Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches ... · Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches and Some Best Practices in Turkey Burhan Davarcioglu 1, Y

DOI: 10.23883/IJRTER.2017.3277.6EJDQ 73

Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches and

Some Best Practices in Turkey

Burhan Davarcioglu1, Y. Ersin Koc

2

1Department of Physics, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey

2Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey

Abstract—Lately, new concepts emerged in manufacturing business including cleaner production,

environmentally friendly technologies, and industrial ecology and thus essentiality of more efficient

use of available potentials became imperious both for environmental quality and sustainability of

production. Manufacturing sector causes majority of the global emissions. It is imperative to take

precautions against elements and factors that will have direct adverse effect on production and

competitiveness due to the imposed adaptation to the climate change. It appears that the use of

environmentally friendly technologies which is considered to be the most vital method in

management of effects resulted by the climate change could deliver substantial advantage for the

corporation. National and international regulations on climate change initiated immense revolution

process in industry. Climate change could well be the most severe challenge facing our planet during

the 21st century. It is also a truly cross cutting issue connected to many sectors. Tackling the climate

challenge therefore requires bridging gaps between scientific disciplines and between science and

policy. Practice of cleaner production includes a wide range of opportunities from zero-cost simpler

and better operations to high-cost and laborious equipment changes. The core objectives are to assist

the industrial sectors of developing countries to produce in a sustainable manner, thus improving

their competitive position. Cleaner production is thereby an approach that reduces environmental

pollution with positive financial benefits for the enterprise. The purpose of this study is to identify

some best practices potential of cleaner production and climate change in Turkey. The potential for

establishment of cleaner production and climate change in Turkey shall be assessed, and some

proposals for more sustainable cities shall be developed.

Keywords—cleaner production, climate change, industrial, best practices, sustainable

I. INTRODUCTION

Industrialization has an important role within the attempts for development. Against the fact

that it is indispensable, industrialization causes significant environmental problems. This progress,

which is in disfavor of the natural areas and resources, can not be controlled with the existing

industrial and environmental policies, and thus new approaches are needed. In the industrialized

world, the importance of conservation of natural resources have been understood together with the

increasing environmental problems and sustainability concept has been introduced by international

organizations. Suggested as a solution to the conflict between urbanization and natural systems,

sustainable development is defined by the United Nations (UN) as meeting the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [1, 2].

Industry has an indispensable place in the development objectives of developing countries as

much as it has for developed countries. However, it is common knowledge that development of the

industry brings along a lot of negativities in terms of environment. Natural sources are consumed in

the production process and energy sources based on fossil fuels which have polluting effects are used

for the production to a great extent. Wastes are generated in various stages of production process;

during the distribution of the products and presentation of the products to the consumers. Those

products which get old and useless after their useful life are generally left to the nature. The

introduction of industrial ecology approaches that are developed to fulfill this requirement, planning

International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering & Research (IJRTER)

Volume 03, Issue 06; June - 2017 [ISSN: 2455-1457]

@IJRTER-2017, All Rights Reserved 74

industrial areas by using life cycle approach has become a current practice. Within this context, eco-

industrial parks provide an opportunity to achieve a sustainable industry with their structure

compatible with natural systems, providing water and energy cycle, using renewable construction

materials, and including facilities that integrate the industry [2, 3].

There is a wide range of global threats that certainly require humanity’s urgent attention.

These global risks include for example; water, food and energy security, population growth,

infectious diseases, and international security. However, climate change is often regarded as one of

the most profound global problems. This is mainly due to the sheer scale of climate change impacts

both in terms of its global and temporal spread and of the variety of sectors affected by it that sets it

apart from other planetary challenges. Adaptation to the inevitable impacts and mitigation to reduce

their magnitude are both necessary. The international climate effort has focused predominantly on

mitigation. The next stage of the international effort must deal squarely with adaptation coping with

those impacts that cannot be avoided [4]. In order to establish the necessary strategies and enhance

institutional capacity for Turkey to combat and manage the effects of climate change, the UN Joint

Programme titled “Enhancing the Capacity of Turkey to Adapt to Climate Change” was carried out

between 2008 and 2011. The Joint Programme aimed at integrating the climate change adaptation

into national, regional and local policies within the framework of future development targets of

Turkey in terms of sustainability [5, 6].

Turkey, being conscious of the fact that climate change is a multidimensional and complex

challenge which poses serious environmental and socio-economic consequences and threatens

national securities and its range of potential impacts represents one of humanity’s most important

threats facing future generations, recognizes the importance of international cooperation to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions leading to climate change, and to combat climate change. Against this

background, Turkey has developed the “National Climate Change Strategy” in order to contribute to

global efforts to reduce the impacts of climate change, taking into account its own special

circumstances and capacity. The strategy includes a set of objectives to be implemented in the short-

term (within one year), the mid-term (under taken or completed within 1 to 3 years), and long-term

(under taken over a 10 year period). The strategy will guide the actions to tackle climate change

during the period 2010-2020 and will be updated as necessary, in light of emerging national or

international developments [7]. With this strategy, Turkey sets a goal of contributing to the global

efforts against climate change within its own capabilities and in line with the basic principle of the

UN “common but differentiated responsibilities” and presents its national mitigation, adaptation,

technology, finance and capacity building policies.

The recent research and growth of knowledge about sustainable development have increased

interest in sustainable development terminology, which has gained prominence over the past decade.

It embraces terms such as cleaner production, pollution prevention, pollution control, and

minimization of resource usage, eco-design and others. These terms are in common use in scientific

papers, monographs, textbooks, annual reports of companies, governmental policy usage, and the

media. Application of terms depends on their designation and recognition, rather than on domain

concept. Yet, some of the terms are specific, permitting differentiation from the others. Also,

differences amongst term usages, based upon geographical area, exist that often lead to imprecise

definitions of the terms and their usage [1]. The availability of various information sources increases

the spread of sustainability terms and their definitions, as employed by different authors and

organizations. As a consequence, numerous new terms are emerging, or the existing ones are being

extended in the sustainability field, but not enough critical attention has been given to the definitions

and their semantic meanings.

