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Englishness, class and whiteness [The working class] “are the bearers of a problematic whiteness, disavowed by liberal middle classes” – Lawler 2012: 421 “If you're English, or if you state you're English... it flags up to some people, a lot of the people that I work with, that you've got some sort of racism going on. And I don't see that” – working class respondent quoted in Garner 2012: 455 “There's nothing that's very positive about being English, I think that's the problem, other than the violence, thuggery, racism” – middle class respondent quoted in Fenton 2012: 478
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Class, Englishness and the UKIP Vote
Eric Kaufmann, Birkbeck [email protected]; twitter: @epkaufm;
web: sneps.net;
English national identity• English more of an ‘ethnic’ national identity than British• Englishness stronger among working class/poorer/less educated
whites• English identifiers more likely to oppose immigration and EU
membership• English identifiers more likely to vote UKIP• Sources: Fenton, Garner, Condor, Leddy-Owen, Lawler, McCrone &
Bechhofer…
Englishness, class and whiteness• [The working class] “are the bearers of a problematic whiteness,
disavowed by liberal middle classes” – Lawler 2012: 421
• “If you're English, or if you state you're English.. . it flags up to some people, a lot of the people that I work with, that you've got some sort of racism going on. And I don't see that” – working class respondent quoted in Garner 2012: 455
• “There's nothing that's very positive about being English, I think that's the problem, other than the violence, thuggery, racism” – middle class respondent quoted in Fenton 2012: 478
0204060
Predictors of English Identity among White British (2011 ONS LS), N~350k
Z score
Professi
onal/Manager
Younger
Passport
holder
Less
deprived w
ard
Female
Population density in
ward
White
% in
ward
05
10152025303540
Predictors of NOT identifying as English, White British Individuals Only,
ONS LS 2011 (N~ 350k)
Z-Sc
ore
(str
engt
h of
effe
ct)
***Lower Education/Low SES
Minority share stimulates Englishness
.5.6
.7.8
.9%
Eng
lish
amon
g W
hite
Brit
ish
popu
latio
n
10 20 30 40% with no qualifications
Englishness and No Qualifications, by Constituency
No Quals % minority0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Main Predictors of English share of White British, by Constituency, 2011
z-sc
ore
(size
of e
ffect
)
AldershotAldridge-Brownhills
Altrincham and Sale West
Amber ValleyArundel and South Downs
AshfieldAshford
Ashton-under-LyneAylesbury
Banbury
BarkingBarnsley CentralBarnsley East
Barrow and Furness
Basildon and Billericay
South Basildon and East Thurrock
Basingstoke Bassetlaw
Bath
Batley and Spen
Battersea
BeaconsfieldBeckenhamBedford
Mid BedfordshireNorth East BedfordshireSouth West Bedfordshire
Bermondsey and Old Southwark
Berwick-upon-Tweed
Bethnal Green and Bow
Beverley and HoldernessBexhill and Battle
Bexleyheath and Crayford
BirkenheadBirmingham, Edgbaston
Birmingham, Erdington
Birmingham, Hall Green
Birmingham, Hodge Hill
Birmingham, Ladywood
Birmingham, Northfield
Birmingham, Perry BarrBirmingham, Selly Oak
Birmingham, YardleyBishop Auckland
BlackburnBlackley and Broughton
Blackpool North and CleveleysBlackpool SouthBlaydon
Blyth ValleyBognor Regis and LittlehamptonBolsoverBolton North East
Bolton South East
Bolton West
Bootle
Boston and Skegness
BosworthBournemouth EastBournemouth West
Bracknell
Bradford East
Bradford South
Bradford West
Braintree
Brent CentralBrent NorthBrentford and Isleworth
Brentwood and OngarBridgwater and West Somerset
Brigg and Goole
Brighton, Kemptown
Brighton, Pavilion
Bristol East
Bristol North West
Bristol South
Bristol West
BroadlandBromley and ChislehurstBromsgrove
Broxbourne
Broxtowe
Buckingham
BurnleyBurton
Bury NorthBury SouthBury St Edmunds
Calder Valley
Camberwell and Peckham
Camborne and Redruth
Cambridge
North East CambridgeshireNorth West Cambridgeshire
South CambridgeshireSouth East Cambridgeshire
Cannock Chase
CanterburyCarlisleCarshalton and Wallington
Castle Point
Charnwood
Chatham and Aylesford
Cheadle
Chelmsford
Chelsea and FulhamCheltenham
Chesham and Amersham
City of Chester
ChesterfieldChichester
