Clean_HDVs-contents

CLEANER HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES:ANALYZING TRENDS IN ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES AND FUELS

WestStart/CALSTARTPasadena, California

2001

C L E A N E R H E AV Y - D U T Y V E H I C L E S : A N A LY Z I N G T R E N D S I N T E C H N O L O G I E S A N D F U E L S

© Copyright 2001 by:

WestStart/CALSTART

2181 E. Foothill Blvd.

Pasadena, California 91107

All rights reserved

No portion of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means,

in whole or in part, without written permission of the publisher.

FO R E W O R D

i i i

Foreword by John Boesel, President, Weststart

Cleaner Heavy Duty Vehicles seeks to better understand how the heavy-duty vehicle

industry will be affected by emerging trends over the next 10 years. During the course of

our study, we may well have found more questions than answers. What is certain is that like

the light-duty vehicle industry, the heavy-duty vehicle industry is under going significant

changes. Air quality and fuel efficiency issues are driving those changes.

In 2002 in the United States, you’ll be able to buy a Honda Civic with three drive train

options: gasoline ICE, natural gas ICE, or gasoline-hybrid electric. Whether these advanced

drive trains and fuels will make the same progress in the heavy-duty vehicle industry remains

to be seen. The customers, the needs, and the fuel are all different. But it is clear that

whatever truck or bus is available in 2011, it will be much cleaner than the one offered today.

While this study focuses on the heavy-duty vehicle industry in the United States, it has

implications worldwide. The U.S. represents the single largest trucking market in the world.

Trucking technology and, to a lesser degree, regulations are quickly shared across

continents.

Although a WestStart publication, this analysis was made possible by the U.S. Army’s

National Automotive Center (NAC). The NAC is a unit within the U.S. Army’s Tank

Automotive-Armaments Command (TACOM) that seeks to develop commercial partners to

facilitate higher capability and lower cost vehicles for the military. WestStart and the NAC

are working together to develop new technologies and fuels that will both increase energy

efficiency and reduce emissions in the trucking industry. It is a partnership that is focused

on working with industry to achieve near-term commercial results.

The author of this document is Robert Oberhand. Working tirelessly for WestStart,

Oberhand diligently sought to navigate through the myriad of issues facing the heavy-duty

vehicle industry. WestStart is indebted to him for his monumental effort.

I like to also thank the following WestStart team members who helped provide infor-

mation, edit drafts, and offer opinions: Mike Gage, CEO; Tom Brotherton, Rocky Mountains

Regional Director, Susan Romeo, Marketing Director; Therese Costa-Fisher, Vice President,

Clean Transportation Solutions Group; and Fred Silver, Director, New Business Initiatives.

In March of this year, we held an exciting conference in Arizona that was focused on

the very topic of this analysis. The conference was a forum for some lively discussion and

interaction. We look forward to seeing you at the 2nd Annual Clean Heavy-Duty Vehicles

Conference in 2002.


Table of contents

Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii

Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii

Photos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .x

Glossary of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xi

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1

2. Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12.0 The impact of alternative fuels, powertrains, and cleaner diesel . . . . . . .2-1

2.0.0 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-22.0.1 Alternatives to heavy-duty diesel vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-22.0.2 Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-42.0.3 The heavy-duty truck market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-52.0.4 Off-road vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2-5

3. Comparing the alternatives to standard diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-13.1 Profile of diesel power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.13.2 EPA regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-33.3 Alternatives to today’s diesel engines, from now to 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . .3-5

3.3.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-53.3.1 Advanced diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-83.3.2 Natural gas engines—spark ignition, dual fuel, and HPDI . . . . .3-93.3.3 Hybrid electric drivetrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-113.3.4 Fuel cell power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-13

3.4 Alternatives to standard diesel fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-143.4.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-143.4.1 Natural gas as an alternative to diesel fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-153.4.2 Propane as a heavy-duty fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-203.4.3 Will diesel fuel become clean enough to satisfactorily

reduce emissions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-21Low-sulfur diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-21Blending stocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-21Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-21Gas-to-liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-22Diesel/water emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-23Diesel/ethanol blend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-24

3.5 Possible buying trends in heavy-duty truck sales, 2001-2010 . . . . . . . . . .3-24

4. Current drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14.0 Drivers behind government action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-1

4.0.0 Public health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-1Diesel exhaust and cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-2

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4.0.1 Environmental and national security concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-5National Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-6

4.1 Federal government drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-74.1.0 EPA regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-74.1.1 NAAQS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-74.1.2 Federal funding of heavy-duty vehicle research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.1.3 DOT’s Advanced Vehicle Program and DARPA

Hybrid-Electric Vehicle Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-94.1.4 Military programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-94.1.5 21st Century Truck Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-10

4.2 California funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-104.3 New York funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-124.4 Emerging drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-12

4.4.0 Emissions trading with stationary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-124.4.1 New research on air toxics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-134.4.2 Focusing on fuels to meet air quality standards . . . . . . . . . . .4-13

5. Cleaner diesel for heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15.1 Recent history: Cleaner diesel standards 1990–1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-15.2 Today’s research and development on cleaner diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1

5.2.0 Exhaust gas recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-15.2.1 Diesel oxidation catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-25.2.2 Diesel particulate filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-25.2.3 Selective catalytic reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-35.2.4 Combined emission control systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-35.2.5 Ceryx converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-45.2.6 Sturman camless engine system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-4