Turkey’s population growth rate, which was 1.24 percent in 2007, is quite the Organisation

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) average population growth rate which is 0.68

percent. Turkey is one of the four countries with the highest population growth rates. Turkey ranks

81st in the Human Development Index among 180 countries according to 2007 data. Turkey has the

lowest values in per capita greenhouse gas emission, per capita primary energy consumption and




historical responsibility among all OECD countries and the countries included in to the UN

Framework Convention on Climate Change. Based on 2007 data, while Turkey’s greenhouse gas

emissions per capita was 5.3 tons of CO2 equivalent, the average value of the 27 member states of

the European Union was 10.2 tons of CO2 equivalent and the average value of OECD countries was

15 tons of CO2 equivalent [8, 9]. While Turkey’s total greenhouse gas emission in 1990 was 170

million tons of CO2 equivalent, it increased to 372 million tons of CO2 in 2007. As for the

greenhouse gas sinks, although 44 million tons of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emission was

absorbed by the sinks in 1990; this value was approximately 77 million tons of CO2 equivalent in

2007 [10]. According to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), Turkey is located in the Mediterranean Basin that is especially vulnerable to the

adverse impacts of climate change [8].

Industrial production without adequate regard for environmental impacts has led to an

increase in water and air pollution, soil degradation, and large-scale global impacts such as acid rain,

global warming and ozone depletion. To create more sustainable means of production, there must be

a shift in attitudes towards proactive waste management practices moving away from control towards

prevention. A preventive approach must be applied in all industrial sectors. Used in complement with

other elements of sound environmental management, cleaner production is a practical method for

protecting human and environmental health and supporting the goal of sustainability [11, 12].

Moreover industries that invest in water saving and waste minimisation techniques could put

themselves in a better marketing position as people are becoming more concerned with the rational

use of natural resources and environmental degradation. Consumption of natural resources including

raw materials, water, energy, and commodities is fast increasing due to mining, industrial and

agricultural activities. Consequently; solid, liquid and gas wastes generated by these activities have

adverse effect on the environment.

While it is ultimately governments’ responsibility to meet the needs of poor and vulnerable

populations, the private sector has much to contribute to the development and implementation of

effective solutions, including sector specific expertise, new technology, significant levels of

financing, the need to be efficient and make cost effective choices, and an entrepreneurial

perspective. These case studies show how this potential can be harnessed to help address adaptation

challenges and promote the public good: Overall, business engagement in adaptation is still at an

early stage, particularly relative to mitigation; when it comes to climate change, the idea that

community risks are business risks is salient and persuasive; companies are experiencing a diverse

range of benefits from engaging in actions that increase climate resilience; companies point to a wide

range of success factors in designing and implementing climate change adaptation measures; climate

change adaptation and resilience building challenges present new opportunities for partnerships and

engagement with stakeholders [13].

There is tremendous scope for building climate resilient companies while building climate

resilient communities. Companies that rigorously assess climate change risks and opportunities and

implement creative solutions for long-term resilience will create business value while making

important contributions to sustainable development and equitable green growth. A concentration on

good housekeeping measures in particular has proven to be commercially non-viable, meeting only

partially the needs of enterprises and generating impacts with limited dissemination potential. The

more successful centers are business oriented ones working best as independent entities directed by

national and international stakeholders. Even with concerted efforts to curb global greenhouse gas

emissions to slow the rate of climate change, it is still necessary to prepare for and respond to the

adverse impacts that climate change will have on societies and economies across the globe [14].

While some uncertainty exists about the exact nature, timing, location, and magnitude of these

impacts, empirical scientific evidence clearly indicates the increasing likelihood and severity of

climate related threats, including: water shortages and droughts; flooding; extreme, unpredictable

weather patterns and events; declining agricultural yields; spread of disease and decline in human

health; and loss of biodiversity.




Adaptation measures are needed to reduce vulnerability and increase human and

environmental resilience against the impact of current and future climate change. Governments in

both developed and developing countries have initiated comprehensive strategies to ensure that

citizens have the capacity to cope with changing climatic conditions at a meaningful (i.e., local)

level. Climate change adaptation requires enhanced disaster risk reduction and preparedness, and

new weather risk transfer solutions. New agricultural practices, such as drought and saline tolerant

crop varieties, need to be widely accessible and utilized; water and energy must be managed more

efficiently; health systems must be fortified to respond to emerging threats, and new medicines are

needed; biodiversity and ecosystem services must be preserved; and the livelihoods of poor people

strengthened [15].

The core objectives are to assist the industrial sectors of developing countries to produce in a

sustainable manner, thus improving their competitive position. Cleaner production is thereby an

approach that reduces environmental pollution with positive financial benefits for the enterprise.

Adapting to the impacts of climate change in order to minimize its human and environmental toll is a

significant challenge for all sectors. While some sectors are particularly at risk, all businesses face

the possibility of property damage, business interruption, and changes or delays in services provided

by public and private electricity and water utilities, and transport infrastructure. A more strategic and

long-term approach for managing climate change risks will be necessary for all sectors including

manufacturing industry. There are many adaptation options available to reduce the vulnerability of

sectors. Cleaner production which is based on the concept of creating more goods and services while

using fewer resources and creating less waste and pollution is one of these options that

manufacturing industry can apply for adaptation purposes.

In contrast to the industrial revolution the next world order, individual happiness and the

importance given to the individual, the importance given to production and capital have taken

precedence. Individual in life can the most important driving force of change as a result of “human

values to the fore”. However, individuals showed “emotion” is a result of changes in individual life.

Individual identities function in proportion to the changes, the changes in individual life can also

remarkably quick and intense [16]. Businesses have become increasingly aware of the critical role

they play in enabling effective, timely, and appropriate adaptation. They recognize the risks that

climate change poses, not only for their operations, but also to their suppliers, employees, customers,

and people living in the areas in which they operate. Businesses have also begun to recognize

opportunities to expand operations and increase their market share through developing climate

resilient products and services to help people, other businesses, and governments adapt [4, 8, 14].

