMeritScholars.

MaryMcLeodBethunewasbornin1875toformerslavesinMayesville,SouthCarolina.Shedevotedherlifetoensuringtherighttoeduca9on andfreedomfromdiscrimina9onforAfricanAmericans.Shebelievedthatthrougheduca9on,Blackscouldbegintoearnalivinginacountry thatopposedracialequality.In1904,BethuneopenedtheDaytonaNormalandIndustrialIns9tuteforNegroGirls.Bethuneneverrefusedto educateachildwhosefamilycouldnotaffordtui9on.Therewasobjec9onduringBethune’s9metotheeduca9onofBlackchildren,buther zealanddedica9onwonoverskep9csofbothraces.BethunealsoopenedahighschoolandahospitalforBlacks.In1923,Bethuneoversaw thehighschool’smergerwiththeCookmanIns9tute,therebyformingtheHBCUBethune-CookmanCollege.ShehelpedintegratetheRed CrossandbecamepresidentoftheNa9onalAssocia9onofColoredWomen,formedtheNa9onalCouncilofNegroWomen,andin1940, BethuneservedasVPoftheNAACP.

HistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversi9es:(con9nued)AndaSpotlightonMaryMcLeodBethune,1875-1955

ManyhaveheardasimplifiedversionoftheRosaParksstory,asanisolatedincidentinwhichsherefusedtogiveupherseatbecauseshewas9red,ul9matelyresul9nginbusdesegrega9on.Inreality,stepstoorganizeagainstbussegrega9onhadbegunyearsbefore,andtheboycoKwasacoordinatedeffortthatinvolvedapproximately40,000peopleandoverayearofsacrifice.TherehadbeennumerousinstancesofBlacksrefusingtoobeythesegrega9onlawsonpublictransporta9onthroughoutthe1940s.TheWomen’sPoli9calCouncil(WPC)wasformedin1949,akerJoAnnGibsonwasmadetoleaveanalmostemptybusforrefusingtomovetotheback.By1955,theWPChadmembersineveryschool,andinfederal,stateandlocaljobs,andaccordingtoGibson,itsPresident,“weknewthatinamaKerofhours,wecouldcorralthewholecity”.TheWPChadmetwiththemayorofMontgomeryinMayof1954,andfolloweditupinwri9ng,askingforchangestothebussegrega9onprac9cesandinforminghimthatifcondi9onsonthebussesdidnotchange,ci9zenswouldstageaboycoK.Shestatedthatwiththree-fourthsoftheridersbeingAfricanAmerican,thebusseswouldnotbeabletofunc9onwithouttheirpatronage.Whencondi9onsdidnotchange,theWPCwaitedfortherighteventtoserveasthecatalystfortheboycoK.Threeopportuni9esarosein1955when,atdifferent9mes,awomanwasarrestedforrefusingtogiveupherseatonabustoawhiteperson.When,onDecember1,RosaParkswasarrested,theleadersknewthe9mewasright.RosaParkswasoneofthefirstwomeninMontgomerytojointheNa9onalAssocia9onfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),andhadservedasitssecretaryforyears.Shehadlearnedaboutunionstruggles,hadworkedtodesegregatethelocalschoolsandhaddefiedthebussegrega9onlawsinthepast.Shehadtherespectofthecommunity,andthestrengthtodealwiththeresultantpublicity,pressureandhos9lity.Whensherefusedtogiveupherseatinthe“colored”sec9on,sheactedwithfullknowledgeofwhatshewasdoingandthepoten9alconsequences.

RosaParksAndtheMontgomeryBusBoycoK

CommunityleaderscalledforaonedaybusboycoKforDecember5,thedayofhertrial.WhentheboycoKwasasuccess,theleadershipformedtheMontgomeryImprovementAssocia9on(MIA).TheychoseDr.Mar9nLutherKingJr.,anewmembertothecommunity,astheirleader.Atamassmee9ngthatevening,itwasdecidedtocon9nuetheboycoK.Thousandswalkedorfoundothermeansoftravelforwork,schoolandshopping,andasystemofcarpoolswascreated.Driversandpassengerswereoken9cketedorarrested,andmanyboycoKsupporterswerethreatenedwiththelossoftheirjobsandharassedbylocalgovernmentofficials.In1955,theFederalInterstateCommerceCommissionbannedsegrega9ononinterstatetrainsandbuses.OnFebruary1,1956,theMIAfiledsuitintheU.S.DistrictCourtchallengingthecons9tu9onalityofbussegrega9oninMontgomery.ThesuitnamedotherBlackwomen,notRosaParks,astheplain9ffs.Laterthatmonth,over100protestors,includingDr.King,werearrestedfor“hindering”abus.InJune,thecourtruledinfavoroftheMIA,andthecityappealedthedecisiontotheU.S.SupremeCourt.Inmid-November,theSupremeCourtaffirmedtheDistrictCourt’sdecisionthatsegrega9ononbuseswasuncons9tu9onal,andMontgomerybuseswerefinallydesegregatedonDecember20,1956.TheboycoKhadlasted381days. Forthefirst9me,blackpassengersboardthroughthefront

ofthebusandsitwheretheyplease.

