CLMS Student Handbook 2013 the Doctorate Programme v1.5.8 Enabled

7/29/2019 CLMS Student Handbook 2013 the Doctorate Programme v1.5.8 Enabled

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2011, VERSION 1.5.8, CENTRE FOR LABOUR MARKET STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER.

UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER

Centre for Labour Market Studies

Student Handbook - The Doctorate Programme

Valid from: October 2011

CONTENTS

Welcome ........................................................................................................................ 3The University of Leicester ............................................................................................................. 3The Centre for Labour Market Studies ........................................................................................... 3Contacting the Centre ................................................................................................................... 3Introduction to Distance Learning ................................................................................................. 4Teaching Staff................................................................................................................................ 5

The Doctorate Programme ............................................................................................ 6What is a Doctorate of Social Science? .......................................................................................... 6The Doctorate Programme Board .................................................................................................. 6Overall Aims .................................................................................................................................. 6Course Design and Syllabus ........................................................................................................... 6Course Structure ............................................................................................................................ 7Personal Tutors, Tutorial Support and Supervision ...................................................................... 11

Doctorate Assignment Writing Guide ......................................................................... 14Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 14Quality of Argument and Level of Analysis .................................................................................. 14Knowledge and Understanding ................................................................................................... 20Essay Construction ....................................................................................................................... 22Style and Expression .................................................................................................................... 25Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................................... 33References ................................................................................................................................... 33

Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty ......................................................................... 34Defining Plagiarism ...................................................................................................................... 34Clarifying What We Mean by Acknowledgement ....................................................................... 35Paraphrasing vs. Quotation ......................................................................................................... 35Penalties for Plagiarism ................................................................................................................ 37Plagiarism Tutorial ....................................................................................................................... 37

Getting Together Starting and Running a Self-Help Study Group .......................... 40Why a Study Group? .................................................................................................................... 40Contacting Other Students .......................................................................................................... 40Organising the First Meeting ....................................................................................................... 40

University Support for Students ................................................................................. 42Learning and Career Development ............................................................................................... 42Practical Matters .......................................................................................................................... 43Counselling, Health and Wellbeing .............................................................................................. 44Distance Learning Students with Disabilities ................................................................................ 45

Equal Opportunities ..................................................................................................................... 45


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CLMS STUDENT HANDBOOK THE DOCTORATE PROGRAMME

2 CENTRE FOR LABOUR MARKET STUDIES

Useful Resources ......................................................................................................... 46IT Services .................................................................................................................................... 46Blackboard .................................................................................................................................. 47Library ......................................................................................................................................... 47CLMS Website ............................................................................................................................. 48University Bookshop .................................................................................................................... 48

Regulations .................................................................................................................. 50

Programme and Module Specifications ....................................................................................... 50Registration ................................................................................................................................. 50Re-registration ............................................................................................................................. 50Course Fees ................................................................................................................................. 50Coursework Requirements .......................................................................................................... 51Assignment Submission .............................................................................................................. 52Assessment Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 53Grading Criteria ........................................................................................................................... 55Completing the Doctorate ........................................................................................................... 56Monitoring Your Progress ........................................................................................................... 56Notification of Results ................................................................................................................. 57Graduation .................................................................................................................................. 57Feedback ..................................................................................................................................... 57Complaints .................................................................................................................................. 57Academic Appeal ........................................................................................................................ 59Student Illness and Mitigating Circumstances ............................................................................. 60Copyright .................................................................................................................................... 60

Data Protection Statement .......................................................................................... 61Student work and compliance with the Data Protection Act ....................................................... 61

Appendices .................................................................................................................. 63Module 2 Research Context Options ........................................................................................... 63Assignment Cover Sheet .............................................................................................................. 64


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CENTRE FOR LABOUR MARKET STUDIES 3

Welcome

Welcome to the Centre for Labour Market Studies (CLMS), University of Leicester. Before you make a

start on your course materials you should read through this Student Handbook. Our objectives here are

to inform you about the course rules and regulations, and our expectations regarding coursework, aswell as answering some of the questions you may have. This handbook is intended to act as a resource

to which you return throughout your course of study.

The University of Leicester

The University of Leicester is one of the older universities in England. Founded in 1921 with nine

students, the fledgling college gained full degree-awarding powers in 1957 when it was granted its

Royal Charter. Today, the University of Leicester has four colleges (the College of Arts, Humanities and

Law; the College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology; the College of Science and

Engineering; and the College of Social Science), and over 21,000 students drawn from 150 countries.

The University is one of the UK's largest providers of distance learning education.

The University of Leicester is a leading UK university that delivers high quality research and inspirational

teaching. Leicester received the Times Higher Education award for University of the Year for 2008-9

and the award for Outstanding Student Support 2009-10. The University is ranked 12 th out of Britain's

123 universities, and Leicester features prominently amongst the world's top 200 institutions

(www2.le.ac.uk/about/facts).

Our research changes the world. According to Thomson Scientific, Leicester has the 10 th highest number

of highly cited researchers amongst the UKs universities. The discovery of DNA Genetic Fingerprinting is

our most famous research achievement, but our world-class research stretches across the Arts, science,

medicine, law, education, biological sciences and social sciences. By choosing to study at Leicester, our

students benefit from our strong track record and expertise in providing taught programmes and

research opportunities.

The Centre for Labour Market Studies

CLMS taught its first Masters course in Training in 1991 and has since developed a range of distance

learning courses: the Doctorate in Social Science; MSc courses in Human Resource Management,

Performance Management and Workplace Learning and Industrial Relations and Workplace Learning; a

BSc in Human Resource Management; a Diploma course in Human Resource Management; and

Certificate courses in Human Resource Management and Lifelong Learning and Industrial Relations. The

Centre also offers traditional PhDs.