Business contributions to climate change adaptation play a very important role in supporting

sustainable development and efforts to build the green economy, while also promoting a company’s

viability, profitability, and competitive edge.

Some international market leading businesses have started to analyze climate change risks

and opportunities, and important efforts are already underway to implement adaptation measures in

many of the world’s emerging economies and developing countries, which represent valuable

markets for new business opportunities. Business led adaptation interventions are particularly

important in developing countries, where poor communities have significant exposure to climate

change impacts [1, 14]. In addition, in sustainable development, various terms are used to describe

different strategies, actions, effects, phenomena, etc. Movement from usage of inappropriate terms

and unambiguous definitions can help us to make more rapid progress in sustainable development

science and engineering. The case studies examine companies’ motivations for action, and describe

where and how they are applying their technical expertise and capacity to innovate to address climate

change challenges, while at the same time improving their bottom line and maintaining their social

license to operate. While it may not yet be possible to identify the full suite of best practices in

private sector adaptation to climate change, the emerging approaches presented here show promise

based on results achieved to date [17-19]. They are examples of actions that will need to be expanded

and scaled-up for companies to reach their full potential as providers of effective climate change




solutions. Many of these approaces have potential for replication in other country and sector contexts

to promote adaptation and resilience.

Cleaner production in industrial processes seeks to deal with the operations of an industrial

process in many levels at once. It is an integrated approach requiring cooperation from all and

commitment from the top tier of management to implement and sustain policies that aim to ensure

that production is carried out in a manner that is both cost-effective and environmentally sound.

Unlike end-of-pipe treatment systems, cleaner production in most industrial processes can be applied

to different stages of the process, and a project implemented by stages according to a company’s

needs and possibilities [20, 21]. Strategic climate integration refers to the organizational capability to

address and incorporate climate change into the continuous, long-term innovation process.

Continuous innovation can be defined as the ‘‘changing experiential base of organizational activities,

routines, and goals (targeting the long-term optimization of) technologies, processes, specifications,

inputs, and products’’.

The process of absorbing climate knowledge can be considered an essential condition for any

organizational adaptation to climate change related disruptions in the natural environment. In

situations in which the anomaly and significance of disruptions in the natural environment increase,

organizations need to internalize information about the dynamics, intensity, sources, consequences,

and future developments of these disruptions. This information internalization process is essential in

order to be able to prepare for adapting to climate related disruptions [22, 23]. As global warming

was acknowledged as a business issue rather recently, firms do not yet possess much knowledge of

how steady changes of mean temperatures and increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather

events will affect their business. Similar to any critical knowledge, the process of climate knowledge

absorption is based on two knowledge sources, external and internal [24]. Based on these sources,

the climate knowledge absorption capability can be ascribed to two components: knowledge creation

and utilization [25].

This paper contributes to the literature on organizations and the natural environment. In this

study, comprehensive lists of opportunities for cleaner production assessment in a sector and national

market are prepared and a cleaner production assessment is done for some best practices by using

developed methodology and check lists. Selected opportunities are evaluated considering its

environmental benefits and economic feasibility.

II. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE

The point of origin of industrial ecology is imitation of material cycles in ecology in

industrial areas. This approach resolves the conflict between industry and ecology, in a sense,

considering the industry a subcomponent of the ecologic system [3]. Industrial ecology concept

suggests a societal system where the responsibility of maintaining the continuity of production

together with conservation of the environment is undertaken by a wide basis including

manufacturers, public administrations, civil society organizations, researchers, and consumers. In

this system that is regarded as industrial ecosystem, energy, raw material usage and wastes are

optimized and hence industrial ecosystem becomes analogous to the biological ecosystem. In the

industrial ecology approach, it is asserted that in order for the industrialized world to maintain its life

standard and the developing countries to reach the same level of developed countries, consumers and

manufacturers should change their practices in a way that they resemble industrial ecosystem as

much as possible [15].

Natural systems have evolved in a few million years from open systems towards closed

systems which constitute a dynamic balance between organisms, plants, and various biological,

chemical and physical productions in nature . Term degradation could be understood as a biological,

chemical or physical process, which results in the loss of productive potential. From the biological

point of view, degradation can lead to the elimination and extinction of living organisms. It can also

refer to biological degradation of plant and animal residues, thereby making their elemental

components available for future generations of plants and animals [1, 12]. Like ecosystems, cities are




also systems with material and energy inputs. In order to establish technologies and management

systems that will allow integration with natural systems, cities should be considered as a whole;

energy and raw materials should be analyzed; conservation of energy should be assured; wastes

should be recycled and used as raw material, and hence productivity in resource usage should be

provided [26].

Material flow defined in industrial ecology is a three stage process determined by raw

material producers, manufacturers, and consumers. Extracted raw materials go through several

operations to get prepared for production, later it is processed in the production stage, and then

delivered to the user. In order to control raw material flow, wastes and error points should be

determined at each stage and the materials should be brought back into the production process. A

material cycle can be obtained by offering old and used products to the market for other purposes,

decomposing the materials and reusing, and finally recycling them as raw materials [27].

Renewable resources are available in a continually renewing manner, supplying materials and

energy in more or less continuous ways. In other words, renewable resources do not rely on fossil

fuels of which there are finite stocks. The fact that natural resources will not last forever is leading to

widespread concerns about energy, raw materials and water supply. Therefore, a resource

minimization principle has been developed. The definition of the term has not been proposed, yet.

Therefore, the term encompasses not only raw materials, water, and energy, but also applies to

natural resources such as forestry, watersheds, other habitats, hunting, fishing, etc. All these

resources and processes which enable ecosystems to survive and are essential for helping societies to

make progress toward sustainability must be addressed. Thus, resources can be conserved, their

availability improved and maintained. Reduction in the usage of materials and energy can result in

dramatic cost savings [21, 27].

