Climate Change and Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance || Climate Change and Abiotic Stress Management in India

3

Climate Change and Abiotic Stress Management in India

R.B. Singh

Abstract

A climate-smart and sustainably productive agriculture is a must for assuredlivelihood security in an agriculturally important country like India where over 600million people are directly dependent on agriculture. Enigmatically, good proportionsof farmers are food-insecure and resource-poor, and are faced with increasing climatechange volatilities and vulnerability. Thus, agriculture is needed that sustainablyincreases production, resilience (adaptation), and removes greenhouse gases (mitiga-tion). These three goals can be achieved through the synergistic integration of water-smart, soil and nitrogen-smart, energy-smart, gene-smart, carbon-smart, weather-smart, and knowledge-smart development pathways. The climate-smart villageprogramme should be judiciously piloted and up-scaled. Given the persisting highincidence of food and nutritional insecurity, and the intensifying abiotic stresses,emphasis should be placed on adaptation-led mitigation. Investment in science andresearch for development and the associated human resources should be suitablyenhanced, and linked with an effective monitoring, evaluation, and impact mappingpathway. The science–policy interface must be institutionalized to ensure that therigor of science sensitizes policy makers, and guides the policy process, options,actions, and even implementation. Development of climate-smart agriculture shouldthus be mainstreamed in the national policy.

3.1

Introduction

Accelerated and sustained production of food and agriculture in an agriculturallyimportant country like India is a must for assured livelihood security. Despite theGreen Revolution ushered in the 1960s and the impressive overall economicgrowth rate achieved by India during the last decade or so, the perpetuating highincidences of poverty and food insecurity are indeed enigmatic. This unacceptablesituation can most effectively be addressed essentially through a vibrant andproductive agriculture.

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Climate Change and Plant Abiotic Stress Tolerance, First Edition. Edited by Narendra Tuteja and Sarvajeet S. Gill.� 2014 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2014 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

While the demand for (quality) food is high and increasing, the naturalresource base of agricultural production, encompassing land, water, andbiodiversity, is shrinking and degrading fast. Moreover, competition for theresources is intensifying. The problem is further exacerbated by global climatechange and extreme weather fluctuations. Global warming due to risingconcentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) causing higher temperature,disturbed rainfall pattern resulting in abiotic stresses such as frequent droughtsand floods, and sea level rise are already adversely impacting agriculturalproductivity and stability. In the long run, water availability will decline anduncertainty of availability will increase considerably, putting 30% of global cropproduction at risk by 2025 (World Economic Forum, 2011).The above climate change volatilities have greatly enhanced vulnerability,

especially of food-insecure people and resource-poor farmers, and are growingthreats to agriculture. Low-income rural populations that rely on traditionalagricultural systems or on marginal lands are particularly vulnerable. It is projectedthat nearly 2 billion people in developing countries will be affected adversely due toclimate change in the future.Indian agriculture is highly diverse with almost all major globally recognized

agro-climatic and agro-ecological systems represented in the country. The soil,hydrological, and agro-biodiversity regimes are likewise highly diverse and variable.Despite a substantial growth in the irrigated area, about 65% of the agriculture israinfed and highly vulnerable to the increasing climate change uncertainties andabiotic stresses. The frequency of occurrence of drought, over the years, hasincreased in the semi-arid tropic (SAT) region (Table 3.1).During the Green Revolution period, overlapping with the White, Yellow, and

Blue Revolutions, the overall yield and productivity of most crops and othercommodities doubled and tripled. Yet, the average yields are low and there are wideyield gaps. This is often attributed to the low efficiency of inputs, and is aggravateddue to climate change volatilities and intensifying abiotic stresses.In India, agriculture accounts for about 17% of the GHG emissions against 22%

by the industry sector and 58% by the energy sector. In the agriculture sector, thecontribution of livestock is 63%, rice 21%, agricultural soils 14%, residue burning2%, and manure management 1%. Obviously, major mitigation strategies wouldencompass livestock feeding and enteric fermentation management, especiallydevelopment of probiotics and feed supplements, improved methods of rice

Table 3.1 Frequency of droughts in 20-year periods (droughts are computed based on long-term

averages) in four SAT districts, India.

Period Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra

Anantapur Mahabubnagar Akola Solapur

1971---1990 9 5 6 71991---2009 8 7 9 11

Source: ICRISAT [1].

58 3 Climate Change and Abiotic Stress Management in India

cultivation to reduce methane (CH4) emissions, efficient use of inputs and cropmanagement, conservation of land, water, biodiversity, and other natural resources,conservation of energy and development and production of renewable energysources, development and wide adoption of conservation agriculture and carbon(C) sequestration practices, and formulation and implementation of science-informed policies coupled with suitable incentives for effectively adoptingadaptation and mitigation measures.This chapter briefly describes: (i) the impact of climate change and the associated

major abiotic stresses (extreme temperature, flood, drought, and salinity) on foodand agriculture, (ii) the available and needed technologies and managementstrategies, and (iii) the policy and institutional supports required for developingclimate-smart agriculture (CSA).

3.2

Impact of Climate Change and Associated Abiotic Stresses on Agriculture

3.2.1

Trend of Change and Impact on Agricultural Production

The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(2007) indicated the global and regional impacts of projected climate change onagriculture, water resources, natural ecosystems, and food security (Table 3.2).India, which after a couple of decades is expected to become the most populouscountry in the world, is predicted to be one of the more vulnerable countries toclimate change, particularly in view of its huge population being dependent onagriculture, and the continuing high incidence of poverty and food insecurity. This

Table 3.2 Principal conclusions of the IPCCFourth Assessment Report [3].