CLMS has a long established track record in distance learning provision and was established within theFaculty of the Social Sciences in 1986 as a semi-autonomous Entrepreneurial Centre, becoming a

department in its own right in September 2000. It was initially built on the research activities of an

interdisciplinary group of academics interested in the areas of labour markets and training. In addition

to its teaching activities, the Centre continues to undertake research funded by bodies such as the UK

Economic and Social Research Council, UK Government Departments, the European Union and private

companies. One of the features of our courses is the integration of the latest research findings into the

course materials.

Contacting the Centre

Please feel free to contact us if you encounter any queries or difficulties with your studies. We are hereto advise and support you as you progress through the course, and will always do our best to assist.


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Your first point of contact should always be your course administrator. They will either be able to help

you with your query themselves or will refer you to the appropriate member of staff.

Our contact details are as follows:

Tel : +44(0)116 252 5949/50/54

Fax : +44(0)116 252 5953Email : [email protected]

Web: www.clms.le.ac.uk

Postal address:

Centre for Labour Market Studies

University of Leicester

7-9 Salisbury Road, Leicester, LE1 7QR, UK.

Should you wish to visit the Centre in person please contact CLMS prior to the visit. Maps of Leicester

are available either from CLMS or can be found at: www2.le.ac.uk/maps

Introduction to Distance Learning

Studying by distance learning is somewhat different from conventional on-campus studying which

usually involves attending regular face-to-face lectures and tutorials, sitting exams and visiting a

university library in-person to find relevant books and articles. Distance learning allows you tostudy at a

distance, and CLMS does this by providing you with printed course materials, a dedicated online

learning environment (called Blackboard) and other study support. The printed course materials provide

you with course commentaries written by academic staff at the Centre which act as lectures, guiding

you through the subject area. The materials also include literature (for example, book chapters and

journal articles) which complements the commentaries and therefore extends your learning. The

Blackboard site broadens your learning experience further, allowing you to engage with other students

through online discussion boards and providing further resources to help you with your studies. You

also have access to the Universitys online library facilities, including e-journals and e-books, which

enables you to find further literature relating to the subject areas.

Studying by distance learning is therefore flexible as it can be carried out at a time convenient to you

and at your own pace. There is, however, a need to free-up sufficient time for studying and to organise

that time effectively. Furthermore, a disciplined approach is required in order to progress through the

course materials and successfully complete and submit assessed work. Many successful students have

had a regular time of day when they study, thus giving themselves the discipline of those who attend

classes. Without this discipline, you may fall behind and risk missing deadlines or submitting work which

you feel is unsatisfactory. We therefore suggest that you plan and organise your time carefully so that

course deadlines can be met and that you are happy with the work you submit.

The vast majority of CLMS students are in demanding full-time jobs. At times, the workload at yourplace of employment may increase or you may have deadlines to meet and this may encroach on the

time you spend studying. If this is the case, please let us know at the Centre and we will do our best to

work out a suitable way forward for you. We do, however, recommend that you plan to finish written

work some days prior to the deadline you have been given. By doing this, if unforeseen circumstances

arise your ability to meet the deadlines set may not be affected.

In order to engage thoroughly with the subject matter, it is important to stop and consider the review

exercises posed in the modules and take time to write down your answers to these. Indeed, it will be

advantageous to your studies to go further than working it out in your head. Writing out your answers

will help to extend and clarify your thoughts and to highlight points of uncertainty. Furthermore, review

exercises present an opportunity to practice writing in the style expected for academic work and this will

help you develop your assignment writing skills.


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Our courses have been designed without lectures or tutorials, however from time to time you may have

questions or feel you require assistance with certain aspects of the course. This may involve help in

understanding the theories covered or advice on the best approach to learning and writing in an

academic style, and so on. In such cases do not hesitate to contact your course administrator, a member

of academic staff or CLMS Student Support Officers for advice.

We hope you enjoy the experience of distance learning and find that it is an effective way to study andgain the qualification you want.

Teaching Staff

A full list of our teaching and administration staff can be found at: www.clms.le.ac.uk


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The Doctorate Programme

What is a Doctorate of Social Science?

A Doctorate of Social Science is an equivalent qualification to a traditional PhD. This means that on

completion of the DSocSci you will be entitled to use the title of Dr before your name. It is important to

note that, as with a PhD, you will be expected to work at a high level and produce work that is of

publishable quality and that makes a contribution to academic knowledge in your chosen field.

The Doctorate Programme Board

The Doctorate Programme Board consists of senior academics within CLMS and the Doctorate

Administrator. The function of the Board is to consider all doctoral applications; assist the Programme

Leader in monitoring student progress; consider the suitability of thesis proposals; consider the

suitability of students for the conversion from the taught component to the thesis component of the

course and allocate supervisors and monitor supervision. The Programme Board will also meet to

consider any matters relating to academic dishonesty and plagiarism. The Doctorate Team, made up of

the Programme Leader and Doctorate Administrator, will undertake the day-to-day running of the

course.

Overall Aims

The overall aim of the Doctorate of Social Science programme is to produce a group of leading-edge

practitioners who have mastered the full range of theoretical and practical knowledge necessary for the

conduct of their professional activities at the highest levels:

To provide the latest and most sophisticated theoretical knowledge for practitioners To ensure that this knowledge can be used to inform practice and that practitioners can

critically engage with developments in their field

To equip members of the profession to work with the tools and techniques necessary toconduct and evaluate research pertinent to their professional interests

To enhance the growing discipline areas of work, employment, learning and human resources.By the end of the course the candidates will have demonstrated:

A thorough grasp of the theoretical foundations of the profession. This will include advancedtheory from a number of different Social Science disciplines, e.g. sociology of work and

employment; sociology of education; human resource management; human resource

development; education, training and learning.