RosaParks(con9nued)AndtheMontgomeryBusBoycoK

Formorethanacentury,AfricanAmericansfoughtforequaleduca9onalopportunity.Thehistoryofthisstruggleisbestsummarizedthroughareviewoflegalchallenges.Theearliestreportedcasewasin1849,Robertsv.theCityofBoston.Parentspe99onedthattheirchildrenshouldbeallowedtoaKendschoolsinBostonotherthanthesegregatedSmithSchool.However,thecourtruledthatitwassufficientthatprovisionshadbeenmadeforthe“coloredstudents”tohaveaschool.Thenextmajorrulingcamein1896,intheSupremeCourtcasePlessyv.Ferguson,whichsupported“separatebutequal”segrega9onoftheraces.ThisdecisionwasfinallyoverturnedinBrownv.BoardofEduca9onofTopeka,Kansasin1954,whentheSupremeCourtunanimouslyruledthatsegrega9oninpublicschoolswasuncons9tu9onal,andthatseparateeduca9onalfacili9esareinherentlyunequal.However,desegrega9onwasmetwithmuchresistance,par9cularlyinthesouthernstates.Virginialegislatorspassedaresolu9onin1956thattheSupremeCourt’sdecisiontointegrateschoolswasincompa9blewiththestatecons9tu9on,andgavethegovernorpowertoclosedownanyschoolsystemthataKemptedtodesegregate.InLiKleRock,ArkansasinSeptemberof1957,GovernorOrvalFaubususedtheNa9onalGuardtoblocknineBlackstudentsfromenteringtheall-WhiteLiKleRockCentralHighSchool.AlthoughPresidentEisenhowersentfederaltroopstointerveneonbehalfofthestudents,whobecomeknownasthe“LiKleRockNine,”thethreatsandin9mida9oncon9nued.WhentheCivilRightsActof1964wassigned,itprovidedthefederalgovernmentwiththepowerstoenforcedesegrega9onbydenyingfederalfundstoanyprogramwhichdiscriminatedonthebasisofrace,color,religionorna9onalorigin.In1968,inGreenv.CountySchoolBoardofNewKentCounty,Virginia,theSupremeCourtruledthatitwasuncons9tu9onalthatthecountywasopera9ngadualsystemofschools,andthatismustconverttoonesystem.

SchoolDesegrega9onInelementaryandsecondaryeduca9on

Its9pulatedthatschoolboardshaveadutytoeliminateimposedsegrega9on,andtointegrateschools.In1971,theSupremeCourt,inSwannv.CharloKe-MecklenburgBoardofEduca9on,upheldbusingasatoolforintegra9ngpublicschoolsandcorrec9ngracialimbalances.Court-orderedbusingplanscon9nuedinsomeci9esun9lthelate1990s.Argumentsinsupportofachievingdiversityinpublicelementaryandsecondaryeduca9onsaythatitisacri9calperiodfortransmiwngsocietalvalues,promo9ngdiscussionbetweentheracesandfosteringculturalunderstanding.However,in2006,theSupremeCourtagreedtoheartwomajorcasesregardingprac9cesusedtomaintaindiverselearningenvironmentsinpublicschools,eventhoughthelowercourtshadupheldtheschooldistricts’prac9ces.Inbothcases,oneinSeaKleandtheotherinLouisville,parentsofWhitestudentssuedtheschooldistrictswhentheirchildrenwererefusedadmissionintopopularareaschools,claimingthatusingraceinstudentassignmentsdeniedtheirrights.InNovemberof2006,MichiganpassedProposal2,whichbannedpreferen9altreatment,claimingthataffirma9veac9onprogramsdenyqualifiedapplicants.AsofDecember2006,fourstateshavebannedaffirma9veac9onpolicies:Michigan,California,Texas,andWashington.

SchoolDesegrega9on(con9nued)Inelementaryandsecondaryeduca9on

AkerthesuccessfuloutcomeoftheMontgomeryBusBoycoKin1956,Mar9nLutherKingJr.wrotethebookStrideToward Freedom.Inthebookheexplainedthecrucialrolesthatbothnon-violenceanddirectac9onplayedinthesuccessat Montgomery,layingthefounda9onforthelandmarknon-violentprotestsandcommunityorganizingeffortsoftheearly1960s. Twosucheventsthatlekalas9ngimpressionontheCivilRightsMovementweretheLunchCounterSit-Insof1960andthe FreedomSummerof1964.