Climate change impact and direction of trend Probability of trenda)

Recent decades Future

Warmer and fewer cold days and nights overmost land areas

Very likely Virtually certain

Warmer and more frequent hot days andnights over most land areas

Very likely Virtually certain

Frequency of warm spell/heat waves increasesover most land areas

Likely Very likely

Frequency of heavy precipitation events increasesover most land areas

Likely Very likely

Areas affected by drought increases in many regions Likely LikelyIntense tropical cyclone activity increases insome regions

Likely Likely

a) Probability classes: likely, >66% probability of occurrence; very likely, >90% probability ofoccurrence; virtually certain, >99% probability of occurrence.

3.2 Impact of Climate Change and Associated Abiotic Stresses on Agriculture 59

setting will put excessive pressure on the dwindling natural resources and themediocre coping mechanisms.The overall impact of climate change is of course negative, but under certain

conditions it can also be beneficial. Global climatic changes can affect agriculturethrough their direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock, and pests. Anincrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) has a positive effect on crops with theC3 photosynthetic pathway and thus promotes their growth, and productivity. Anincrease in temperature, depending upon the current ambient temperature, canreduce crop duration, increase crop respiration rates, alter photosynthate partition-ing to economic products, affect the survival and distribution of pest populations,thus developing new equilibrium between crops and pests, hasten nutrientmineralization in soils, decrease fertilizer-use efficiencies, and increase evapotran-spiration.Indirectly, there may be considerable effects on land use due to snow melt,

availability of irrigation water, frequency and intensity of inter- and intra-seasonaldroughts and floods, soil organic matter transformations, soil erosion, changes inpest profiles, decline in arable areas due to submergence of coastal lands, andavailability of energy.Freshwater availability in South Asia is likely to decrease. Even the most

optimistic studies indicate that South Asian agriculture will be particularly hard hitby climate risks (Figure 3.1). During the last 130 years, the region has faced morethan 26 droughts. Nearly 70% of the land is drought-prone, 12% flood-prone, and8% cyclone-prone. While frost is common in northern regions, heat is a frequentepisode in many places.Seven out of nine food crops could deteriorate in yield with just 1–2 �C of

warming by 2030. Overall crop yields are expected to decrease up to 30% in theregion by the twenty-first century. The most dramatic negative impacts are expectedin the arid zones and flood-affected areas, where agriculture is already at the edge

Figure 3.1 South Asia faces increasing challenges due to climatic risks. Source: Erickson et al. [4].


of climate tolerance limits. Crop models indicate that average yields in 2050 maydecline by about 50% for wheat, 17% for rice, and about 6% for maize from their2000 levels. The Indo-Gangetic plain, which produces one-fifth of the world’swheat, is likely to be especially adversely impacted. This alone could threaten thefood security of 200 million people. Globally, over 1.4 billion will be affected by theincreasing frequency of drought and decreasing precipitation.Significant negative impacts have been projected with medium-term (2010–2039)

climate change (e.g., yield reduction by 4.5–9%, depending on the magnitude anddistribution of warming). The SAT districts will suffer the most. As depicted inFigure 3.2, in four SAT districts in India productivity losses will increase from 5%to 18% from 2030 to 2080 if no effective mitigation measures are undertaken.The main driving force for climate change is the increasing anthropogenic

emission of GHGs and their accumulation in the troposphere. The decreasingnumber of cold days and increasing number of hot days resulting in temperatureincreases is already globally discernible. The warming trend in India over the past100 years has indicated an increase of 0.60 �C. Also discernible is increased waterstress and reduction in the number of rainy days. The projected impacts of thesechanges are likely to further aggravate yield fluctuations of many crops.The yield of major cereal crops is likely to be reduced due to a decrease in grain-

filling duration, increased respiration, increased crop water demand, and/orreduction in rainfall/irrigation supplies. An increase in extreme weather eventssuch as floods, droughts, cyclones, and heat waves will also adversely affectagricultural biodiversity. Cold waves and frost events could decrease in the futuredue to global warming, and this would lead to a decreased probability of yield lossassociated with frost damage in northern India in crops such as mustard andvegetables, and even wheat. In addition to yield, produce quality would also beaffected.Ding et al. [5] studied drought patterns and farmers’ coping strategies in poverty-

afflicted rural China, and found that although drought can occur at different

Figure 3.2 Predicted productivity loss for major crops in Indian SAT. Source: ICRISAT [2].

3.2 Impact of Climate Change and Associated Abiotic Stresses on Agriculture 61

seasons, rice farmers suffer heavy losses by drought occurring during July andSeptember, depressing rice production by about 9–64%. The production losses ofwheat, cotton, maize, and beans could also be substantial. The stress causedseasonal reduction in food consumption, which often dropped below therecommended level of calorie intake, particularly by the poor. Percentage loss invalues for all crops at household level was 33%.Livestock will also be adversely impacted by climate change. Increased water

scarcity will suppress feed and fodder production and nutrition of livestock.Increased temperature would increase lignification of plant tissues, reducingdigestibility. The heat stress in dairy animals will adversely affect their reproductiveperformance. Global warming would increase the water, shelter, and energyrequirements of livestock for meeting the projected milk demand. Moreover, therewill be major impacts on vector-borne diseases through expansion of vectorpopulations into cooler areas. Changes in rainfall patterns may also influenceexpansion of vectors during wetter years, leading to large outbreaks of diseases.With regard to fisheries, increasing sea and river water temperature is likely to