Knowledge of the range of research techniques available for enhancing professional knowledge The ability to utilise appropriate research techniques to produce research of publishable quality.

Course Design and Syllabus

The design of our Doctorate of Social Science programme is based on the following principles:

Supporting the remote learner who is in employment Imparting a range of preparatory knowledge in work, employment, learning and human

resources for doctoral research

Imparting mastery of the necessary advanced research tools Enabling the learner to specialise in one specific area of work, employment, learning or human

resources


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Integrating the above into a coherent process of learning The taught content of the course is supported by a distance learning design with overviews of

the main intellectual issues provided by the CLMS staff together with additional reading in the

form of journal articles and key theoretical texts. The course is split into three main parts. Part

one of the course is the advanced research methods training module, containing four units. Part

two of the course is the research context and the thesis proposal. The final part of the course isthe thesis

We expect that students will gain depth of theoretical knowledge through the reading ofclassic, influential or most theoretically important articles and texts in the field. As such, we will

provide students with a module of study materials that includes extended lecture notes,

important readings and copies of the influential texts

Length of course

Total duration of the programme is 48-72 months. It may be possible, in exceptional circumstances, for

students to apply for an extension to their registration for a maximum of 6 months. Please note that if

approved, a registration extension fee applies. This fee will be equivalent to the current Home part-time

PhD fee. Requests must be made on the appropriate form and are subject to approval from theGraduate Dean.

Course Structure

The taught component of the Doctorate Programme requires students to submit eight assignments, four

for Module 1 and four for Module 2. Before you begin to write your assignments we strongly

recommend that you read carefully the regulations relating to assignment writing. Please refer to

regulations on assignment submission (page 52 and the section on plagiarism - page 34). Details of the

assignment submission dates can be found in the welcome letter. If you need any additional information

please contact the Doctorate team.

Module 1 - Advanced Research Methods Training

To complete the doctorate each student must be able to demonstrate that they have knowledge of a

range of research methodologies and the philosophy of social research. To ensure that students obtain

comprehensive training in research methods, we have used the ESRC Framework for Research Methods

Training as our guide. As such, this module will have the following learning outcomes:

Comprehension of the basic principles of research design and strategy, including anunderstanding of how to formulate researchable problems and an appreciation of alternative

approaches to research

Competency in understanding and applying a range of research methods and tools; and Capabilities for managing research (including managing data), conducting and disseminating

research in a way that is consistent with professional practice.

The overall outcome will be to demonstrate the ability to comprehend the use of appropriate research

methods. In order to achieve these outcomes the student must complete the following units:

Unit 1: Introduction to Social Research Unit 2: Philosophical and Methodological Foundations of Social Research Unit 3: Quantitative Methods and Analysis Unit 4: Qualitative Methods and Analysis

A number of books will be provided for Module 1 along with the course materials. It is important that

these books are read in conjunction with the course materials and that you use them in your writtenwork. Other supplementary readings and books recommended for the course can be purchased through


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the University of Leicester Bookshop, which offers a mail order service, or found on the internet. Further

details can be found on page Error! Bookmark not defined. of this booklet, or e-mail:

[email protected]

Module 1 will take approximately 9 months to complete and each unit will be assessed by an

assignment of 4,000 words.

Module 2 - The Research Context

In order to demonstrate knowledge of the chosen specialist areas within the field, students are required

to select four specialist options. Each option takes approximately 13 weeks to complete and will be

assessed by assignment. Module 2 has the following learning outcomes:

Ability to demonstrate a full understanding of the classic or influential theoretical approaches Ability to critique different perspectives in the literature Comprehension of the latest research in the fields of work, employment, learning and human

resources

Ability to critically evaluate research problemsThe options are based around themes designed by specialist lecturers using lecture notes, selected

readings and recommended classic or influential texts. The materials focus on the latest research

combining recent innovations with the fundamental theoretical texts to allow students to develop a full

range of critical analysis. The learning materials will also provide the background knowledge for the

refinement of the research proposal. It is envisaged that changes in the issues facing the profession may

influence future curriculum design and as such option availability may vary from time to time depending

on the availability of the teaching and research interests of members of staff. You will be advised of any

changes in advance. The module 2 options currently available are:

Workplace Learning Gender, Work and Society

Knowledge Management and the Learning

Organisation

Comparing National Education and Training

Systems

National Culture and HRD Vocational Education and Lifelong Learning

Globalisation, Work and Employment Youth Transitions and the Labour Market

Work, Employment and Learning Issues in

China and Hong Kong (SAR)

Industrial Relations

Module 2 takes approximately 1 year to complete and each of the four options chosen will be assessed

by an assignment of 5,000 words.

Choosing Options

In order to demonstrate knowledge of the chosen specialist areas within the field, Module 2 requires

students to select four specialist options from those detailed above.

It is important that you provide CLMS with sufficient notice as to the options that you wish to pursue.

As such, along with your Module 1, Unit 3 and 4 materials, you will receive a form and overviews of the

options. It is essential that you read the information carefully and return your options form as soon as

possible. The form will ask you to choose your four first choice options and an additional two reserve

options in case any of your first choice options are not available. A copy of the choosing options form

can be found as Appendix 2A on page 63.

Once we have your option list we will then advise you of your timetable of study for Module 2.


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Thesis proposal

On completion of Module 2, all students will be required to produce a revised thesis proposal of 5,000

words. Approximately three months will be allowed for the completion of the thesis proposal. Once the

proposal is submitted it will be considered by the Doctorate Board of Examiners in terms of its

suitability and academic rigour. It is important that the proposal is submitted by the date specified to

ensure that it can be assessed at the Board of Examiners. The revised thesis proposal is the basis onwhich a supervisor is allocated.