Chingford and Woodford GreenChippenhamChipping Barnet
Chorley
Christchurch
Cities of London and Westminster
Clacton
Cleethorpes
ColchesterColne Valley
CongletonCopeland
CorbyNorth CornwallSouth East Cornwall
The Cotswolds
Coventry North EastCoventry North WestCoventry SouthCrawleyCrewe and Nantwich
Croydon Central
Croydon North
Croydon South
Dagenham and Rainham
Darlington
Dartford
DaventryDenton and Reddish
Derby NorthDerby South
Derbyshire DalesMid Derbyshire
North East DerbyshireSouth Derbyshire
DevizesCentral DevonEast Devon
North DevonSouth West Devon
Torridge and West Devon
Dewsbury
Don ValleyDoncaster CentralDoncaster North
Mid Dorset and North Poole
North DorsetSouth Dorset
West Dorset
Dover
Dudley North
Dudley South
Dulwich and West Norwood
City of Durham
North DurhamNorth West Durham
Ealing Central and Acton
Ealing North
Ealing, Southall
Easington
East Ham
Eastbourne
Eastleigh
Eddisbury
Edmonton
Ellesmere Port and NestonElmet and Rothwell
Eltham
Enfield North
Enfield, Southgate
Epping Forest
Epsom and Ewell
ErewashErith and Thamesmead
Esher and WaltonExeter
FarehamFaversham and Mid Kent
Feltham and HestonFilton and Bradley Stoke
Finchley and Golders Green
Folkestone and Hythe
Forest of Dean
FyldeGainsborough
Garston and Halewood
GatesheadGedling
Gillingham and Rainham
Gloucester
GosportGrantham and StamfordGravesham
Great GrimsbyGreat Yarmouth
Greenwich and WoolwichGuildford
Hackney North and Stoke NewingtonHackney South and Shoreditch
Halesowen and Rowley Regis
HalifaxHaltemprice and HowdenHalton
Hammersmith
East HampshireNorth East Hampshire
North West Hampshire
Hampstead and Kilburn
HarboroughHarlow
Harrogate and Knaresborough
Harrow EastHarrow West
Hartlepool
Harwich and North Essex
Hastings and Rye
Havant
Hayes and HarlingtonHazel GroveHemel Hempstead
Hemsworth
Hendon
Henley
Hereford and South HerefordshireNorth HerefordshireHertford and StortfordNorth East HertfordshireSouth West HertfordshireHertsmere
Hexham
Heywood and Middleton
High PeakHitchin and Harpenden
Holborn and St Pancras
Hornchurch and Upminster
Hornsey and Wood Green
Horsham
Houghton and Sunderland South
Hove
Huddersfield
Kingston upon Hull East
Kingston upon Hull North
Kingston upon Hull West and HessleHuntingdon
Hyndburn
Ilford North
Ilford South
Ipswich
Isle of Wight
Islington North
Islington South and Finsbury
Jarrow
KeighleyKenilworth and Southam
Kensington
Kettering
Kingston and Surbiton
Kingswood
KnowsleyWest Lancashire
Lancaster and Fleetwood
Leeds CentralLeeds East
Leeds North EastLeeds North West
Leeds West
Leicester EastLeicester South
Leicester WestNorth West LeicestershireSouth LeicestershireLeigh
Lewes
Lewisham, Deptford
Lewisham EastLewisham West and PengeLeyton and Wanstead
Lichfield
Lincoln
Liverpool, RiversideLiverpool, WaltonLiverpool, WavertreeLiverpool, West Derby
Loughborough
Louth and Horncastle
LudlowLuton NorthLuton SouthMacclesfield
Maidenhead
Maidstone and The Weald
Makerfield
MaldonManchester Central
Manchester, Gorton
Manchester, Withington
Mansfield
Meon ValleyMeriden
Middlesbrough
Middlesbrough South and East ClevelandMilton Keynes NorthMilton Keynes South
Mitcham and MordenMole ValleyMorecambe and Lunesdale
Morley and OutwoodNew Forest EastNew Forest West
NewarkNewbury
Newcastle-under-LymeNewcastle upon Tyne Central
Newcastle upon Tyne East
Newcastle upon Tyne NorthNewton Abbot
Mid NorfolkNorth NorfolkNorth West Norfolk
South Norfolk
South West NorfolkNormanton, Pontefract and Castleford
Northampton NorthNorthampton South
South NorthamptonshireNorwich North
Norwich SouthNottingham East
Nottingham North
Nottingham SouthNuneaton
Old Bexley and SidcupOldham East and SaddleworthOldham West and Royton
Orpington
Oxford EastOxford West and Abingdon
Pendle
Penistone and Stocksbridge
Penrith and The Border
Peterborough
Plymouth, Moor View
Plymouth, Sutton and DevonportPoole
Poplar and Limehouse
Portsmouth North
Portsmouth SouthPreston
Pudsey
Putney
Rayleigh and Wickford
Reading EastReading West
RedcarRedditch
ReigateRibble ValleyRichmond (Yorks)
Richmond Park
Rochdale
Rochester and Strood
Rochford and Southend EastRomford
Romsey and Southampton NorthRossendale and Darwen
Rother ValleyRotherham
RugbyRuislip, Northwood and Pinner
Runnymede and WeybridgeRushcliffe