Industrial relations determined by the industrial ecology approach necessitate an industrial

symbiosis among the firms. Ecosystem principles of the industrial ecology complement the

relationships of this symbiosis. Recovery which is denoted by using renewable sources and material

cycles, is the first of the four ecosystem principles of the industrial ecology. The second principle,

which is diversity, means the diversity of cooperation when it is considered in terms of industrial

environment policies and management. The presence of diversity makes it possible to build systems

that involve actors using waste materials and energy in cooperation with each other. These actors are

not only large industrial enterprises but also public institutions, municipalities, waste management

companies, and consumers. The third principle which is locality requires the use of renewable

sources available in the local area and hence taking local constraints into consideration in regional

developments. The fourth principle is gradual change. It means developing by considering transfer

capacities of natural systems so that the ecosystem is able to survive [28].

Application of this approach on urban scale is related to the planning of industrial areas to a

large extent. Especially, the connections determined by the goods and services flows between the

firms define the usage of the place as well. Not only industry, but also other urban activities

complementing the industry are considered within the scope of eco-industrial parks. Preparation of

startup projects that will lead the design thought, conducting feasibility studies involving

environment, architecture, and engineering, acquiring the land, development of residences, and

finding a financial source to cover construction costs and operating costs of the project are required

in each eco-industrial park project.

We have seen that climate change is complex and variable both in space and time. The likely

impacts on human communities and ecosystems will also be complex. There is also much variability

in important factors relevant to climate change such as sensitivity (i.e. the degree to which a system

is affected either adversely or beneficially), adaptive capacity (i.e. the ability of a system to adjust)

and vulnerability (i.e. the degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with adverse

effects). Different ecosystems, for instance, will respond very differently to changes in temperature,

precipitation or other climate variables. For humans, it is the least developed countries that in general




are most vulnerable; they are likely to experience more of the damaging climate extremes and also

have less capacity to adapt [29].

The greenhouse effect arises because of the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

that absorb solar radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface and, therefore, act as a blanket over the

surface (Figure 1). It is known as the greenhouse effect because the glass in a greenhouse possesses

similar properties to the greenhouse gases in that it absorbs infrared radiation while being transparent

to radiation in the visible part of the spectrum. If the amounts of greenhouse gases increase due to

human activities, the basic radiation balance is altered. Schematic diagram of an ideal smart window

reflecting infrared radiations in warm days (left) and allowing it to enter in cold days (right), while

remaining transparent in visible region in both climate conditions are illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. A greenhouse has a similar effect to the atmosphere on the incoming solar radiation

Climate change is arguably the most severe challenge facing our planet during the 21st

century. Human interference with the climate system (mainly through the emission of greenhouse

gases and changes in land use) has increased the global and annual mean air temperature at the

Earth’s surface by roughly 0.8 °C since the 19th century. This trend of increasing temperatures will

continue into the future: by 2100, the globe could warm by another 4 °C or so if emissions are not

decisively reduced within the next decades [8]. There is broad agreement that a warming of this

magnitude would have profound impacts both on the environment and on human societies, and that

climate change mitigation via a transformation to decarbonized economies and societies has to be

achieved to prevent the worst of these impacts [9, 10].

A greenhouse is a structure where protected farming is carried out and it is partly separated

from its surroundings. The roof’s transparency is a link between the internal microclimate and

outdoor atmospheric conditions. The air exchange between the inside and outside establishes the

microclimate and atmospheric conditions. A microclimate is the local modification of the general

climate that is imposed by the special configuration of a small area. It is influenced by topography,

the ground surface and plant cover and man made forms such as greenhouse, houses and wind breaks

[27]. The basic goal of farmers that use greenhouse is to strive to provide environmental conditions

which allow photosynthesis and respiration to occur so that plants grow, and that the quality is good

and are marketable.

Air exchange rate is one of the most important parameters of ventilation systems in a

greenhouse. The ventilation systems serves the purpose of optimum control of greenhouse climatic

conditions for plant growth through supply of sufficient and uniform air exchange rate, between the

inside and the outside of greenhouse environments. A better air exchange rate helps reduce the

greenhouse air temperature and improves the evapo-transpiration processes for crops. Ventilation

and leakage rates are influenced by environmental factors such as wind speed, wind direction,

temperature difference between inside and outside and ventilator aperture [30]. The thermal

environment of the greenhouse arises from the complicated mass and heat exchanges between the

various components of the greenhouse and the fluctuating weather conditions which present a

dynamically changing greenhouse microclimate [31]. The conditions which define the microclimate




of the greenhouse are the inflows and outflows and production of energy and mass as result of

interactions between the external and internal of the greenhouse. The radiation balance of Earth and

atmosphere is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the components of the radiation that on average

enter or leave the Earth’s atmosphere and make up its radiation budget. The incoming solar radiation

must, on average, be balanced by thermal radiation leaving the atmosphere or the surface. Incident at

the top of the atmosphere on a surface of one square metre directly facing the sun is about 1370 W.

The average over the whole Earth’s surface is one quarter of this or 342 Wm-2

. About 30% of the

incoming solar radiation on average is reflected or scattered back to space from the Earth’s surface,

from clouds, small particles (known as aerosols) or by Rayleigh scattering from molecules.

Figure 2. The radiation balance of Earth and atmosphere

Observations of the climate system are based on direct measurements and remote sensing

from satellites and other platforms. Global scale observations from the instrumental era began in the

mid 19th century for temperature and other variables, with more comprehensive and diverse sets of

observations available for the period 1950 onwards. Paleoclimate reconstructions extend some

records back hundreds to millions of years. Together, they provide a comprehensive view of the

variability and long-term changes in the atmosphere, the ocean, the cryosphere, and the land surface.

Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounting for more

than 90% of the energy accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence). It is virtually certain

that the upper ocean (0-700 m) warmed from 1971 to 2010, and it likely warmed between the 1870s

and 1971. Proxy and instrumental sea-level data indicate a transition in the late 19th to the early 20th

century from relatively low mean rates of rise over the previous two millennia to higher rates of rise

(high confidence). It is likely that the rate of global mean sea-level rise has continued to increase

since the early 20th century.