In the revised thesis proposal you should outline your research question; indicate the literature you will

use; your methodological approach and consider potential ethical implications of your research. The

thesis proposal is the foundation for your final years of study and should be taken as seriously as all

other assignments.

To help you produce a suitable proposal please take note of the following points and incorporate them

into your proposal structure:

1. Problem(s) to be Studied (1000 words approx.)

This should clearly identify your research question(s) that you want to pursue and thebackground of the problem(s), and how and why the study might contribute towards

existing knowledge on the subject(s).

2. Theoretical underpinning of the proposed study (1000 words approx.)

By this we mean that you should identify the key theoretical debates that you feel you

will be contributing to, showing why there is a need for your research in this area and

the background to the problem(s) that make it academically interesting. If possible,

highlight areas of controversy relevant to your research ideas.

3. Academic literature that your research will draw on (1000 words approx.)

The review of the literature will be an ongoing part of the development of your thesis.Here we would like you to provide an initial overview of key debates within the existing

academic literature in the research area and indicate how your research might

contribute to this body of knowledge. This should be fully referenced according to

academic conventions and a complete bibliography must be attached to this form.

4. Analytical Framework and Methodology (1000 words approx.)

Explain the (possible) analytical framework that you may adopt. What form of empirical

work may be involved? Give indications about samples/survey/ questionnaires if

appropriate. Comment on the time frame and accessibility of fieldwork, if appropriate.

5. Ethical Considerations (1000 words approx.)

A clear statement should be made about the potential ethical considerations that will

need to be addressed by your research. Ethical issues can range from how data is

acquired and stored (data protection) to more specialised issues e.g. when undertaking

research in colleges, schools or hospitals. Please note, therefore, that all research

contains issues that will require ethical scrutiny. You will be required to submit and

Ethics Approval Form with your proposal.

It is critical at this stage that the objectives of your research are made absolutely clear. That is:

You have a focused research question as opposed to a general research area. The research question has an academic basis.

The scope of the research is feasible.


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You have provided enough information about the background and context of thequestion.

There is a proposal form and a sample thesis proposal on Blackboard which should help you develop

and structure your ideas. This can be found in the Useful Documents section.

Module 3 Thesis

1. Gaining Ethical Approval for your Research

One of the first tasks you must undertake after you have been allocated to your supervisor is to

complete and submit the research ethics review (RER) form via the RER website. In accordance with

national research requirements, the University of Leicester regulations stipulate that all students

undertaking research must receive official ethical approval before conducting any research . In

order to progress with the thesis, you are required to gain ethical approval for your Doctorate research

via the RER online form. Ethical approval requires you to provide ethical justification for your research by

answering a series of questions via the online form, submitting it, and then obtaining official clearance

from academic staff at the Centre to proceed. The form is to be completed, submitted and approved

shortly after being allocated to your supervisor, before carrying out any data collection.

The RER form is to be submitted no later than 6 months after being allocated a supervisor for DSocSci

students and 1 year for full-time PhD students. In your supervisor allocation letter you will be given a

web address through which you can submit this RER form for approval. Note that you must enter your

CFS username and password to access the website. When completing the RER online form you should

draw on your discussion on ethical issues in your revised proposal, plus any discussions regarding ethics

that you have had with your supervisor. Detailed instructions of how to complete the form are hosted

on the RER website and are also provided with your supervisor allocation letter.

An academic member of Centre staff will assess the ethical issues that your research raises via this form

and will officially either approve or reject your intended research on ethical grounds. You will be

informed of the outcome of your form through the online messaging system within the RER website(note, the messaging system will send you an email informing you that a message is waiting for you

within the system). If the ethics of your research is rejected, we will provide you with guidance on how

to gain approval. You will then need to revise your online form in line with this guidance and then

resubmit it to the ethical approver. This process will continue until the form (and therefore the ethics of

your thesis research) can be approved. Note, you will not be able to progress onto the data

collection stage of the thesis until the ethics of your research are approved via the RER online

form. When your ethics have been approved, you will be emailed a letter, which states that you have

gained ethical approval. You should include the first page of this letter (but not the record of

correspondence) in your thesis as an appendix.

It is important that you complete the RER form as fully as possible and as specified by the guidance

provided. Doing this increases the likelihood of gaining ethical approval for your thesis research with thefirst submission of your form. It is particularly important that you outline all ethical considerations your

research raises and how you will deal with these in Section 4 of the form (you should provide a bulleted

list of summarised points).

2. Thesis

The third module consists of a doctoral thesis of 50,000 words. The main outcome will be the

demonstration of the ability to apply appropriate research methodologies to analyse practical and/or

theoretical problems confronting the HRD profession. The thesis must be original work and of

publishable quality that makes a contribution to academic knowledge.


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Personal Tutors, Tutorial Support and Supervision

Personal Tutor / Pastoral Care

Alongside the course team, all Doctorate of Social Sciences students will be allocated a personal tutor.

Details of your personal tutor and how they can be contacted can be found in your welcome letter.

Personal tutors are available to assist you with the provision of pastoral care and personal development

planning. Additionally if you have any concerns or queries about your studies your personal tutor will be

able to advise and support you and if they are unable to deal with your query your personal tutor will

direct you to the appropriate member of staff. Personal tutors are in a position to advise and guide

throughout the taught component of the programme, not just when difficulties occur.

If you encounter problems with your personal tutor or for some reason feel that you cannot work with

the tutor allocated you should contact the Director of Doctoral Studies to advise them of this and to

apply for a change in your tutor. If the Director of Doctoral Studies is your personal tutor you should

apply to the Director of Learning and Teaching.