OnFebruary1,1960,fourfirst-yearstudentsfromtheNorthCarolinaAgriculturalandTechnicalCollege,FranklinMcCain,David Richmond,JosephMcNeil,andEzellBlair,enteredanF.W.WoolworthCompanystoreinGreensboro,NorthCarolina,satatthe lunchcounterandaskedtobeserved.Asblackmenatasegregatedlunchcountertheyknewthattheywouldnotbe,butthey stayedsiwngsilentlyattheWoolworth’sun9lthestoreclosedthatevening.Thenextmorningwordhadspreadabouttheir effortsandtheyreturnedwithmediacoverageandagrowingnumberofprotestorswhohelpedtocon9nuetheirpeacefulsit-in.

Withintwoweeks,studentsin11ci9esheldsit-ins.Thestudentsalwaysremainednon-violentandforthesefirstfewweeksweresparedanymajorharassment.Then,onFebruary27inNashville,sit-instudentswereaKackedbyagroupofWhiteteenagers.WhenthepolicearrivedtheylettheWhiteteenagersgoandtheprotesterswerearrestedfor“disorderlyconduct”.Asstudentswerearrested,newgroupsofstudentsweretheretotaketheirplace,andallthatweretakeninthatdaywerefoundguiltyandfinedaccordingly.ByMayofthatyear,withsupportofMayorBenWest,Nashvillelunchcountersbeganintegra9ngandservingBlacks.ByAugustof`60sit-inshadaKractedover71,000par9cipantsandgeneratedover3,000arrests.Withinthese6monthsthesit-inshadendedrestaurantandlunch-countersegrega9onintwenty-sixsouthernci9es.Aconferenceofsit-instudentsthatOctoberresultedintheforma9onoftheStudentNonviolentCoordina9ngCommiKee(SNCC)whichwouldprovetobeacri9calgroupthroughouttherestofthecivilrightsmovement.

CommunityOrganizingEfforts1960-1964

Inthesummerof1964,apresiden9alelec9onyear,akermonthsofworkonvoterregistra9oninthesouthernstates,SNCCdecidedtosendvolunteersintoMississippiforavoterregistra9ondrive.ItsoonbecameknownasFreedomSummer.ThegoalsofFreedomSummer,outlinedbyRobertParisMoses,aleaderintheSNCC,weredetermined:expandblackvoterregistra9oninMississippi,organizeacons9tuted“FreedomDemocra9cParty”(MFDP)tochallengetheWhites-onlyMississippiDemocra9cparty,andestablishFreedomSchoolstoteachreadingandmathtoblackchildren.HundredsofpeoplegatheredinthenorthernstatestoprepareforthetriptoMississippi.OnJune21,thedayakerthefirstvolunteerslekforMississippi,threeworkersdisappeared.ThebodiesofMichaelSchwerner,AndrewGoodman,andJamesChaneywerefoundtwomonthslater.AllhadbeenshotandJamesChaney,theoneBlackmanofthegroup,hadbeenseverelybeaten.Inthetwomonthsthemenweremissing,FreedomClinicsandFreedomSchoolshadbeenestablishedbytheothervolunteersthathadsafelymadeittoMississippi.Thediscoveryofthebodies,however,breathednewlifeintotheeffortsoftheSNCC.

TheirgoalwastotaketheMFDPtotheDemocra9cNa9onalConven9onthatsummerinAtlan9cCity.TheDemocra9cParty, however,wasnotconvincedthattheywereen9tledtotheseats.Akerlongdelibera9onsinvolvingPresidentJohnsonand SenatorHubertHumphrey,thepartywasofferedacompromiseoftwonon-vo9ngseatsnexttotheMississippidelegates.Despite Mar9nLutherKing’ssupportofthecompromise,SNCCrefusedtheDemocra9cParty’sOffer.Theydid,however,makeapresence attheconven9on,standingintheplaceoftheirremovedseatssingingfreedomsongs.

WhiletheMFDPdidnotfullyachieveitsgoals,itremindedBlackpeopleinMississippithattheycouldhavepoli9cal awarenessandpower.In1964whentheircampaignbegan,6.7%ofvo9ng-agedBlacksinMississippiwereregistered tovote,16.3%belowthena9onalaverage.By1969,thatnumberjumpedto66.5%,5.5%abovethena9onal

average.

CommunityOrganizingEfforts(con9nued)1960-1964

BorninDecatur,Mississippi,MedgarEversaKendedschoolthereun9lhewasinductedintothearmy.EversfoughtfortheUnitedStatesinWWII,however,hefoundthatuponhisreturntohiscountry,authori9esdiscriminatedagainstEversandfivefriendsbecauseoftheirskincolor,pushingthemawayatgunpointfromalocalelec9on.Despitethis,Everswentontopursueadegreeinbusinessadministra9onfromAlcornStateUniversity.Hewasac9veinathle9csandextracurricularac9vi9es,contribu9ngtothefootballandtrackteams,thedebateteamandservingaspresidentofthejuniorclass.