Principles are fundamental concepts that serve as a basis for actions, and as an essential

framework for the establishment of a more complex system. Semantically, principles are narrow and

refer only to one activity or method. They provide guidance for further work and, therefore, occupy

the lowest position in the hierarchy [16]. We have positioned the principles within environmental

and ecological, economic, and societal dimensions. Environmental principles denominate those

terms that describe environmental performance, in order to minimize the use of hazardous or toxic

substances, resources and energy. These terms are: renewable resources, resource minimization,

source reduction (dematerialization), recycling, reuse, repair, regeneration, remanufacturing,

recovery, remanufacturing, purification, end-of-pipe, degradation, and are arranged from preventive

to control principles [1].




Climate change emerges as a multifaceted global problem those results in serious

environmental and socio-economic consequences. The assessment of climate change impacts,

adaptations and vulnerabilities draws on a wide range of physical, biological and social science

disciplines and consequently employs a large variety of methods and tools. It is, therefore, necessary

to integrate information and knowledge from these diverse disciplines. Terminology in the field of

sustainable development is becoming increasingly important because the number of terms continues

to increase along with the rapid increase in awareness of the importance of sustainability. Various

definitions of terms are used by different authors and organizations, for example, green chemistry,

cleaner production, pollution prevention, etc. The importance of this topic has stimulated research

into the problems of clarifying ambiguity and classifying terms used in the sustainability field.

III. DEFINITIONS OF PRINCIPLES: CLEANER PRODUCTION

Cleaner production is a preventive strategy to minimize the impact of production and

products on the environment. Cleaner production approaches includes hardware (goods, services,

equipment) and software (technical know-how, organizational and managerial skills and procedures).

Compared with standard method, cleaner production techniques and technologies use energy, raw

materials and other inputs material more efficiently; produce less waste, facilitate recycling and

reusing resources and handle residual wastes in a more acceptable manner. These also generate less

harmful pollutants. Cleaner production methods have significant financial and economic advantages

as well as environmental benefits at the local and global level [6]. The pollution prevention

philosophy of cleaner production is antithesis of end-of-pipe treatment approach, which aims at

cleaning the pollutant after it has been generated.

To sum up the reasons to invest in cleaner production [17];

� Improvements to product and processes,

� Savings on raw materials and energy, thus reducing production costs and increase in

profitability,

� Increased competitiveness through the use of new and improved technologies,

� Reduced concerns over environmental legislation,

� Reduced liability associated with the treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes thus

reduced compliance cost,

� Reduced risk to workers and to the community,

� Improved health, safety and morale of employees,

� Improved company image,

� Reduced costs of end-of-pipe solutions,

� Reduced future clean-up costs,

� Reduced future risk of environmental liability,

� Reduction of tradeoffs such as; environmental protection economic growth, occupational safety

productivity, consumer safety competition in international markets.

The idea of cleaner production is simple, the concept convincing; produce goods and services

at the same or even better quality with less resources and less pollution while improving the bottom-

line [22]. The environmental and economic aspects of the sustainability triangle go hand in hand.

Through cleaner production the trade-off between economic prosperity and environmental protection

is reduced or even eliminated. While a significant number of enterprises apply at least partially the

cleaner production concept mostly under the notion of “good housekeeping” or good maintenance

and operation practices a majority of enterprises in developing countries are not applying this

concept. Obstacles to a stronger outreach of the concept are various. The most important hurdles

encountered for a widespread application of cleaner production include [17]:

� Rules and regulations favor an end-of-pipe approach. Cleaner production alone can often not

achieve legal compliance (e.g. to attain required concentration levels of pollutants).




� The impact of cleaner production measures is often ex-ante not exactly quantifiable and

consultants in a general over estimateion of potential benefits (evidence to support this statement

is available from many cleaner production assessments with ex-ante and ex-post measurements).

� The economic attractiveness of cleaner production depends to a considerable extent on the

internalization of environmental and resource costs including full cost charges for energy, water

etc.

� Information and know-how on attractive cleaner production options are not commonly available.

In this context, for preserving the natural sources and the environmental quality as well as

protecting of environment, most countries are focusing on developing a pattern of program for

industrial waste management. To this end, the concept of clean production, which aims to increase

production efficiency, prevent pollution of air, water and soil, reduce waste at source, and reduce the

risks of human and environment, and to use the processes and products continuously and together,

has been started in production policies of facilities [32]. The case studies examine companies’

motivations for action, and describe where and how they are applying their technical expertise and

capacity to innovate to address climate change challenges, while at the same time improving their

bottom line and maintaining their social license to operate [14]. Many of these approaches have

potential for replication in other country and sector contexts to promote adaptation and resilience.

The aim of this study was to conduct a cleaner production assessment for the sector and companies

market facility to identify the opportunities of cleaner production, corresponding environmental and

economical benefits.

Remanufacturing is defined as substantial rebuilding or refurbishment of machines,

mechanical devices, or other objects to bring them to a reusable or almost new state. This prevents

many reusable objects from becoming waste. The remanufacturing process usually involves

disassembly, and frequently involves cleaning and rebuilding or replacing components.

Remanufactured objects are sometimes referred to as rebuilt objects. Purification is the removal of

unwanted mechanical particles, organic compounds and other impurities. The process of removal

could be mechanical, chemical or biological in order to improve the environment and quality of life.

End-of-pipe is defined as a practice of treating polluting substances at the end of the production

process when all products and waste products have been made and the waste products are being

released (through a pipe, smokestack or other release point).

Actually, the key difference between pollution control and cleaner production is the timing.

In principle, cleaner production targets to abate the pollution before it is created. It should be

recognized that, it does not mean that pollution control systems will never be required. Rather than

their single use, these management methods should be approached to be steps of an environmental

strategy that will provide best management with least cost. Economically, prior experiences with

cleaner production programs have proven that further environmental damage can be averted in a

cost-effective manner. Moreover, prior experiences shows that cleaner production programs have

been more successful than simple pollution control methods in providing social benefits for the

public. Because in long-term, comprehensive restoration of the natural environment increases health

and living standards, while creating a safer and more enjoyable habitat for all species [33].

All domestic resources, primarily hydro and wind, will be used at maximum levels, using

cleaner production technologies and best available techniques, in line with energy security and

climate change goals and within the framework of internal and external financing opportunities.