affect fish breeding, migration, and harvests. The increased temperature andtropical cyclonic activity would affect the capture, production, and marketing costsof marine fish. The higher sea surface temperature will increase coral bleaching.Since agriculture makes up roughly 15% of India’s GDP, a 4.5–9.0% negative

impact on production implies the cost of climate change to be roughly at 1.5% ofGDP per year. Despite a fall in the share of AgGDP, from about 55% in 1950–1951to about 15% now, the role of agriculture remains crucial in terms of nutritionaland employment security. Enhancing agricultural productivity, therefore, is criticalfor ensuring household-level food and nutritional security, and for the alleviation ofextreme poverty. In the absence of mitigation and adaptation strategies, theconsequences of long-term climate change could be even more severe on thelivelihood security of the poor. Moreover, while men and women both will beadversely impacted by the climate change, women are projected to suffer more.With the increasing feminization of agriculture, this differential impact should beaddressed judiciously.

3.2.2

Impact on Water and Soil

3.2.2.1 Water

Demand for irrigation is bound to increase with increased temperatures and higheramounts of evapotranspiration. This may also result in lowering of the ground-water table in some places, especially where electric power is made almost free.Regarding overall water availability, the melting of the glaciers in the Himalayaswill increase water availability in the Ganges, Bhramaputra, and their tributaries inthe short run, but in the long run the availability of water will decreaseconsiderably. A significant increase in runoff is projected in the wet season that,however, may not be very beneficial unless storage infrastructure could be vastly


expanded. This extra water in the wet season may increase the frequency andduration of floods.The water balance in different parts of India will be disturbed and the quality of

ground water along the coastal track will be further affected due to intrusion of seawaters, exacerbating the salinity and water-quality issues. Irrigation demand foragriculture in arid and semi-arid regions is likely to increase by 10% in order tooffset the impact of temperature increases.

3.2.2.2 Soil

Organic matt er content, which is already q u ite low in Indian s oils, particu larlyin t he n orth, w ould be come still low er. Q uality of soil organic matter may alsobe affect ed. The residues of crops under el evated CO2 conce nt ra tion will ha v e ahigher C : N ratio, a nd th is may r educe their rate of decomposition a nd nutrientsu pply. Incre ase of soil temperature w ill increase nitrogen (N) mine ralization,bu t i ts availability may d ecrease due to increase d gase ous losses t hrou ghprocesses s uch a s vo l atilization a nd denitrifi cation. In physical terms, ex tre mechanges in rainfall volume and frequency, wind velocity, and soil erosion willbecome more severe.

3.3

CSA: Technologies and Strategies

The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO; http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1881e/i1881e00.pdf ) de fined “climate-smart agriculture ” (CSA) as “Agricul-ture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes [GHGs] (mitigation) while enhancing the achievement of national foodsecurity and development goals.” This can be achieved through the congruence ofwater-smart, energy-smart, C-smart, N-smart, weather-smart, and knowledge-smartmoves and programmes.

3.3.1

Sustainable Productivity Enhancement

A three-pronged approach is called for bridging yield gaps (Figure 3.3): (i) by savingand consolidating the productivity gains already achieved, (ii) by extending thegains to areas that are yet to benefit from technological transformations and wheresignificant yield gaps exist, and (iii) by achieving newer and higher productivitylevels – piercing the yield ceilings through mustering modern technologies andresource management practices.The approach must be to create rich and dynamic knowledge domains to

rationalize input use and enhance input-use efficiency, thus cutting down on theexcessive use of water, fertilizers, and other agrochemicals. In other words, producemore from less. This is very much in line with the FAO’s call “Save and Grow” andone can often substitute knowledge for purchased inputs. In this context, changing

3.3 CSA: Technologies and Strategies 63

http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1881e/i1881e00.pdf

http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1881e/i1881e00.pdf

land-use practices such as the location of crop and livestock production, croprotation, especially inclusion of legumes in the rotation, sequence and duration,rotating or shifting production between crops and livestock, and altering theintensity of fertilizer, water, and pesticide application can help increase yield, and atthe same time reduce risks from climate change in farm production.Serious attempts towards water conservation and harvesting and improvement of

irrigation accessibility and water-use efficiency, coupled with fertilizer and overallinput-use efficiency will be essential for agricultural production management.Farmers have to be trained and motivated to adopt on-farm water conservationtechniques, micro-irrigation systems for better water-use efficiency, selection ofappropriate crops, and so on. Principles of increasing water infiltration withimprovement of soil aggregation, decreasing runoff with use of contours, ridges,and vegetative hedges, and reducing soil evaporation with the use of crop residuemulch could be employed for better soil/water management.

3.3.2

Adaptation

Being weather-dependent, agriculture is directly affected by climate change, henceadaptation to climate change is crucial for food and agriculture security – fromdeveloping and adopting cultivars tolerant to flood, drought, heat, and salinitystresses to modifying crop management practices, improving water management,adopting new farm techniques such as resource-conserving technologies, cropdiversification, and effective weather forecasts coupled with crop insurance compriseadaptation strategies. Germplasm with greater oxidative stress tolerance may beexploited for designing varieties resistant/tolerant to several abiotic stresses.

Figure 3.3 Untapped potential of currently available agricultural technologies. Source: Aggarwal

et al. [6].