HemarriedclassmateMyrlieBeasleyonDecember24,1951,andcompletedhisdegreethefollowingyear.ThecouplemovedtoMoundBayou,Mississippi,whereT.R.M.HowardhiredEverstosellinsuranceforhisMagnoliaMutualLifeInsuranceCompany.HowardwasalsothepresidentoftheRegionalCouncilofNegroLeadership(RCNL),acivilrightsandselfhelporganiza9on.Evers’involvementwithRCNLgavehimcrucialtraininginac9vism.HehelpedorganizeRCNL’sboycoKofservicesta9onsthatdeniedblacksuseoftheirrestrooms.TheboycoKersdistributedbumpers9ckerswiththeslogan“Don’tbuygaswhereyoucan’tusetherestroom.”Eversappliedtothethen-segregatedUniversityofMississippiLawSchoolinFebruary1954.Whenhisapplica9onwasrejected,EversbecamethefocusofaNAACPcampaigntodesegregatetheschool,acaseaidedbytheU.S.SupremeCourtdecisioninBrownvs.BoardofEduca(onthatsegrega9onwasuncons9tu9onal.InDecember1954,EversbecametheNAACP’sfirstfieldofficerinMississippi.AkermovingtoJackson,Mississippi,EverswasinvolvedinaboycoKcampaignagainstWhitemerchantsandwasinstrumentalineventuallydesegrega9ngtheUniversityofMississippiwhenthatins9tu9onwasforcedtoenrollJamesMeredithin1962.

Intheweeksleadinguptohisdeath,Eversfoundhimselfthetargetofseveralthreats.Hispublicinves9ga9onsintothemurderofEmmeKTillandhisvocalsupportofClydeKennardlekhimvulnerabletoaKack.OnMay28,1963,amolotovcocktailwasthrownintothecarportofhishome,andseveraldayslater,hewasnearlyrundownbyacarakerheemergedfromtheJacksonNAACPoffice.Civilrightsdemonstra9onsacceleratedinJacksonduringthefirstweekofJune1963.

MedgarEversJuly2,1925-June12,1963

Alocaltelevisionsta9ongrantedEvers9meforashortspeech,hisfirstinMississippi,whereheoutlinedthegoalsoftheJacksoncivilrightsmovement.Followingthespeech,threatsonEvers’lifeincreased.

OnJune11,1963,Everspulledintohisdrivewayakerreturningfromanintegra9onmee9ngwherehehadconferredwithNAACPlawyers.EmergingfromhiscarandcarryingNAACPt-shirtsthatread,“JimCrowMustGo,”Everswasstruckinthebackwithabulletthatricochetedintohishome.Hestaggered30feetbeforecollapsing,dyingatalocalhospital50minuteslater.EverswasmurderedjusthoursakerPresidentJohnF.Kennedy’sspeechonna9onaltelevisioninsupportofcivilrights.Mournedna9onally,EverswasburiedonJune19inArlingtonNa9onalCemeteryandreceivedfullmilitaryhonorsinfrontofacrowdofmorethan3,000people.ThepastchairmanoftheAmericanVeteransCommiKee,MickeyLevine,saidattheservices,“NosoldierinthisfieldhasfoughtmorecourageouslythanMedgarEvers.”

OnJune23,ByronDeLaBeckwith,amemberoftheWhiteCi9zen’sCouncilandKuKluxKlan,wasarrestedforEvers’murder.Duringthecourseofhisfirst1964trial,BeckwithwasvisitedbyformerMississippigovernorRossBarneKandone-9meArmyMajorGeneralEdwinA.Walker.AllWhitejuriesdeadlockedtwicethatyearonBeckwith’sguilt,allowinghimtoescapejus9ce.Inresponsetothemurderandmiscarriageofjus9ce,musicianBobDylanwrotethesong“OnlyaPawninTheirGame”aboutEversandhisassassin.MorerecentlyrapperImmortalTechniquewroteaboutthebloodofMalcolmXandMedgarEversinthesong“CrossingtheBoundary.”Evers’legacyhasbeenkeptaliveinavarietyofways.In1970,MedgarEversCollegewasestablishedinBrooklyn,NYaspartoftheCityUniversityofNewYork.