Your personal tutor will:

establish initial contact with you during your first month of study. be in a position to advise and guide throughout the taught component of the programme,

not just when difficulties occur.

wherever circumstances allow, respond positively to any requests you may have forassistance in understanding departmental or University procedures and/or be able to direct

you to appropriate sources of support.

be a point of contact for your ideas and development of thoughts with regard to yourresearch.

provide moral and pastoral support as required.If your personal tutor is not available you should contact the Director of Doctorate Studies or if the

Director of Doctoral Studies is not available please contact the Director of Learning and Teaching.

Tutorial support

One of the distinctive features of the course is that the materials provided are self-contained and hence

do not require additional input in the form of formal lectures. Students are, however, expected to read

and research beyond the materials. Tutorial support is therefore concentrated on providing support on

an individual or sometimes small group basis for students. Tutorial and supervision support will be

offered as follows:

Tutorial support during modules 1 and 2

In addition to your personal tutor, your main point of contact during the taught modules is the

Programme Team. Contact details for your course administrator and Director of Doctoral Studies can be

found in your welcome letter. Additionally, you may use the online services to post your questions (see

page Error! Bookmark not defined.). During Module 1 it is likely that most of your academic queries

will be addressed by your personal tutor. At Module 2 stage your personal tutor or the Doctorate Team

may feel that it is more appropriate to pass your questions on to the academic team responsible for your

chosen specialist option.

Supervision of the thesis

Once you have completed the taught component of the course you are required to submit a revisedthesis proposal (see above). Once this proposal has been approved, you will be allocated a supervisor


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who will be a subject specialist in your chosen area of research. Your supervisor will be your ethical

approver and details of this online process will be sent to you when required. Further detail about

supervision is included below and the role of the supervisor is outlined fully in the Handbook and

Regulations for Research Students, which can be found in the web pages of the Academic Office

(www.le.ac.uk/academic).

During the Thesis stage of the programme the responsibilities of the student include:

1. Familiarising themselves with the code of practice and regulations contained in theUniversitys Handbook and Regulations for Research Students

www.le.ac.uk/gradschool/support.html and other guidance relevant to their studies.

2. Complete and submit the online research ethics review (RER) form via the RER website3. Taking the initiative in raising problems or difficulties, however elementary they may seem.4. Taking responsibility for their own personal and professional development.5. Meeting, either physically or virtually, with their supervisor at the earliest opportunity, to

agree on their plans for their research including the following: the initial objectives of the

research; the means by which the student will communicate progress to the supervisor(s)

and how they will arrange regular meetings; discussing with the supervisor the type of

guidance and comment found most helpful; agreeing a mutually convenient schedule of

meetings.

6. Maintaining regular contact with supervisors.7. Preparing adequately for meetings with supervisors.8. Maintaining and sustaining the progress of the work in accordance with the stages agreed

with the supervisor, including in particular the prompt presentation of material, written in

good, clear English, as required in sufficient time for comments and discussion before

proceeding to the next stage (in this context written material includes any reports as

requested by the University or Department, drafts of theses, running commentaries on the

evolution of the argument, appraisal of written sources).

9. Setting and keeping to timetables and deadlines, including planning and submitting workas and when required and generally maintaining satisfactory progress with the programmeof research.

10. Making supervisors aware of any specific needs or circumstances likely to affect their work.11. Complying with departmental reporting procedures and submitting requested

documentation to the Progress Board and other regulatory bodies within the Department

and University as requested.

12. Taking the initiative to contact other students in the research area and arrange and takepart in informal discussions alongside more formal research activities. Blackboard can be a

useful medium for such discussions.

13. Deciding when to submit the completed thesis, taking due account of the supervisorsopinion which is, however, advisory only. The supervisors support of the decision to submit

must not be taken as any guarantee that the degree sought will in fact be awarded. Therecommendation to award rests entirely with the examiners.

14. Ensuring that the thesis complies with all regulations including those relating to format andmaximum lengths.

15. Ensuring timely submission of the thesis to comply with University and Research Councilrequirements.

The responsibilities of the supervisor include:

1. Emphasising to the student the need for familiarity with the Regulations for ResearchStudents and the postgraduate regulations (available at:

www.le.ac.uk/gradschool/support.html)

2.

Giving guidance about: the nature of research and standard expected, the planning of theresearch process, literature and sources, requisite techniques.


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3. Monitoring the progress of the research through regular consultations in accordance withDepartmental and University policy, and in light of discussion of arrangements with the

student.

4. Being accessible at mutually convenient times when the student may need advice.5. Giving detailed advice on the necessary completion dates of successive stages of the work

so that the whole may be submitted within the scheduled time.6. Emphasising the importance of timely submission both in terms of good academic practice

and in relationship to University requirements and explaining the consequences of failing to

meet the appropriate deadlines.

7. Requesting written work as appropriate, and returning such work with constructivecriticism and in reasonable time.

8. Reading the whole of the final draft of the thesis, giving advice about appropriate lengthand ensuring that the thesis complies with regulations on the length of theses arranging, as

appropriate for students to talk about their work to staff or at graduate seminars, and to

have practice in oral presentations, bearing in mind the demands of the oral examination.

9. Ensuring that the student is made aware of inadequacy of progress or of standards of workbelow that generally expected.

10. Discussing ideas for the appointment of an External Examiner with the student and makingrecommendations to the Doctorate Programme team.

11. Encouraging students to explore publication possibilities arising from the thesis.One of the skills of academic writing at doctoral level, and beyond, is the ability to take constructive

criticism. Your supervisor will at all times try to be constructive but students should appreciate that

feedback by its nature will be critical in order to assist you to develop and enhance your writing. Please

bear in mind that it is normal to be required to submit more than one draft of your thesis before final

submission.