3.3.2.1 Rice---Wheat System

Triggered by the semi-dwarf, input-responsive, and photo-insensitive high-yieldvarieties of rice and wheat, the Green Revolution created a new rice–wheatintensification process. However, due to poor adoption of recommended practices,coupled with inappropriate policies, the process adversely affected land, soil, andwater resources, and aggravated the abiotic stresses. In India, the rice–wheatsystem occupies about 10 Mha of the most productive land in the Indo-GangeticPlains. Enhanced productivity and sustained agro-ecological security of this systemmust be one of the highest priorities of the government. This is particularlyimportant as climate change is already having a visible adverse impact in thisregion, posing a serious threat to sustainability and productivity.The vast Indo-Gangetic Plain can be divided into four agro-ecological regions: the

Western or Trans-Gangetic, Higher Gangetic, Middle-Gangetic, and Lower-Gangetic Plains. The minimum temperature and rainfall have been increasingfrom the Western to the Lower Plains. The predominant vulnerability andcorresponding adaptation strategies can be summarized as in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Vulnerability of the rice---wheat system due to climate change and potential adaptation

strategies in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.

Vulnerability mechanism Adaptation strategies

High temperature-induced sterility in rice Heat-tolerant rice cultivar

Rise in temperature, especially duringgrain filling

Adjusting sowing date, heat-tolerant cultivar,better weather forecast

Declining soil organic matter Residue management

Rising salinity and alkalinity Salt-tolerant cultivars

Increased pest and diseases Improved pest management and pest-resistantvarieties

Late sowing of wheat No-till wheat

Shortage of irrigation water Water-saving technologies (laser land leveling,direct-seeded rice, no-till rice and wheat)

Frequent drought in some areas Water-saving technologies (laser land leveling,direct-seeded rice, no-till rice and wheat)

Frequent flood in subregions 3 and 4 Water-saving technologies (laser land leveling,direct-seeded rice, no-till rice and wheat)

Rain and storm during maturity of rice andwheat (especially in subregion 4)

Adjusting planting date, better weather forecast,crop insurance

Water logging and excess soil moisture inwheat

Crop diversification, no-till wheat

Widespread frequent flood in some areas Better weather forecast, crop insurance, flood-resistant cultivar

3.3 CSA: Technologies and Strategies 65

3.3.2.2 Stress-Tolerant Varieties

Plant adaptation to stress involves key changes in the “central dogma,” the “-omic”architecture, and adaptive changes in genes, proteins, and metabolites afterindividual and multiple environmental stresses. A basic understanding of thephysiological and molecular bases of stress management will help adopt effectivecrop stress protection strategies and develop more robust varieties for high-riskenvironments. Advances in reverse genetics, genomics–phenomics relationships,and bioinformatics would enable the systems biology/systems level modeling anddevelopment of computational models. Such an approach could be exploited tostrengthen plant fitness to changing climates and varying stresses.Breeding crop varieties tolerant to various abiotic stresses and combining

desirable yield and other agronomic characters is the most effective way to developa climate-resilient agricultural system. A good number of quantitative trait loci forabiotic stress tolerance have been identified in several crops. For instance, Sub1, anexceptionally strong quantitative trait locus, conferring submergence tolerance indiverse genetic backgrounds of rice under different environments, is widelyutilized in flood-prone rice-growing areas (Figure 3.4). A marker-assisted back-crossing approach was developed at the International Rice Research Institute(IRRI) and in several national programmes, including in India, to introgress Sub1in mega varieties that are already popular with famers and consumers, such asSwarna, TDK1, and Samba Mahsuri in India.Swarna-Sub1 has already been released for commercial production, and is

significantly contributing to enhanced and sustained production under floodedconditions with 2–4 weeks of submergence, out-yielding the original intolerantSwarna by about 30–35%. A recent study in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha

Figure 3.4 New Sub1 lines after 17 days submergence in the field at IRRI.


provinces showed that Swarna-Sub1 has a yield advantage of 0.7 (23%) and1.5 ton ha�1 (95%) over Swarna when length of submergence was 1–7 and 8–14days, respectively (Figure 3.5). Despite most families in the surveyed area in Odishabeing affected, only 9% had adopted Swarna-Sub1, where as in Eastern UttarPradesh the adoption rate was 35% [7]. Thus, the adoption rate of Swarna-Sub1 inboth the provinces and other such areas should be promoted to save the hugelosses suffered recurrently in the flood-prone areas. The National Food SecurityMission included Swarna-Sub1 in its eastern India programs in 2010. About 38 000tons of seed were distributed, reaching an estimated 1.3 million farmers in 2012alone.Other submergence-tolerance genes distinct from Sub1 have also been identified

and their use will help in diversifying the genetic base and tolerance to varyingsubmergence conditions. Moreover, genes conferring drought as well as salinitytolerance have been pyramided with the submergence tolerance genes, renderingSwarna tolerant to multiple stresses (IRRI-STRASA project).

3.4

National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture

The National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project of India,encompassing (i) strategic research to address long-term climate change, (ii)demonstration of innovative and risk management technology in different parts ofthe country, (iii) funding competitive research, and (iv) capacity building ofdifferent stakeholders for greater awareness and community action, is anexemplary step. This initiative covers diverse sectors of agriculture from agronomyto livestock involving different departments and stakeholders. The action researchin implemented in a structured way starting from identification of vulnerable

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No submergence 1 to 7 days 8 to 14 days 15 days and longer

Yiel

d (to

ns/h

a)

Swarna Swarna Sub1

Figure 3.5 Yields of Swarna and Swarna-Sub1 under submergence in eastern India. Source:

Yamano et al. [2].