In1994,30yearsakerthetwoprevioustrialshadfailedtoreachaverdict,Beckwithwasagainbroughttotrialbasedonnew evidenceconcerningstatementshehadmadetoothers.BeckwithwasconvictedonFebruary5,1994,akerlivingasafreeman for3decadesakerthemurder.Beckwithappealedunsuccessfully,anddiedinprisoninJanuary2001.The1996filmGhostsofthe Mississippitellsthestoryofthe1994trial.Evers’wife,Myrliebecameanotedac9vistinherownright,eventuallyservingas chairwomanoftheNAACP.Evers’brotherCharlesremainedinvolvedinMississippiCivilRightsforyearstocome.In2001,Myrlie andMedgar’soldestsondied.EversissurvivedbyhiswifeMyrlie,adaughterandason.

TheEvershomeamuseuminJackson.Mississippi

MedgarEvers(con9nued)July2,1925-June12,1963

MalcolmX,originallyMalcolmLiKle,wasborninOmaha,Nebraska.AkermovingtotheMidwestwithhisfamilyatayoungage,hesuffered greattragedywiththeallegedsuicideofhisfatherandthesubsequentins9tu9onaliza9onofhismother.Akerspendinghisremaining childhoodyearsinfosterhomeswithhissiblings,Malcolmdroppedoutofmiddleschool,andafewyearslatermovedtoBostonandfound workonthestreetsasashoe-shiner,drugdealer,gamblerandburglar.

ItwaswhileservingatenyearsentenceinprisonforburglarythatMalcolmXbecamepassionatelycommiKedtofurtheringhiseduca9on.It wasalsoatthis9methatMalcolm’sbrotheralertedhimtotheteachingsoftheNa9onofIslam(NOI)andencouragedMalcolmtoconvertto theMuslimfaith.IntriguedbytheNOI,MalcolmbeganstudyingtheworkofElijahMuhammadwhopreachedaboutsystemicoppressionand foughtforaworldseparatefromoneinhabitedbyWhitepeople.

Bythe9meMalcolmXwasreleasedfromprisonhewasadevoutfollowerandsoonakermee9ngMuhammadandagreeingtoworkforNOI,changedhissurnameto“X”.Thechangewasintendedtosymbolizethesheddingofwhathethoughtofashisslavenameaswellasthe“x”thatmanyslavesreceivedasabrandontheirupperarm.MalcolmXwassoonappointedasaministerandna9onalspokespersonforNa9onofIslam.HewasalsochargedWithestablishingnewmosquesaroundthecountry.HereturnedtoBostonandbecametheMinisteroftheNOI’sTemple#11.HewasalsoselectedtoleadtheNOI’smosque#7onLenoxAvenueinHarlemandiscreditedwithotherestablishmentsinDetroit,MichiganandPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.HispublicspeakingandmediaappearancesalsocontributedtoincreasedawarenessandinterestintheNa9onofIslam.Infact,MalcolmXislargelycreditedwiththeincreaseintheNOImembershipfrom500in1952to30,000in1963.Thepublicnatureofhiswork,however,ledtheFBIandna9onalgovernmenttopayverycloseaKen9ontoMalcolmX.AtcertainpointstheNOIorganiza9onsMalcolmXwasinvolvedinwereinfiltratedbytheFBIandthegroup’scommunica9onsandac9vi9eswereheavilymonitored.

MalcolmX:LifeandDeath1925-1965

Intheearly1960’sMalcolmwasmadeawareofaccusa9onsofadulteryagainstElijahMuhammad.ThewomenwhoMuhammadwassaidtohaveextramaritalaffairswithwereallwomenwithintheNa9onofIslamorganiza9onandtheshockofthenewsprovedtobeadifficulttestofMalcolmX’sfaith.Uponconfirma9onoftheserumorsfromMuhammad,MalcolmXwasnotonlyhurtbythedecep9onofhismentor,butfeltguiltforleadingsomanypeopleintoanorganiza9onthathenowbelievedtobedecei�ul.Soonakerthisdiscovery,MalcolmXwassilencedfor90daysbynoneotherthanElijahMuhammadforpubliclycri9cizingJohnF.Kennedydirectlyakerhisassassina9on.Whileherespectedtheorder,itwasnotlongakerthathepubliclyannouncedhissepara9onfromtheNa9onofIslamandfoundedhisownreligiousorganiza9on,theMuslimMosque,Inc.Akerspending9meonapilgrimagetoMecca,SaudiArabia,sharinghisbeliefsandvisionswithpeopleofalldifferentcultures,MalcolmXreturnedtotheUnitedStateswithanewenergyandvisionforhiswork.HebegantonotonlydirecthisworktowardsAfricanAmericansbuttopeopleofallracesandethnici9es.Hepreachedabouthumanrights,freedom,ac9on,andcommunitybuilding.Whilere-establishinghimself,however,theoldtensionswiththeNa9onofIslamweres9llfesteringandrumorsbeganthatMalcolmXhadbeentargetedforassassina9on.AKemptsweremadeonhislifeandthreatsweremadeagainsthiswife,BeKy,andfourdaughters.InFebruaryof1965hisfamilyhomewasfirebombed,andwhileeveryonemadeitoutalive,noonewaseverchargedwiththecrime.