Tutorial contact during the thesis

Tutorial contact (through a variety of means as agreed between student and supervisor including face to

face, virtual via Skype, telephone, Blackboard or email) is expected to be at least once every 4-6 weeks

but may at times be more frequent.

Overseas visits

Staff from CLMS make periodic visits to a number of overseas locations where there are large

concentrations of students. These visits will normally involve one or several members of staff who

provide advice and guidance both on the assignments and the thesis. You will be notified of the exact

dates of visits in advance. We are also always pleased to meet any students who may wish to visit the

University.

Students who are unable to attend teaching days or meet with staff overseas are welcome to arrange atelephone tutorial at the University with a member of staff, or write, email, telephone or fax us at CLMS,

where we are happy to provide whatever assistance we can.

Academic staff are available during term time to discuss any academic problems with you. You should,

however, contact your course administrator in the first instance who will be able to direct your query to

the most appropriate member of the academic team. Support staff are also always available to help and

take a message if your query cannot be answered immediately.


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Doctorate Assignment Writing Guide

Introduction

The aim of the following discussion is to provide students with a clear understanding of the criteria by

which they are assessed. We hope that in the process of making these criteria more explicit we will

effectively pre-empt many of the problems that students encounter when writing their assignments.

This guide is essentially intended to be a point of reference which students can read and refer back to

throughout the duration of their studies. Wherever possible, general points are illustrated with examples

some of which have been extracted from past students assignments. Practical guidelines are also

provided to help students avoid some of the most common mistakes made in assignment writing at this

level. It may be difficult to digest the entire guide in one reading. Indeed, the guide may make more

sense to students after they have written their first assignment and have received feedback from

markers. After this stage, the guide can be used to clarify markers comments, and to help students to

develop their academic writing skills for future assignments.

The guide is divided into five main sections: Quality of Argument and Level of Analysis; Knowledge and

Understanding; Essay Construction; Style and Expression; and Advanced Referencing. It is important to

note that not all these criteria carry equal weighting in terms of the overall grade that the assignment is

awarded. For example, knowledge and understanding and quality of argument and level of analysis are

generally considered to be more substantially important. However, there is considerable overlap

between the various criteria, such that, for example, poor assignment construction can seriously impair

the quality of argument which is developed within an assignment. Thus it is important for students to

develop an understanding of how the criteria as a whole are inter-related, as well as concentrating on

specific sections in order to improve aspects of their work.

Quality of Argument and Level of Analysis

Argument and analysis are probably the most important criteria by which you will be assessed. An

assignment can contain a large amount of relevant material, raise important issues, and demonstrate

understanding of the course materials, yet without a central argument, or an appropriate level of

analysis, it will be severely hampered.

Argument

To make clearer exactly what is meant by argument, let us examine a dictionary definition of the term:

argument 1. a quarrel; altercation. 2. a discussion in which reasons are put forward in

support of, and against a proposition, proposal, or case; debate. 3. a point or series of

reasons presented to support or oppose a proposition. 4. a summary of the plot or subject

of a book, etc. 5. Logic. a. a process of deductive or inductive reasoning that purports to

show its conclusion to be true. b. formally a sequence of statements one of which is the

conclusion and the remainder the premises.

(Adapted from Collins English Dictionary, 1994: 80)

It is most important that students are able to distinguish between the first part of the above definition

(1) and the subsequent definitions. That is to say, when we use the term argument in its academic sense

we are not referring to a quarrel, disagreement, or angry face-to-face verbal exchange, but rather, we

mean a reasoned discussion containing a series of propositions which lead towards a conclusion. So

what does this definition mean in less abstract terms? Consider the two extracts below written on the

topic of behaviourism:


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Extract 1

Pavlov is famous for the results of the experiments that he conducted on dogs. He found

that even when no food was presented, dogs would salivate in response to any

conditioned stimulus. He was originally studying patterns of salivary secretion in dogs, and

found out about conditioned responses quite by accident. He called a dogs salivation in

response to an unconditioned stimulus, that is, food, an unconditioned response. In otherwords, the dogs that Pavlov studied had learned to associate receiving food with

conditioned stimuli, and would respond to these in isolation from the food. Pavlov called

this a conditioned response. The conditioned stimulus could be anything from a bell

ringing to a flash of light. Behaviourism proposed that humans could be studied like

animals, with learning understood as little more than a collection of conditioned responses.

Watson is famous for saying forget the mind, psychologys goal is to be able, given the

stimulus, to predict the response (Myers, 1988: 235). He proposed that psychologists

should study how humans respond to the environment. Psychology should become a

science of behaviour. Watson drew upon the work of Pavlov to support his ideas.

Extract 2

One of the most influential writers from the behaviourist tradition was Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov

conducted a series of experiments on dogs, initially to study their salivary secretion

patterns. He found that the dogs salivated when presented with food. He called this

response to food, an unconditioned response. However, quite by accident, Pavlov noticed

that the dogs would also salivate in response to any stimuli which they associated with the

food. For example, if the dogs heard a bell ringing, or saw a flash of light whenever they

received food, they would soon learn to associate these conditioned stimuli with receiving

food, and would eventually respond to these alone. Pavlov called this type of response, a

conditioned response.

Drawing on Pavlovs work, the American psychologist John Watson proposed that human

beings learn in a similar way to animals: all human learning can be understood as a

collection of conditioned responses. Watson proposed that psychologists should study the

way in which humans respond to their environment, and thus psychology should become a

science of behaviour. He is famous for saying forget the mind, psychologys goal is to be

able, given the stimulus, to predict the response (Myers, 1988: 235).

Which extract did you find easier to follow and understand?