Replacement of resources used in industry with cleaner production resources and use of alternative

materials will be encouraged. Incentive mechanisms will be introduced to promote cleaner

production, climate friendly and innovative technologies; and effective operation of inspection and

enforcement mechanisms will be ensured. Transition to low carbon economy will be accelerated by

ensuring support for technology renewal, emission control, climate friendly technology production,

clean product design and cleaner production technologies.




IV. BEST PRACTICES IN TURKEY

Source reduction contributes to a lowering of disposal and handling costs, because it avoids

the costs of recycling, municipal composting, landfilling, and combustion. Source reduction also

conserves resources and reduces pollution, including greenhouse gases that contribute to global

warming. The recycling is defined as a resource recovery method involving the collection and

treatment of waste products for use as raw material in the manufacture of the same or a similar

product. Regeneration is an activity of material renewal to return it in its primary form for usage in

the same or a different process [34]. This activity enables an internal restoration and, therefore,

decreases the environmental impacts. Recovery is an activity applicable to materials, energy and

waste. It is a process of restoring materials found in the waste stream to a beneficial use which may

be for purposes other than the original use, e.g. resource recovery in which the organic part of the

waste is converted into some form of usable energy.

A structured approach for determining, implementing and reviewing environmental policy

through the use of a system which includes organizational structure, responsibilities, practices,

procedures, processes and resources. The concept of best available techniques is not aimed at the

prescription of any specific technique or technology, but at taking into account the technical

characteristics of the installation concerned, its geographical location and the local environmental

conditions. We develop a method to quantitatively predict the resource efficiency potentials of

sectors, regions and the whole Turkish manufacturing industry that can be achieved through efficient

and sustainable use of raw materials, energy and water inputs. In line with the method developed,

selected six sectors will be analyzed in terms of their resource efficiency potential, to separate low

and high investment costs, to identify environmental benefits of efficiency and to discriminate the

factors effecting resource efficiency. As the demonstration projects, cleaner production practices

which improves environmental and economical performance were implemented in six industrial

facilities analyzing production processes, water consumption and wastewater generation. As a result

of the practices, 784.550 m3 of water was saved annually besides 4.947.000 kWh savings achieved in

energy consumption. 978 tons/year of CO2 emmision was also avoided. Not only water and energy

but also raw materials, chemical and manpower was saved as a result of project activities which

decreased associated costs.

4.1. Food industry: The firm is operational in food industry producing marinated, smoked

and frozen seafood products. Before the cleaner production practices firm was responsible for

consuming of 75.000 m3 of groundwater annually. Anchovy processing is carried out in two steps in

the firm: First, anchovies which are stored in cold store is thawed by the help of fresh water. Second,

thawed anchovies are gutted (filleted) manually by workers using continuous supply of fresh water

serving for simultaneous cleaning of anchovies. Before applications, it was calculated that annual

groundwater consumption of the firm was 22.000 m3/year in the thawing step alone. In addition to

that firm was consuming 36.000 m3/year of water in the gutting (filleting) step. In other words, 77%

of total water consumption of the firm was recorded in the anchovy processing [5, 7, 35, 36].

4.2. Beverage industry: The firm produces beverages including fruit juice and carbonated

drinks. Before cleaner production practices 851.000 m3 of water was being consumed in fruit

processing and soft drink production processes, which are most water intensive processes in the firm.

In the fruit processing step fruits are washed, pre-processed (crushing, evaporation etc.) and

pasteurized before being sent to fruit juice production. In fruit processing step 346.000 m3/year

cooling water (once-through cooling) was being consumed before cleaner production practices. In

the fruit juice production step 173.000 m3/year cooling water was being consumed for cooling

purposes as a similar case to fruit processing step (once-through cooling). Both closed-loop water

cooling systems consisted of the following equipments with different operational parameters: cooling

tower, stainless steel water pumps, stainless steel pipes/fittings, inverter and control panel [5, 11, 33].

4.3. Metalworking industry: This project was implemented in a company producing metal

parts for automotive industry. The company uses fresh groundwater in production processes and

most water intensive process was determined as heat treatment where cooling process requires




20.200 m3/year of water. Before cleaner production applications cooling was performed by means of

continuous supply of groundwater without reuse/recycle in heat treatment process. In addition to the

heat treatment process, major cleaner production measures were taken in the surface coating process

in which 3.717 m3 of annual water consumption was recorded. Energy was also saved due to

decreased water supply rate in groundwater wells supplying water to the firm. So 31.000 kWh of

electricity was saved which corresponds to 18.3 tons of annual CO2 emission [5, 13, 29, 37].

4.4. Chemicals industry: The firm is active in the field of chemical products sector

manufacturing polyester fibers, filament and various polymers including specialty polymers and

chemicals thermoplastic polyester elastomers and dimethyl terephthalate. Total annual water

consumption of the firm is around 2.295.000 m3. Out of this amount, 835.640 m

3/year of water is

processed and softened by means of an ion exchange system before being used as permutit water in

various processes. Before cleaner production practices, 324.300 m3/year of permutit water was being

used for cooling of the heat transfer pumps in order to prevent the pumps fail as a result of excessive

heating. This implementation led to the elimination of permutit water consumption in the

corresponding production lines. In addition to the water saving of 93.000 m3/year, 121.000 kWh/year

of energy was saved [5, 6, 13].

4.5. Textile industry: The firm produces various fabrics (polyester, cotton and lycra based)

for womens’ wear with a monthly production capacity of 1.500.000 meters. The firm which has wet

processes such as dyeing and finishing had a water consumption of 300.000 m3/year before cleaner

production applications. 80-85% of total water consumption was recorded in dyeing and finishing

processes. Therefore, the focus of cleaner production applications was on dyeing and finishing

processes which were responsible for 260.000 m3/year water consumption. Applications led to 54%

of water saving which corresponds 162.000 m3/year. Results indicate that specific water

consumption of the firm was decreased from 111.8 L/kg fabric to, 50.88 L/kg fabric. Since water is

used at around 70-90 °C for dyeing and washing purposes in the firm, water saving increased energy

efficiency and 22% of energy was saved accordingly [5, 12, 38].