3.4 National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture 67

districts, involving the Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Agriculture Knowledge Centers)choosing representative village clusters for intervention in a participatory mode(community approach) and monitoring of the efficacy of the interventions. Some ofthe interventions implemented are: direct-seeded rice, staggered communitynurseries, community seed banks, weather literacy, residue incorporation, andcustom hiring for farm implements, among others. Additional proven interven-tions, such as alternate wetting and drying in rice cultivation (only where assuredirrigation available), use of biofertilizers, use of leaf color charts, deep placementand coating of urea, and so on, could also be scaled-up.While aggregate macro-level data and trends are helpful in formulating broad

policy frameworks and options, micro-level vulnerability mapping is a must forinitiating effective actions at the ground level and for assigning priorities forinvestment and action. The NICRA has undertaken this task and has alreadymapped the 100 most-vulnerable districts. The mapping must penetrate lowerlevels (i.e., subdistrict, block, and village) in order to target the most vulnerable andneedy.The following four technology assessment modules have been designed and are

being linked in the priority 100 spots (Figure 3.6) to assess their efficacy [8]:

Figure 3.6 One hundred districts selected for technology assessment. Source: Venkateswarlu [8].


� Module I: Natural Resources. Interventions related to soil health, in situ moist-ure conservation, water harvesting and recycling for supplemental irrigation,improved drainage in flood-prone areas, conservation tillage where appropriate,artificial ground water recharge, and water-saving irrigation methods.

� Module II: Crop Production. Drought/temperature-tolerant varieties, advance-ment of planting dates of rabi crops in areas with terminal heat stress, water-saving paddy cultivation methods (“System of Rice Intensification”, aerobic,direct seeding), frost management in horticulture through fumigation, com-munity nurseries for delayed monsoon, custom hiring centers for timelyplanting, and location-specific intercropping systems.

� Module III: Livestock and Fisheries. Use of community lands for fodder produc-tion during drought/floods, improved fodder/feed storage methods, preventivevaccination, improved shelters for reducing heat stress in livestock, manage-ment of fish ponds/tanks during water scarcity and excess water, and so on.

� Module IV: Institutional Interventions. Institutional interventions either bystrengthening the existing ones or initiating new ones relating to seedbanks, fodder banks, commodity groups, custom hiring centers, collectivemarketing groups, and introduction of weather index-based insurance andclimate literacy through a village weather station.

Built-in flexibility in the design and implementation of the modules providesfor dynamic adjustments to address issues as they appear. Another importantfeature of this programme is that it comprehensively documents the percep-tions of local farmers, indigenous coping mechanisms, and the associatedknowledge in all the 100 districts towards attaining a sustainable climateresilient agriculture.Venkateswarlu [8] suggested that the NICRA’s partnership with the Research

Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) could bestrengthened in the areas of: training on downscaling climate scenarios andclimate analogs; applying decision support systems for defining R&D priorities,capacity building, and data sharing; evolving protocols and toolkits for CSVs; andconducting case studies on mainstreaming climate-resilient agricultural activitiesin regional development plans.

3.4.1

Mitigation

Climate change mitigation options fall into two broad categories: (i) increasingremoval of GHGs primarily through C sequestration and (ii) reducing emissions,which in the case of crops effectively means reducing N2O emission by improvingefficiency of N use, and in the case of rice paddies and ruminants it relates basicallyto reducing CH4 emissions.Among crops, rice cultivation is the main source of GHG emissions, especially

CH4¼ 21 CO2eq and N2O¼ 298 CO2eq. As depicted in Figure 3.7, CH4 is thepredominant emission, under alternate wetting and drying water management,


ranging from about 2.8 to 4.5 t CO2eq ha�1, whereas under continuous flooding,

only methane is emitted, averaging about 14.2 t CO2eq ha�1. Only under alternate

wetting and drying, N2O is emitted, ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 t CO2eq. ha�1. The

studies from the IRRI on GHG emissions on flooded rice (Ladha, 2013) haverevealed that:

� Watermanagement ismost crucial for CH4 andN2Oemissions especially in paddyrice.

� N fertilizer has no effect on CH4 and N2O in rice–rice under continuous flooding.� CH4 is only emitted under continuous flooding.� CH4 emissions decreased and N2O increased with alternate wetting and drying ormarginal flooding.

� N fertilizer rates affect N2O emissions under marginal flooding.

Based on the above findings, for mitigating CH4 emission from rice cultivation,the following strategies could be adopted: (i) altering water management,particularly promoting mid-season aeration by short-term drainage and intermit-tent drying; (ii) improving organic matter management by promoting aerobicdegradation through composting or incorporating it into soil during off-seasondrained periods; (iii) using rice cultivars with few unproductive tillers, high root

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Urea 2-h after irrig . + flooding for 7 days

Continuously flooded

Figure 3.7 GlobalWarming Potential of CH4 andN2Ounder alternate wetting and drying. Source:

Ladha [9].


oxidative activity, and high harvest index; and (iv) applying fermented manure likebiogas slurry in place of unfermented farmyard manure.As mentioned earlier, livestock are the main emitters of CH4. CH4 emission

from ruminants can be reduced by altering the feed composition to reduce thepercentage that is converted into CH4 without compromising the milk and meatyield. Under the project on Reducing Emissions from Livestock Research Program,manipulations of both genetic potential and feed are being pursued. Threebiological control methods are being examined for their ability to reduce CH4

production from livestock.With regard to N2O, the most efficient management practice to reduce emissions

is site-specific nutrient management. The emissions could also be reduced bynitrification inhibitors such as nitraphyrin and dicyandiamide. There are someplant-derived organics such as neem oil, neem cake, and karanja seed extract thatcan also act as nitrification inhibitors.Likewise, mitigation of CO2 emissions from agriculture can be achieved by:

(i) increasing C sequestration in soil through manipulation of soil moistureand temperature; (ii) setting aside surplus agriculture land and restoration ofsoil C on degraded land; and (iii) adopting soil management practices such asreduced tillage coupled with mulching, manuring, residue incorporation,improving soil biodiversity, and micro aggregation, which can enhance Csequestration in soil.Conservation agriculture is being increasingly promoted in the context of

sustainable agriculture and CSA, including as a mitigation measure. It comprisesthree basic components: (i) reduced tillage, (ii) retention of crop residues on thesoil surface, and (iii) crop diversification (rotation, intercropping, relay cropping,etc.). Notwithstanding the role of conservation agriculture in water and energysaving, and in improving soil conservation and soil organic C, soil C sequestrationhas probably been “oversold” as a climate change mitigation measure. As recentlyreviewed by Clare Stirling of the International Maize and Wheat ImprovementCenter (CIMMYT) at the South Asian CCAFS meeting, March 2013, a Brazilianstudy on the impact of reduced tillage on soil C content revealed that while 26 yearsof continuous no-till increased soil C in the upper layers, it decreased soil C in thelower layers. Under conventional tillage, the C content was fairly even. Stirlingunderscored that the serious impacts of trace gases (N2O) have been overlooked.She asserted that overemphasis has been placed on modest C gains in arable soils,which has diverted attention from larger climatic change issues, such as soilorganic C loss from high-C soils (forests, grasslands, peats), and inefficient N useand N2O emission. The message she gave was that for climate change mitigation incrops – think N. Mitigation measures should follow best management practicesand aim to optimize fertilizer N-use efficiency.In India, good opportunities exist for scaling-up and scaling-out several of the

above options. The country already has extensive research information to reducefield-level emissions in rice cultivation, and is supporting complementarypolicy options and actions for promoting new forms of fertilizers (neem-coatedurea, customized fertilizers, etc.), alternative systems of rice intensification, and


direct-seeded rice. Further, vast degraded lands (120Mha) exist in the country,which can be brought under tree cover to promote C sequestration. Upcomingmajor schemes on the promotion of renewable energy and energy-efficientequipment in agriculture and irrigation, and support for conservation agriculturesystems in irrigated regions are encouraging moves. R&D outputs like probioticsand feed supplements to reduce emission in intensive dairy systems deservedue support.The GHG mitigation potential of the most-promising technologies and their

constraints are summarized in Table 3.4. Some technologies, such as intermittentdrying and site-specific N management, can be easily adopted by the farmerswithout extra investment, whereas other technologies need economic incentivesand policy support.

3.5

Policy and Institutions

3.5.1

Mainstreaming CSA in National Policy

Socioeconomic divides and inequalities, worsening under changing climate andintensifying abiotic stresses, are the main hurdles in reducing hunger and povertyin developing countries. Location-specific and community-based activities to

Table 3.4 Potential and constraints of GHG mitigation options.

Option Mitigation

potential (%)

Constraints

CH4 from rice fieldsIntermittentdrying

25---30 Assured irrigation

Direct-seededrice

30---40 Machine, herbicide

System of riceintensification

20---25 Labor, assured irrigation

CH4 from ruminantsBalancedfeeding

5---10 Small holding, awareness

Feed additives 5---10 Cost, biosafety, incentives to use probiotics and feedsupplements

Nitrous oxide from soilsSite-specific Nmanagement

15---20 Awareness, fertilizer policy, lack ofavailability

Nitrificationinhibitor

10---40 Cost, appropriate equipment, training, and absence ofincentives for deep placement of N fertilizers

Source: Pathak et al. [10].


develop CSA thus deserve greater attention. Science must continuously enrichdevelopment by providing rigorous scientific evidence that will sensitize policymakers and help institutionalize the science–policy interface at national, regional,and global levels. National capacities for multidisciplinary and participatoryresearch, knowledge generation, building databases, science-informed policyformulation, strategic planning, and program implementation will need to bestrengthened. The scientific approach should help guide the national system inmaking more informed investment decisions for adaptation/mitigation.Efficacies of different policies related to climate-resilient agriculture and

effectiveness of their implementation should be critically assessed. Policies such asthose on agriculture, disaster management, food security, water, land, and so on,should be synergistically converged at different levels, particularly at the grassroots,such as at the level of the CSVs. Institutional adjustments and inter-ministerialconvergence are needed to ensure judicious implementation. Development of CSAshould be mainstreamed in the national policy with suitable investment andfinancing provisions.The Government of India has taken several initiatives to meet the challenges. It

launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008 and the NationalMission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) in 2010. The thrust areas of NMSAinclude: Dryland Agriculture, Access to Information, Biotechnology, and RiskManagement. Some of the National Missions are directly impacting the CSAmovement. For instance, the National Mission on Micro Irrigation impactsadaptation and mitigation as well as sustainable intensification, and promoteslinkages among concerned CSA interventions.Community-based actions, including land allocation and reallocation within the