The way ideas are expressed in both extracts is quite similar. The level of knowledge and understanding

displayed in each extract is also more or less equal. The main difference between the two extracts is that

extract 2 has a central argument, whereas extract 1 does not. If we apply the definition of argument

supplied above (a reasoned discussion containing a series of propositions which lead towards a

conclusion), we can see why this is so.

In extract 1 it is difficult to see where the discussion is going: the points do not lead in any specific

direction. The links between the points are weak and unclear. It is not clear why the writer has discussed

Pavlovs work, or Watsons work, or what the reader is supposed to conclude from these accounts. The

reader could quite justifiably ask so what? after reading this extract.

However, in extract 2 each paragraph begins with an introductory sentence. This sentence helps to

identify the relevance of the material that is considered to the topic of behaviourism. Moreover, the

points and propositions made in extract 2 follow a logical order, they lead towards conclusions. The

points are made as follows: paragraph 1, this is who Pavlov was; this is what he did; these are his

findings; (in conclusion) this is what we mean by a conditioned response. Paragraph 2, this is who

Watson was, this is the link between his work and Pavlovs, this is what he had to say about psychology

and human learning, (in conclusion) we can now understand what his famous saying means.


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Assignment questions invariably prompt you to do more than simply provide accounts of important

theories. You are often asked to argue for and against a particular position. For example, a question may

read Behaviourist theories no longer have any practical relevance to the trainer discuss. A good

response to a question of this type would not only contain an argument in favour of the statement, but

also an argument against the statement. A student who presents a well-balanced discussion by

considering all sides of a debate is far more likely to achieve high marks than one that presents a partial,

opinionated, one-sided argument. It is common for students to become confused by this distinctionwhen writing their assignments. They might ask Am I not supposed to put my own opinion in?, How

can I get my point of view across?, to overcome some of this confusion let us now distinguish between

personal opinion, assertions, and academic argument.

Imagine you are set the question above (Behaviourist theories no longer have any practical relevance to

the trainer discuss). You may already have an opinion on this subject matter. Before even looking at the

literature in any significant detail, ask yourself, do you agree, or disagree with this statement? Quite

often you will only partially agree with a statement, or partially disagree with it. You might think, it

depends.... From the markers point of view it does not matter whether on the whole you agree or

disagree with the statement, there is no right or wrong answer to this question, so long as you have

provided a balanced argument to support your opinion. The it depends... issues are of paramount

importance in this respect. In many ways, your task as an assignment writer is to persuade the readerthat your viewpoint is the correct one to adopt. This can only be achieved if you have successfully

demonstrated that all opposing viewpoints are, on the whole, less convincing than the one you argue in

favour of.

The crucial difference between personal opinion and academic debate lies in the reasons that you

provide to support your case. For example, a writer might state behaviourism is useless to the trainer,

this is merely an assertion. The writer has offered no evidence to support the statement that is made.

Revising the sentence, the writer may state behaviourism is useless to the trainer because, in my

experience, it has no practical relevance. This statement is no longer an assertion because a reason has

been provided to support the proposal, but it still sounds like personal opinion. The writer has not yet

provided any evidence, or told the reader why behaviourism has no practical relevance. The writer may

then amend the statement as follows, behaviourism is useless to the trainer, because, in my experience,

it has no practical relevance. Human learning is fundamentally different to that of animals. A large

number of other cognitive processes are at work in human thinking. For the modern trainer who is

concerned with developing a highly skilled workforce, behaviourism is useless. For example, how could

one teach workers problem-solving skills using a behaviourist approach to learning? These type of skills

simply do not fit into a behaviourist framework.

These statements are beginning to sound less like opinion, and more like considered debate; however,

there is still some way to go before they can be considered to constitute an academic argument. The

writer needs to demonstrate how human learning is different to that of animals; what other cognitive

processes are at work in human learning; why the modern trainer is concerned with problem-solving

skills. Invariably, the writer will need to draw upon relevant academic research and writing to support

the statements made. S/he also needs to be more careful with how the sentences are formulated. For

example, is it really the case that behaviourism is useless to the trainer? Some writers would argue thatbehaviourist methods are well suited to teaching basic manual skills, such as typewriting, or sewing. To

show awareness of this, and other debates s/he may amend the statement to read behaviourism is of

limited use to the modern trainer, etc..

In this way, personal opinion is distinguished from academic debate in terms of the reasons that are

provided to support a particular position. To reiterate an earlier point, it is not so much the viewpoint

that you adopt that is important from the markers point of view, rather, it is the way you have arrived

at this position. You must make clear what has informed your viewpoint. What are the premises that

your argument is based upon? Personal opinion is usually based upon personal experience, popular

understandings, or common sense. Whereas academic argument should be based upon the findings of

systematic theorising and research; your conclusions should stem directly from your analysis of relevant

academic materials. It may well be the case that you form a completely different opinion on a subjectafter studying the academic materials surrounding a particular set of issues. Or you may keep the same


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opinion but, crucially, you now have a more extensive, systematic set of reasons to support your

position. It is thus of central importance to not only draw a conclusion in relation to a particular set of

issues, but to also make explicit how you arrived at that conclusion.

It is often the case when writing assignments that no author in the materials that you examine will

adopt exactly the same viewpoint as your own. Writers do not always readily align themselves with one

particular side of a debate. An important academic skill involves organising and grouping the material insuch a way as to show where each writer stands on a particular set of issues. Skilful explication of the

materials will allow you to present a case for and against a particular set of issues. So, effectively, you

have to make academic authors and texts speak for you. The best way to express and opinion on a

particular set of issues is to do so through the explication and critique of academic texts (more about

this later). The more forceful (persuasive and convincing) your argument, the higher you will score in

terms of the quality of argument criterion.