4.6. Metal coating and painting industry: The firm is specialized in coating and painting of

metal parts/accessories for various sectors like automotive, defense etc. Before cleaner production

practices two different methods were applied for surface finishing purposes. In the first method,

surface of the materials were cleaned with thinner prior to painting process. Approximately 7.650 kg

of thinner was used annually for surface finishing purposes, accounting for 85% of thinner

consumption in the company. In the second method, some portion of the materials outsourced for

cadmium plating in which the cadmium oxide and sodium cynanide are used as chemicals. After

cleaner production implementations, thinner and cadmium plating systems were replaced by the

oxsilan process. When used on clean metal surfaces, the silane-based oxsilan forms a thin layer (60

nm), which together with paint improves the adhesiveness and corrosion protection of the paint,

depending on the material [5, 11, 13, 29].

In Turkey, industrial areas where environmental control is the strongest are organized

industrial zones. Being an important tool for development, organized industrial zones provide

opportunities for planned development of the industry. Major problems among these are air

pollution, solid wastes, sea pollution, and pollution in water resources [39, 40]. The first principle is

“integration into natural systems”. This principle, which means reduction of costs by using local

resources and development of local potential, necessitates strong connections with local authorities

and usage of natural and economical local resources. The second principle is “energy optimization”.

Efficient use of energy is a fundamental strategy for decreasing production costs and burdens on the

environment. The third principle is “material flows and waste management”. The objective of

decreasing raw material use and benefiting from wastes provided increased efforts for using each

material released as a byproduct of production as raw material by another enterprise or recycling

these byproducts through certain processes. The fourth principle, which is “water flows”, includes

using secondary water resources such as rain etc. as much as another firm’s reusing used waters

released by organizations. Such as organization of activities to bring firms together, construction of




facilities, training centers, improving communication etc. systems, providing office areas, and

recreation. “Sustainable design and construction”, which is the fifth principle, means reduction of

impacts on the ecosystem in the preparation stage of ecological compatibility of buildings, park

system, and settlement [41].

We examine the current situation of iron-steel and yeast industries in terms of cleaner

production potential, incentive mechanisms and legal provisions for cleaner production and to

evaluate the feasibility of these methods in Turkey. Turkey is among the 10 biggest crude steel

producing countries in the world. In 2012, the iron and steel industry’s contribution to the Gross

Domestic Product of Turkey was 1.08%, which is an increase compared to 1% in 2006. The iron and

steel industry had a growth rate of more than 5% in 2012. Crude steel production is expected to grow

and reach 47 million tons in 2017. Iron ore sintering is made in three large integrated iron and steel

production plant: Erdemir, Isdemir and Kardemir (Turkey). Capacity expansion and new plant

capacity will reach more than 7 million tons between the years 2013 and 2015.

Infrastructure for the cleaner production center, determination of cleaner production

potentials and their feasibility in industry, best practice examples on sustainable development in

Turkey:

� Anadolu Efes-sustainable agriculture program (1987-2012): The company sustainable

agriculture practices aim to ensure the sustainability of high-quality raw materials for

production, has targeted to reduce its water usage per hectolitre of beer by 25% by 2015, as

compared to 2010.

� Arcelik-cactus dishwasher (2009-2012): Cactus project has major contribution to the

developmentof environmental awareness of the society. Developing the technologies to decrease

the overall water and energy consumption of all Arcelik dishwasher range for sustainability.

Arcelik is presently producing 1.8 million dishwashers annually and these technologies will be

deployed to all Arçelik product range.

� Bursa Special Provincial Administration-clean environment project with natural treatment

facilities (2004-ongoing): Through this project, Bursa provincial directorate created an

opportunity to solve the bad smell andthe environmental pollution caused by domestic

wastewater from villages sewage, there was unreliability to natural treatment system due to lack

of knowledge and awareness on the issue. But in time the results of the project has been shared

with the public and made them rely on the system. The natural treatment of the wastewater

system has zero operating costs and lower initial investment cost compared to conventional

systems, it and there is no need of the workers.

� Coca-Cola Beverage-innovation competition (2009-ongoing): Diminishing natural resources

and devastating effects of climate change pose a significant threat for our world and therefore

necessitate a sustainable business model. Employees working at this company’s plants in Turkey

participate in the innovation competition with their innovative and replicable projects that they

developed throughout the year. As a result of 398 innovation and replication projects created in

the system in 2009 and 2010, a total of 10.5 million TL, 84.000 metric tons of water (equivalent

to annual requirement of 1.000 houses), 1.632.000 kWh energy (equivalent to annual power

requirement of 590 houses) was saved.

� Environmental Protection and Packaging Waste Recovery and Recycling Foundation-

establishment of a sustainable packaging waste management system in cooperation with industry

(1991-ongoing): Approximately 2.500.000 tons of packaging waste has been collected in the

period between 2005 and 2011 as a result of the recovery system conducted with the cooperation

of municipalities and licensed firms. Within this framework over 12 million barrels of oil have

been saved. This amounts to about 5% of 236 million barrels, an amount equal to the yearly

gross oil consumption in Turkey.

� WWF-wise use of water resources and adaptation to climate change in Konya closed basin

(2008-ongoing): Konya closed basin is of outstanding importance to nature conservation in

Turkey and globally, particularly for its wetlands, the extensive areas of steppe habitat and for




rich biodiversity. The best practice targets extending the use of modern irrigation systems, while

putting forward the impacts of climate change in the basin and defining specific steps to reduce

these impacts. It is demonstrated that farmers can increase the productivity by 28% through drip

irrigation as well as reducing their costs on energy and fertilizer use. It is demonstrated that 47%

water and 58% energy were saved through pilot projects.