village, managing local water bodies to better cope with drought, and providingweather forecasts and other related information to cope with adverse events, suchas drought, prove extremely helpful in coping with the adverse effects. For instance,Chinese rice farmers cope with drought by adopting: (i) spatial diversification (thevillage committee distributes land to farm households in such a way that eachhousehold has a land portfolio consisting of different qualities of land, which helpsto reduce the production risk through diversification of land type), (ii) incomediversification (39% of income is from farm cultivation, of which half is from rice,15% from animal husbandry, and 46% from a range of non-farm activities), (iii)cultivation flexibilities (farmers cope with drought by postponing rice transplantingtiming and adjust planting of other crops), and (iv) adjustment in agricultural inputby reducing chemical use [5].The Crisis Management Plan of the Government of India (2012) reported that

annually 50 million people are exposed to chronic drought. Sixteen percent ofIndia’s land area is drought prone and 68% of the land area sown is exposed todrought. The Southwest monsoons account for 86% of rainfall occurring in 100–120 days. Thirty three percent of land receives less than 750mm of rainfall and isclassified as chronically drought prone. Rainfall is erratic in 4 out of 10 years. Percapita water availability is rapidly declining due to population and urban growth,industrialization, cropping intensity, and depleted groundwater. Unfavorable

3.5 Policy and Institutions 73

rainfall patterns and frequency of occurrence of extreme events such as drought andtemperature events are becoming highly discernible over the years. It is estimatedthat 5700 km2 of the coastal area in India will be lost due to a 1-m sea level rise,displacing 7.1 million people and resulting in significant economic losses.Thus, India, on several counts, such as high population (both human and bovine)

intensity, agro-ecological diversity and vastness, concentration of small andresource-poor farmers, poverty and hunger, and high climate change risk andvulnerability, must pay priority attention to the development of climate-resilientagriculture. To meet the challenges, the Government of India has taken severalsteps. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (2008) focuses on agriculture(NMSA) and water (National Water Mission) development along with six othermissions. Development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurancemechanisms and agricultural practices, and ensuring a 20% improvement in water-use efficiency in farming are highlighted.

3.5.2

CSV

CSA must be rooted in CSVs. The smartness must be realized at the ground andgrass root level by developing CSVs through invoking effective partnerships ofvillage committees and other stakeholders to assure convergence of innovativeagricultural risk and resource management strategies and services. The SouthAsian Programme of CCAFS has taken a lead in establishing CSVs in India [6]. Themain components of such a CSA system at the village/farm level are:

� Weather-smart: seasonal weather forecast, information and communication tech-nology-based agro-advisories, index-based insurance, climate analogs.

� Water-smart: aquifer recharge, rainwater harvesting, community management ofwater, laser-leveling, on-farm water management.

� C-smart: agroforestry, conservation tillage, land use systems, livestockmanagement.

� N-smart: site-specific nutrient management, precision fertilizers, catch cropping/legumes.

� Energy-smart: biofuels, fuel-efficient engines, residue management, minimumtillage.

� Knowledge-smart: farmer–farmer learning, farmer networks on adaptation tech-nologies, seed and fodder banks, market info, off-farm risk management, kitchengarden.

3.5.3

Agricultural Insurance and Risk Management

Although India is the fourth largest country in terms of insuring agriculture in theworld and index-based insurance is being adopted in many parts of the country, the


efficacy of the system is yet to be proven. The main challenges faced are (i) smalland scattered farm holdings, and (ii) remoteness of the farms and paucity of farm-level data. To meet these challenges, institutional support and infrastructuredevelopment is required. Several developed countries provide huge support tofarmers either through subsidies and/or directly meeting a portion of the costs ofinsurance. India should also provide such support by strengthening the regulatoryframework for the insurance schemes, developing reliable and comprehensive dataand information systems, building capacity and climate literacy programs,developing viable and cost-effective insurance products, and subsidizing theinsurance and risk financing programmes. The National Commission on Farmers(2006) had recommended that a National Agricultural Risk Fund should beestablished to meet not only the emergency needs, but also to institutionalize therisk management process.

3.5.4

Information and Communication Technology for Climate Change Management

Information and communication technology-based agro-advisories have beenpromoted by the private sector in India. IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Limited (IKSL) isone such initiative reaching millions of farmers. The service has two majorcomponents: a push component through which agro-advisories are is dissemi-nated to the farming communities (both in voice and text through mobilephones) and a pull component through which farmers are provided advisorieson their real-time problems in farming. Farmers could ask questions using ahelpline and get instant advisories/suggestions on farming operations. In thisway, two-way communication is possible between the experts and farmers. Inorder to enhance sustainability of the services and to bring more benefits to thecommunity, community groups need to be further mobilized and strengthened.The voice messages delivered through mobile phones are 1min each, coveringdiverse areas of farming systems (crop management, animal husbandry,horticulture, plant protection, weather information, market information, humanhealth and hygiene, etc.), which are contextualized in the local language. Othersuch initiatives, such as Digital Green, deserve public sector support for contentdevelopment, training at the grass roots level, and augmenting the feedbackmechanisms and the knowledge pool.

3.6

Partnership

The CCAFS programme of the CGIAR (Consultative Group on InternationalAgricultural Research), in South Asia, headquartered in New Delhi, has recentlybeen institutionalizing the Impact Pathway approach in the national and regionalprogrammes as depicted in Figure 3.8.

3.6 Partnership 75

This approach allows establishment of explicit pathways to outcomes and impact,and a sense of shared purpose among implementers. The approach helps toidentify and consolidate synergies among programmes, and to better understandthe needs of end-users and next-users. This impact pathway approach is likely toprovide a vision of the following questions:

� What was the situation like before the programme started? What were the unmetneeds and requirements of next-users and end-users?