Itwasonlyoneweeklater,onFebruary21,1965,inManhaKan’sAudubonBallroomwhenthreemen rushedMalcolmXonstageduringaspeakingengagementandshothim159mesatcloserange.Hewas pronounceddeaduponarrivalatNewYork’sColumbiaPresbyterianHospital.Laterthatyearhiswife BeKygavebirthtotheirtwindaughters.Threemen,TalmadgeHayer,Norman3XButler,andThomas 15XJohnson,wereallconvictedofthemurderinMarchof1966.

ThelegacyofMalcolmXandhisworkhaveinspiredandinformedmanyothersintheirfightforsocialjus9ceandequality.Hehasbeenimmortalizednotonlyinhiswork,“TheAutobiographyofMalcolmX”,butinotherbooks,documentaries,andmovies,andremainsahistoricalfigureadmiredbyallgenera9ons.

MalcolmX:LifeandDeath1925-1965

Intheearly1960s,Selmawasafocalpointforvo9ngrights.Halfofthecity'sresidentswereBlackbutonlyonepercentwereregisteredtovotebecausetheregistra9onboardonlyopeneddoorsforregistra9ontwodaysamonth,arrivedlateandtooklonglunches.TheSelmatoMontgomerymarchesforvo9ngrightsrepresentedthepoli9calandemo9onalpeakofthemoderncivilrightsmovement.LedbyJohnLewisandHoseaWilliams,themarchesweretheculmina9onofthevo9ngrightsmovementlaunchedbyAmeliaBoyntonRobinsonandherhusband.OnFebruary18th,1965,followingwhatbeganasapeacefuldemonstra9onforvo9ngrights,JimmyLeeJacksonwasshotinthestomachbyastatetrooperwhiletryingtodefendhismotherand82yearoldgrandfatherfrompoliceaKacks.HewasarrestedandchargedwithassaultandbaKerybeforehewastakentothehospital.HediedonFebruary26.

On"BloodySunday,"March7,1965,some600civilrightsmarchersheadedeastoutofSelmaonU.S.Highway80.Theygotonly asfarastheEdmundPeKusBridgesixblocksaway,wherestateandlocallawmenaKackedthemwithbillyclubsandteargasand drovethembackintoSelma.AmeliaBoyntonRobinsonwasbeatenandgassednearlytodeath—herphotoappearedonthe frontpageofpapersandnewsmagazinesaroundtheworld.Seventeenmarcherswerehospitalized,leadingtothenamingofthe day"BloodySunday".

Twodayslater,onMarch9,1965,Mar9nLutherKing,Jr.leda"symbolic"marchtothebridge.Then,civilrightsleaderssought courtprotec9onforathird,full-scalemarchfromSelmatothestatecapitolbuildinginMontgomery.FederalDistrict

CourtJudge FrankMinisJohnson,Jr.,weighedtherightofmobilityagainsttherighttomarchandruledinfavorofthedemonstrators.

Vo9ngRights:SelmatoMontgomeryMarchesFebruary18th–March25,1965

Akerthesecondmarch,JamesReeb,awhiteUnitarianUniversalistministerfromBostonwhohadcomeforthesecondmarchandhadagreedtostay,wasaKackedwithaclubinfrontoftheSilverMoonCafé,ahangoutforwhites.BeingturnedbackbythesmalllocalhospitalinSelma(reportedtobefullatthe9me),Reeb'scompanionswereforcedtotakehimtoUniversityHospitalinBirmingham,twohoursaway.ReebdiedonThursday,March11,atUniversityHospitalwithhiswifebyhisside.StudentNonviolentCoordina9ngCommiKeespokespersonStokelyCarmichaelwasreportedassaying,“Whatyouwantisthena9ontobeupsetwhenanybodyiskilled…butitalmost[seemsthat]forthistoberecognized,aWhitepersonmustbekilled.”OnSunday,March21,1965,about3,200marcherssetoutforMontgomery,walking12milesadayandsleepinginfields.Bythe9metheyreachedthecapitolonThursday,March25,1965,theywere25,000-strong.

Followingthispowerfuldemonstra9on,ViolaLiuzzoandLeroyMotonweredrivingindividualsbacktotheairport.Ononeofthesetrips,acar offourWhitemen,seeingthisWhiteWomanandaBlackMan,shotatthecar.Violawashittwiceintheheadanddiedinstantly.Leroywas uninjured.Threeofthefourmenwerearrestedandcharged.Thefourth,anundercoverFBIagent,tes9fiedagainstthem.