� Eregli Iron and Steel Company-Environmental Management System, Environmental

Performance Index and Sustainability Activities (2004-2012): Since the establishment of

Erdemir, many recycling systems and treatment plants to preserve water, air and soil quality

have been built. All environmental studies beginning with the start-up investments and

equipment to the operation in a manner of environment friendly are integrated in the process

structure. Thus, based on results of measurement and data analysis, minimize or control

environmental impacts are carried out by a proactive approach. Because of ongoing changes in

the environment and challenges to the generation, continuous improvement is an important

topic. Most importantly, the environmental performance needs to be continuously improved.

� Ford Otosan-sustainable environmentally friendly automotive production (1998-2012): Ford

Otosan adds value to Turkey with its export performance to more than 70 countries in 5

continents and became the first vehicle exporter to the motherland of automotive industry, USA.

The fundamental philosophy in the establishment of the factory was to conserve the ecosystem

and biodiversity around the factory and to practice the best production technologies that would

not harm the environment during production processes. The practice is a good indicator that

biodiversity and ecosystems can indeed be conserved even with industrial production taking

place. The project contributed to spreading environmental awareness among the public via

shareholders. Through the sharing of best practices concerning the environment, other

companies were also informed and gained the chance to implement similar projects.

� ICDAS- sustainable water management project (2007-ongoing): Main activity areas of Icdas;

iron steel production, energy generation and shipbuilding. In the facility, where freshwater is

produced from the sea, micron scale pore size of membrane filters varies according to

temperature. Thus, the efficiency of the facility reduces in winter months when sea water is

cooler. This problem is solved by diverting the relatively hotter water at the outlet of cooling

water to the desalination facility. Ending the usage of underground water, which is a limited

resource, and preventing the advancement of saltwater wedge into the mainland have been the

environmental outcomes of the project.

V. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Turkey’s national vision within the scope of climate change is to become a country fully

integrating climate change related objectives into its development policies, disseminating energy

efficiency, increasing the use of clean and renewable energy resources, actively participating in the

efforts for tackling climate change within its special circumstances and providing its citizens with a

high quality of life and welfare with low carbon intensity. The primary objective of Turkey within

the scope of global fight against climate change is to take part in the global efforts for preventing

climate change, which is a common concern of mankind, determined with common mind in

cooperation with the international parties and in the light of objective and scientific evidence; in

accordance with the sustainable development policies, and within the framework of the principle of

“shared but differentiated responsibilities” and Turkey’s special circumstances (Figure 3). The best

and the most appropriate methods for the reduction of greenhouse gases were determined for selected

seven industrial sectors of high priority with the highest emission rates in combatting climate change.




Figure 3. Cleaner production and sustainable development (EHS: Environmental Health and Safety, ICC:

Intergovernmental Climate Change, EMS: Environmental Management System)

The potential for reduction of emissions due to technological transformation was determined

and cost benefit analyses were performed whilst preparing “Turkey’s Sixth National Communication

on Climate Change”, sectoral analyses were conducted and greenhouse gas emissions until 2050 in

Turkey were projected. But climate change cannot be considered isolated from other challenges.

Indeed, climate change is a truly cross-cutting issue affecting many sectors and connected to other

global challenges. For example, climate change has the potential to impact global water supplies,

agricultural production, human health, and our energy infrastructure. In turn, the way in which we

produce our energy and food has a profound effect on the Earth’s climate system. Finally, the

impacts of policies in one of the fields on the other challenges need to be explored if truly sustainable

solutions to global problems shall be achieved [17].

In most countries, nowadays, industrial solid waste handling is a serious environmental

problem. One of the primary responsibilities of the related industries is reducing the environmental

impacts. In order to achieve sustainable production, it is necessary to consider environmental

impacts, economic standards and social impacts. Cleaner production concepts include much cheaper

and more effective applications than “end-of-pipe” treatment techniques such as environmental

damage prevention, environmental remediation or rehabilitation. In this study, the clean production

approach which brings a new perspective to production methods have been examined and the

benefits, tools, methods of clean production and methods of practices have been examined and the

examples of clean production mechanisms existing in Turkey and practice examples and policies in

Turkey have been examined.

Dynamic and intensified changes in the global ecosystem result in significant disruptions to

the natural environment. One of the most prominent examples of this is climate change and the

resulting natural disasters. As firms are embedded within the natural environment, they need to adapt

to any environmental disruptions that transpire. Climate knowledge absorption as an essential

information generating and internalizing capability, climate related operational flexibility as a short-

term adjustment capability, and strategic climate integration as a long-term, innovation-focused

capability.

Benefits to be obtained not only by firms but also by cities have made this issue an important

matter. Use of natural sources in a sustainable way, realizing more productive industrial production

by using less raw material and energy, minimization of wastes and conservation of environmental

values, translation of local potentials into production, increasing urban quality with the qualified

industrial production and residential areas are the most important benefits among others. In addition

to current recycling facilities, other recycling facilities for materials such as metal, paper, or plastic

should be established. New investments in the region should be given incentives so that they are

made in sectors which will support the industrial symbiosis.




Constitution of an environmentally and economically effective “industrial coexistence

scenario” brings a need to correctly determine the companies and the other actors in the area. A

database with active participation of all firms in the region should be constructed to reach the most

appropriate matching among the units. With the participation of universities and research institutions,

a symbiosis scenario that is going to be updated by using this database and that is open for change

and fulfilling firm requirements should be constructed [42]. Energy infrastructure and proximity of

the industry and residential areas provide a potential; however, the risk of earthquakes should also be

taken into account. Infrastructure arrangements should be done to support the cooperation which will

be established by the participation of local administrations as well. Projects for producing energy

from energy should be developed, electricity production from natural gas, use of heat (steam)

released as a result of using this energy in industrial organizations in residential areas and

agricultural enterprises should be assured.

VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to thank Professor Dr. K. Jyrki KAUPPINEN (Physics Department, Laboratory

of Optics and Spectroscopy, University of Turku, Turku-Filland) for the oppurtunity to perform this

work and his valuable comments on the manuscript, and to Professor Dr. Salah Badawi DOMA

(Physics-Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, University of Alexandria, North Sinai-Egypt)

for her useful advice and help stimulating discussions.

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Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches ... · Climate Change, Industrial Cleaner Production Approaches and Some Best Practices in Turkey Burhan Davarcioglu 1, Y