� What are the next-users now doing differently?� How are programme outputs disseminating (scaling out)?� What political support is nurturing this spread (scaling up)?� What are the end-users doing differently?� What are the benefits they are enjoying as a result of the programme?� Are some end-users groups benefiting more or less than others?

India and CCAFS in partnership can derive significant mutual benefits. Forinstance, there are the areas in which CCAFS has been working in some parts ofIndia and there is good scope to out-scale and up-scale the CCAFS CSV initiative inseveral parts of the country through the NICRA programme. Likewise, CCAFS hasbeen implementing index-based insurance in Vaishali district, Bihar of India andthere is ample scope for collaboration in this sector with AIC. CCAFS has beenpartnering with IKSL in providing agro-advisories in CSVs in Bihar and IKSL willfurther expand areas for this work. On request, the IKSL will assist in pilotingsimilar activity in other countries in South Asia.Despite adaptation being so very important for developing climate-resilient

agriculture and food security, only mitigation issues had predominated in the UNFramework Convention on Climate Change. However, after the COP13 ClimateChange Conference in Bali, adaptation is also being considered forcefully. With theincreasing emphasis on food security, developing countries have succeeded at globalfora and negotiations in putting adaptation firmly at the table. Adaptation needs

Project Planning

Impact

Ex-post Impact Outputs

Research activities

Milestonesmonitoring

Outcomes

Outcome monitoring

Foresight +

Ex-ante Impact

Strategic Planning +

Priority Setting

Figure 3.8 CCAFS Impact Pathway approach in the national and regional programmes.


should be carefully assessed. At the same time, mitigation potentials should also beassessed with f ood security and rural p over ty in sight. Also, the global commitmentto mandatory mitigation f rom 2 020 should be kept in mind. I n my view, adaptationand m itigat ion are two mutually reinforcing pillars of climate-resilient agricu lt ure.Most devel op in g c ou nt ries a re of t en co nf ron ted wit h th e pro b lems o f lo w-y i el d, l ow -income, and unstable production. Under these settings, scien ce an d innovationssho u ld f oc us on a dap t a tion st rategies t o enhance productivit y, resource-use efficiencyand income g rowth, and adaptation-led mitigation. India ’s agriculture, agro-ecologically diverse as it is, should be assessed f or it s C, C H4, and N footpr intsacross agro-ecologies and differentiated adaptation/mitigation p lans should beprepared. I n p articular, dynamic relations of rice ecologies and livestock far ming incontext o f G HG emissions should be analyzed.

References

1 Worl d Eco nomi c Forum (2 011) Realizing aNew Vision for Agr icult ure: A R oadmap forSta ke h ol de rs , World E con omic Forum, Dav os .

2 ICRISAT (2012) Vulnerability to ClimateChange: Adaptation Strategies & Layers ofResilience. Policy Brief No. 17. ClimateChange Realities and Policy Coherence in SATIndia, International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics,Patancheru.

3 IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: SynthesisReport: An Assessment of theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,IPCC, Geneva.

4 Eri cks en , P. , Tho r nton , P ., N ote nbae rt , A .,Cr amer, L., Jon es , P. , a n d He rre r o, M. ( 20 11)Ma ppi ng hots pot s o f cl i ma te chan ge andfood insecurity in the glob al tropics. CCAFSReport no . 5, . CGIAR R e se a rch Program onclimate chang e, ag riculture and foo d security(C C AFS ). Co pe nhag en , D en mark .

5 Ding, S., Pande, S., Bhandari, H. and Chen,C. (2004) Rice drought and farmers’ copingstrategies in southern China, paperpresented at the international workshop ofEconomic Cost of Drought and Farmers’Coping Mechanisms.: A Cross-countryComparative Analysis held on December 7-8,2004 at International Rice ResearchInstitute (IRRI), Los Banos, The Philippines.

6 Aggarwal, P.K., Joshi, P., Campbell,Bruce, Vermeulen, S., and Kristjanson, P.

(2011) Adapting South Asian Agricultureto Climate Change and DecliningResources, CGIAR Research Program onClimate Change, Agriculture and FoodSecur ity (CCAFS); htt p://bl og s.ubc. c a/foodsecurity pol icyinas ia/fi les/2012/0 2/Presentati on_Aggarwa l.pdf.

7 Yamano, T., Malabayabas, M., and Gumma,M.K. (2013) Adoption, Yield, and Ex AnteImpact Analysis of Swarna-Sub1 in EasternIndia. STRASA Economic Briefs 2,International Rice Research Institute,Los Ba~nos.

8 Venkateswarlu, B. (2013) NICRA andlinkages opportunities with CCAFS,paper presented at the Workshop onImpact Pathways for Climate Change,Agriculture and Food Security in SouthAsia, Dhaka.

9 Ladha, J.K. (2013) Mitigation opportunitiesin rice cultivation including N management -CCAFS Activities, paper presented at theworkshop on Impact Pathways for ClimateChange, Agriculture and Food Security inSouth Asia, Dhaka.

10 Pathak, H., Bhatia, A., Jain, N., andAggarwal, P.K. (2010) Greenhouse gasemission and mitigation in Indianagriculture – a review, in ING Bulletins onRegional Assessment of Reactive Nitrogen,Bulletin 19 (ed. B. Singh), SCON-ING,New Delhi, pp. 1–34.

References 77

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