Lessthanfivemonthsakerthelastofthethreemarches,PresidentLyndonJohnsonsignedtheVo9ngRightsActof1965.AmeliaBoynton Robinsonwaspresentduringtheceremony.

Jackson,Reeb,&LiuzzoarememorializedinamonumentoutsidetheBrownChapelwhereeachofthemarchesbegan.

TheeventsarealsobrilliantlywriKenaboutinthebookSelmaLord,Selma:GirlhoodMemoriesoftheCivilRightsDaysbySheyannWebb& RachelWestNelsonwhotookpartinthemarchesattheagesof11&12.

Vo9ngRights:SelmatoMontgomeryMarches(con9nued)February18th–March25,1965

Wri%enbyShmuelRoss

TheMarchonWashingtonforJobsandFreedomtookplaceinWashington,D.C.,onAugust28,1963.AKendedbysome250,000 people,itwasthelargestdemonstra9oneverseeninthena9on'scapital,andoneofthefirsttohaveextensivetelevision coverage.

1963wasnotedforracialunrestandcivilrightsdemonstra9ons.Na9onwideoutragewassparkedbymediacoverageofpolice ac9onsinBirmingham,Alabama,whereaKackdogsandfirehoseswereturnedagainstprotestors,manyofwhomwereintheir earlyteensoryounger.Mar9nLutherKing,Jr.,wasarrestedandjailedduringtheseprotests,wri9nghisfamous"LeKerFrom BirminghamCityJail,"whichadvocatescivildisobedienceagainstunjustlaws.Dozensofaddi9onaldemonstra9onstookplace

acrossthecountry,fromCaliforniatoNewYork,culmina9ngintheMarchonWashington.PresidentKennedybackedaCivilRightsAct,whichwasstalledinCongressbythesummer.TheMarchonWashingtonrepresentedacoali9onofseveralcivilrightsorganiza9ons,allofwhichgenerallyhaddifferentapproachesanddifferentagendas.Thestateddemandsofthemarchwerethepassageofmeaningfulcivilrightslegisla9on;theelimina9onofracialsegrega9oninpublicschools;protec9onfordemonstratorsagainstpolicebrutality;amajorpublic-worksprogramtoprovidejobs;thepassageofalawprohibi9ngracialdiscrimina9oninpublicandprivatehiring;a$2anhourminimumwage;andself-governmentfortheDistrictofColumbia,whichhadaBlackmajority.PresidentKennedyoriginallydiscouragedthemarch,forfearthatitmightmakethelegislaturevoteagainstcivilrightslawsinreac9ontoaperceivedthreat.

MarchonWashingtonforJobsandFreedomAugust28,1963

Onceitbecameclearthatthemarchwouldgoon,however,hesupportedit.Themarchwasalsocondemnedbysomecivilrightsac9vists,includingMalcolmX,whofeltitpresentedaninaccurate,sani9zedpageantofracialharmony.ThetwomostnoteworthyspeechescamefromJohnLewisandMar9nLutherKing,Jr.LewisrepresentedtheStudentNonviolentCoordina9ngCommiKee,ayounger,moreradicalgroupthanKing's.JohnLewis’sspeechstated:“Therevolu9onisathand,andwemustfreeourselvesofthechainsofpoli9calandeconomicslavery.Thenonviolentrevolu9onissaying,‘Wewillnotwaitforthecourtstoact,forwehavebeenwai9nghundredsofyears.WewillnotwaitforthePresident,northeJus9ceDepartment,norCongress,butwewilltakemaKersintoourownhands,andcreateagreatsourceofpower,outsideofanyna9onalstructurethatcouldandwouldassureusvictory.’Forthosewhohavesaid,‘Bepa9entandwait!’wemustsay,‘Pa9enceisadirtyandnastyword.’Wecannotbepa9ent,wedonotwanttobefreegradually,wewantourfreedom,andwewantitnow.Wecannotdependonanypoli9calparty,fortheDemocratsandtheRepublicanshavebetrayedthebasicprinciplesoftheDeclara9onofIndependence.”King'sspeechremainsoneofthemostfamousspeechesinAmericanhistory.Hestartedwithpreparedremarks,sayinghewasthereto"cashacheck"for"Life,LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness,"whilewarningfellowprotestersnotto"allowourcrea9veprotesttodegenerateintophysicalviolence.Againandagain,wemustrisetothemajes9cheightsofmee9ngphysicalforcewithsoulforce."Butthenhedepartedfromhisscript,shikingintothe"Ihaveadream"themehe'dusedonprioroccasions,drawingonboth"theAmericandream"andreligiousthemes,speakingofanAmericawherehischildren"willnotbejudgedbythecoloroftheirskinbutbythecontentoftheircharacter."Hefollowedthiswithanexhorta9onto"letfreedomring"acrossthena9on,andconcludedwith:“Andwhenthishappens,whenweallowfreedomtoring,whenweletitringfromeveryvillageandeveryhamlet,fromeverystateandeverycity,wewillbeabletospeedupthatdaywhenallofGod'schildren,Blackmenandwhitemen,JewsandGen9les,ProtestantsandCatholics,willbeabletojoinhandsandsinginthewordsoftheoldNegrospiritual,"Freeatlast,freeatlast.ThankGodAlmighty,wearefreeatlast."