5.3 Heavy-duty vehicles will follow a path similar to light duty vehicles . . . . .5.5

6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Supplemental information section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S-1

S1. Emerging alternatives: hybrid electric and fuel cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S1-1S1.0 OverviewS1.1 Hybrid electric vehicle efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-1S1.2 Hybrid electric vehicle classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-3

S1.2.0 Hybrids are most advantageous in certain urban driving patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-4

S1.2.1 Selecting a hybrid vehicle type and category . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-5S1.3 A useful profile of hybrid applications: New York City Transit’s

experience with hybrid buses in a large mixed fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-5S1.4 The military and hybrid heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-6S1.5 The promise of hybrid heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-7S1.6 Hybrid heavy-duty vehicles today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-8

S1.6.0 Allison Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-8S1.6.1 Oshkosh Truck Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-8


S1.6.2 BAE Systems Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-9S1.6.3 Enova Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-9S1.6.4 PEI Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-9S1.6.5 Capstone Turbine Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-10S1.6.6 ISE Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-11S1.6.7 Solectria Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-11S1.6.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-11

S2 Fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S2-1S.2.0 Key trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-1S2.1 Drivers of interest in fuel cell power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-2S2.2 Fuel cells and heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-3

S2.2.0 Powerplants and auxiliary power units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-3APUs and off-duty idling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-3Fuel cells as primary motive power for heavy-duty vehicles . .S2-4

S2.3 Manufacturers of fuel cells for heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-5S2.3.0 Ballard and XCELLSiS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-5S2.3.1 International Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-6S2.3.2 Georgetown University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-6S2.3.3 DaimlerChrysler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-6S2.3.4 MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-6S2.3.5 Neoplan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-6S2.3.6 General Motors and Toyota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-7S2.3.7 Delphi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-7S2.3.8 ThunderPower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-7

S2.4 Overview of fuel cell technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-7S2.5 Hydrogen production and infrastructure for transportation . . . . . . . . . . .S2-9

S2.5.0 Generating hydrogen by electrolysis and stationary reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-10

S3. Government impact: a closer look at the regulations S3.0 The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-1

S3.0.1 EPA and National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) . . .S3-1S3.0.2 Possible “loophole” in 2005–2006 model year standards . . . .S3-2S3.0.3 EPA/ DOJ consent decree pushes 2004 deadline to

October 2002 for some manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-3S3.0.4 EPA Urban Bus Retrofit/Rebuild Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-4S3.0.5 EPA voluntary retrofit/rebuild program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-4S3.0.6 EPA standards for off-road (nonroad) heavy-duty

diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-5S3.0.7 EPA voluntary designation program for off-road engines . . . . .S3-6

S3.1 The California Air Resources Board (CARB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-6S3.1.0 CARB emissions standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-6S3.1.1 CARB diesel fuel standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-7S3.1.2 CARB urban and public transit bus emissions standards . . . .S3-7S3.1.3 CARB heavy-duty vehicle inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-8

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S3.1.4 CARB off-road (nonroad) engine standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-8S3.1.5 CARB Diesel Risk Reduction Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-9

S3.2 Southern California Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) . . . .S3-10S3.2.0 Rule 1192: Transit buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-10S3.2.1 Rule 1196: Fleets of 15+ heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-10S3.2.2 Rule 1193: Public and private refuse collection fleets . . . . . .S3-11S3.2.3 Rule 1186.1: Public and private street sweepers . . . . . . . . . .S3-11

A. AppendixA.0 Review of heavy-duty vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1

A.0.0 Heavy-duty vehicle types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1Heavy-duty truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1Transit bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1Off-road vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-1

A.0.1 Manufacturers of new Class 6–8 trucks sold in the U.S. market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .A-2

B1. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1


Figures and Tables

Figure 3-1 Growth in truck transport parallels economic growth . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-2

Table 3-1 EPA Emissions standards for highway heavy-duty vehicles and engines in g/bhp-hr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-4

Table 3-2 Comparing standard diesel to alternative engines and drivetrains: advantages, challenges, net results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-6

Table 3-3 EPA 2004 Model Year dollar cost estimates for emissions control technologies for medium heavy-duty and heavy heavy-duty (Class 6–8) diesel vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-8

Figure 3-1 Schematic of the Westport Innovations HPDI system . . . . . . . . . . . .3-11

Table 3-4 Comparing diesel fuel to alternative fuels: advantages and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-16

Table 4-1 Some organizations have linked diesel exhaust to cancer . . . . . . . . .4-4

Table S1-1 Components of hybrid electric drive systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-2

Table S1-2 Types and subcategories of hybrid electric drivetrains . . . . . . . . . . .S1-3

Figure S1-1 Hybrid electric drivetrain configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-4

Table S1-3 Projected fuel economy gain for Class 6-7 truck per driving cycle,derived from modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S1-4

Figure S1-2 Army FMTV hybrid truck with drivetrain by BAE Systems . . . . . . . . .S1-7

Figure S2-1 Schematic of PEM fuel cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S2-2

Table S3-1 EPA off-road (nonroad) diesel engine standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-5

Table S3-2 Blue Sky Series Designation off-road HD diesel engines through 2004 model year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .S3-6

Table S3-3 CARB urban transit bus fleet rule emissions standards . . . . . . . . . .S3-8

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