Rutland and MeltonSaffron Walden
St Albans
St Austell and NewquaySt Helens NorthSt Helens South and Whiston
St Ives
Salford and Eccles
Salisbury
Scarborough and WhitbyScunthorpeSedgefield
Sefton Central
Selby and Ainsty
Sevenoaks
Sheffield, Brightside and Hillsborough
Sheffield CentralSheffield, Hallam
Sheffield, Heeley
Sheffield South East
Sherwood
Shipley
Shrewsbury and AtchamNorth Shropshire
Sittingbourne and Sheppey
Skipton and RiponSleaford and North Hykeham
SloughSolihull
North SomersetNorth East SomersetSomerton and Frome
South Holland and The Deepings
South Ribble
South Shields
Southampton, ItchenSouthampton, Test
Southend WestSouthport
Spelthorne
StaffordStaffordshire Moorlands
South StaffordshireStalybridge and Hyde
StevenageStockport
Stockton North
Stockton South
Stoke-on-Trent CentralStoke-on-Trent North
Stoke-on-Trent South
Stone Stourbridge
Stratford-on-Avon
Streatham
Stretford and UrmstonStroud
Central Suffolk and North IpswichSuffolk CoastalSouth Suffolk
West SuffolkSunderland Central
East SurreySurrey Heath
South West SurreyMid Sussex Sutton and Cheam
Sutton ColdfieldNorth SwindonSouth Swindon
Tamworth
TattonTaunton Deane
Telford
Tewkesbury
North Thanet
South Thanet
Thirsk and Malton
Thornbury and Yate
Thurrock
Tiverton and HonitonTonbridge and Malling
Tooting
TorbayTotnes
Tottenham
Truro and Falmouth Tunbridge Wells
Twickenham
Tynemouth
North TynesideUxbridge and South Ruislip
Vauxhall
Wakefield
Wallasey
Walsall North
Walsall South
Walthamstow
Wansbeck
Wantage
WarleyWarrington North
Warrington SouthWarwick and Leamington
North WarwickshireWashington and Sunderland West
Watford
WaveneyWealden
Weaver Vale
Wellingborough
WellsWelwyn Hatfield
Wentworth and Dearne
West Bromwich East
West Bromwich West
West Ham
Westminster NorthWestmorland and Lonsdale
Weston-Super-MareWigan
North Wiltshire
South West Wiltshire
WimbledonWinchester
WindsorWirral SouthWirral West
Witham
WitneyWoking
Wokingham
Wolverhampton North EastWolverhampton South East
Wolverhampton South WestWorcester
Mid WorcestershireWest Worcestershire
WorkingtonWorsley and Eccles SouthEast Worthing and ShorehamWorthing WestThe Wrekin
WycombeWyre and Preston North
Wyre ForestWythenshawe and Sale EastYeovil
York CentralYork Outer
East Yorkshire
010
2030
4050
% U
KIP
Vot
e in
201
5 el
ectio
n
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9
% White British who also identify as English not British or Celtic
constituency Fitted values
White British share with English National Identity & UKIP Vote
How English are White British People, byLocal Authority, 2011
UKIP 2014 vote/White British %English Identifiers as % of White British
.1.1
5.2
.25
.3P
roba
bilit
y of
say
ing
imm
igra
tion
unde
rmin
es c
ultu
ral l
ife
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
How English do you feel? (1=not at all, 7=very)
'Immigration Undermines Cultural Life' and Englishness
British Election Study 2014, waves 1-2. Controls for age, gender, income, education, ethnicity. Clustered on Local Authority
.2.3
.4.5
.6
Pro
babi
lity
of V
otin
g to
Lea
ve
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
How English do you feel (1=not at all, 7= very)
Englishness and Brexit Voting Intention (BES 2014)
British Election Study 2014, waves 1-2. Controls for age, gender, income, education, ethnicity. Clustered on Local Authority
.05
.1.1
5.2
.25
Pro
babi
lity
of v
otin
g U
KIP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7On a scale of 1-7, from lowest to highest, how English do you feel?
Englishness and 2014 UKIP voting
British Election Study 2014, waves 1-2. Controls for age, gender, income, education, ethnicity. Clustered on Local Authority
Conclusion• Englishness stronger among working class/poorer/less educated whites• English more of an ethnic national identity than British, more ‘civic’• English identifiers more likely to vote UKIP• English identifiers more likely to oppose immigration (‘ethnic’ issue)
and EU membership (both ‘ethnic’ & ‘civic’ issue). But care more about immigration.
• Why Englishness more ethnic?: reflects the most pressing challenges to English identity. In Scotland, political boundaries more salient due to lack of independence; in England, ethnic boundaries more contested due to higher immigration