MarchonWashingtonforJobsandFreedom(con9nued)August28,1963

Dr.KingwasassassinatedonApril4th,1968,buthislegacyisenduring.Hewasiden9fiedina2005pollasthethirdgreatestAmericanofall9me.CivilRightsmovementsforthepastfivedecadeshavebeenmodeledonhisleadershipandhecon9nuestobeaninspira9ontopeopleworldwide.

King'swife,CoreKaScoKKing,wasaleaderbothduringhislifeandcon9nuedtobeac9veinmaKersofsocialjus9ceandcivilrightsun9lher deathin2006.ThesameyearMar9nLutherKingwasassassinated,sheestablishedtheKingCenterinAtlanta,Georgia,dedicatedto preservinghislegacyandtheworkofchampioningnonviolentconflictresolu9onandtoleranceworldwide.Shewasac9veinnumeroussocial jus9cemovementsincludingthean9-apartheidmovementsofthe1980s,animalrights,women’srightsandwasaleaderofmergingthecivil rightsmovementsofpeopleofcolorandlesbian,gayandbisexualpeople.

Despitetheangerofmanyreligiousleaders,Mrs.KingcalledonthecivilrightscommunitytojoininthestruggleagainstHomophobiaand an9-gaybias."Homophobiaislikeracismandan9-Semi9smandotherformsofbigotryinthatitseekstodehumanizealargegroupofpeople, todenytheirhumanity,theirdignityandpersonhood",Kingstated."Thissetsthestageforfurtherrepressionandviolencethatspreadalltoo easilytovic9mizethenextminoritygroup."

Mar9nLutherKing’schildrenhavealsobeenac9veinnumeroussocialjus9cemovements.DexterKingservedastheKingCenter'spresidentun9l2004andMar9nLutherKingIIIiscurrentlythepresident.Daughters,Bernice&YolandaKing,havebothspokenworldwideregardingsocialjus9ceandhavebeeninvolvedinnumerousmovements.Dr.King’slikenessandwordsareu9lizedinmanyplacestocallforjus9ceandhislegacyandthatofotherleadersismemorializedaroundtheworld.Notably,in1989,aCivilRightsMemorialwasdedicatedinMontgomery,ALbytheSouthernPovertyLawCenter.

TheLegacyofandMemorialtoDr.King

TheCivilRightsMemorial,designedbyMayaLin(whoalsodesignedtheVietnamVeteransMemorial),wasinspiredbyDr.King'squota9on“...wewillnotbesa(sfiedun(ljus(cerollsdownlikewatersandrighteousnesslikeamightystream....",fromtheIHaveaDreamspeech.Thetableisetchedwiththenamesofthe40peoplewhodiedbetween1954and1968inthestruggleforcivilrightsandthewallbehindthetableisetchedwiththequote.Waterrunssmoothlyoverboththetableandthewall.

In1996,AlphaPhiAlphafraternitywasauthorizedbytheUSCongresstopursuethecrea9onofana9onal monumenthonoringDr.King.Thememorialwillbeonlytheseconddedicatedtoanon-presidentintheareaofthe Na9onalMall.ItwasdesignedbyaSanFranciscobasedfirmandthegroundbreakingceremonywasheldon November13th,2006.

Thewebsiteforthememorialstates,“Thismemorialisnotdesignedtobeexperiencedinasinglewaywithone singlemessage,butratheritistohaveabroadaccessibility,appealingtoallofthesenseswithdiverse,repe99ve

andoverlappingthemes.”Itusesthenaturalelementsofwater,stone,andtreestorepresentthethemesofjus9ce,democracyandhope.Nichesatthemonumentwillbededicatedtootherswhogavetheirlivestothemovement.Thewebsitegoesontosay,“Indeferencetotheunfinishednatureofthemovement,arandomnumber[ofniches]willbelekopenandincomplete,allowingaddi9onalnichestobededicatedatalaterpointin9me.Thesesemicircularnave-likespacesareintendedtoengagepersonalcontempla9onandquietreflec9on,andwillbedirectlyaccessiblefromtheupperwalkway.Eachspacewillbehewnfromrock,withroughedgesontheoutside,andsmoothstoneontheinside("roughplacesmadeplain").”Moreinforma9onaboutthememorialcanbefoundatwww.mlkmemorial.org

TheLegacyofandMemorialtoDr.King(con9nued)