While the above discussion discourages students from merely stating personal opinion, this is not to

discount the value of drawing on personal experience. Examples from personal experience can prove

extremely useful in supporting arguments and making explicit key concepts and ideas. However, care

must be taken when using such examples. It is important that you do not generalise too broadly from

personal experience. For instance, to continue with the example from above, the writer might havestated:

Behaviourist theories of learning are useless to the trainer because, in my experience, they

have no practical relevance. I train middle managers in the large corporation Blue Chip

Computers. It is not possible to use behaviourist techniques to transmit problem-solving

skills which are essential to the middle managers role in my organisation.

In this example, the writer clearly overstates the significance of personal experience. While it may be the

case that behaviourism has limited practical relevance to the trainer in Blue Chip Computers, other

trainers in other organisations may have a completely different set of training needs and intentions:

once again, it depends.... For example, a trainer teaching computer programming may still employ

behaviourist training methods to transmit keyboard skills.

Instead of using personal experience to draw very broad conclusions, it is often more fruitful to use such

examples as case studies from which you can draw quite specific conclusions. For example, the writer

could instead propose:

Behaviourist techniques have been used in the transmission of specific manual skills aligned

to particular tasks in the workplace. As an approach to training, behaviourism is most

applicable to the scientific management approach associated with F.W. Taylor, where the

mental and manual tasks of the production process are sharply divided. However,

scientific management is now very largely regarded as a milestone against which changes

in management over the last few decades are measured. As a trainer concerned with

promoting total quality management within the organisation that I work for Blue Chip

Computers it is vital that I can transfer problem-solving skills to all levels of theworkforce. I would find it very difficult to transfer these types of skills using simple

behaviourist techniques. My experience serves to illustrate that, as organisations

increasingly move away from Taylorist approaches to management, behaviourism may be

losing its practical relevance to the trainer.

Here the writer uses personal experience to draw a carefully formulated, quite specific conclusion. Using

personal experience in this way helps to open up a debate, rather than to close it down; to add richness

to analysis; and to demonstrate what an abstract argument means in practical terms.

In summary, the main features of a good academic argument are:

The points and propositions lead towards conclusions;

All sides of a debate are considered;


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The writer makes it clear how s/he has arrived at a particular conclusion; Ideas are supported with appropriate evidence and reasoning; Academic materials are grouped and organised into a logical order; Personal experience is used judiciously.

The practical steps to follow in writing arguments include:

Compare your opinion on a particular set of issues before and after you have read the coursematerials. Has your opinion changed? If so how and why? This will help you to work out exactly

what line of argument you intend to develop, and how you can use the materials to support

this.

Frequently read what you have written back to yourself, it often helps to do so out loud; Ask yourself so what? at the end of each paragraph that you have read back to yourself. This

will help you to draw conclusions, and sustain relevance to the assignment question;

Get other people to read your work; it will be much easier for another person to point outwhere a statement does not make sense, or where a paragraph is confusing tell-tale signs of a

weak argument, or poor expression.

Analysis

The dictionary definition of analysis appears more precise than that of argument: analysis 1. the

division of a physical or abstract whole into its constituent parts to examine or determine their value

(adapted from Collins English Dictionary, 1994: 53). On first sight, it may be difficult to comprehend

what this means in terms of assignment writing. Perhaps the dictionary definition of the verb to

analyse provides more of a clue: analyse 1. to examine in detail in order to discover meaning, essential

features, etc. 2. to break down into components or essential features (adapted from Collins English

Dictionary, 1994: 53).

To a degree, these definitions describe some of the tasks involved in academic analysis. A good

academic skill to develop involves reading an article, or extract from the course materials, and drawing

out the main points. This effectively breaks down the text into its component parts. Once a text is

broken down in this manner, it is easier to see the relationship between the main points, and to identify

the article or extracts relevance for the assignment question set. However, this is usually just the

starting point for academic analysis proper.

To make clearer exactly what we mean by an appropriate level of analysis, consider extract A provided

below:

Extract A

One of the first and most important cognitivist psychologists was Jean Piaget. The most

central concept of his work is encapsulated in the phrase All thought is interiorised action.

For Piaget, the crucial motor of individual change was cognitive development throughinteraction. Underlying this process were two functional invariants: organisation and

adaptation. A baby will instinctively suck at any nipple shaped object that it is presented

with, some of which will produce milk. The baby will assimilate this action in its mind. After

a period of time, and repeated assimilation accommodation usually occurs.

What are the main problems with this extract? Applying the definition above, the extract would seem to

contain analysis: Piagets work has been broken down into a series of points. The passage appears to

have a central argument: the points lead towards a conclusion. The extract has an introductory sentence

which identifies the relevance of the material which is considered. However, from the markers point of

view, the problem is clear: the writer has not developed an appropriate level of analysis. For a reader

who has no prior knowledge of Piaget, of cognitivism, or the concepts which are introduced, the

passage means very little. For the marker who may be more than familiar with Piagets work, the extractis also difficult to read. The writer has simply not identified the relevance of the material which is


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introduced. Throughout the extract, the writer has simply pointed towards key concepts and areas of

concern, without providing any explication of these. It is nowhere made explicit exactly what is meant

by adaptation, assimilation, accommodation etc. One gets the impression from reading the above

extract that the writer has simply described what s/he has read. In other words the author of extract A

has not moved beyond a purely descriptive level of analysis.

So what does a more appropriate level of analysis look like? Consider this rewrite of the first few pointsmade in the extract provided above:

Extract B

One of the first and most important cognitivist psychologists was Jean Piaget. The most

central concept of his work is encapsulated in the phrase All thought is interiorised action.

Piaget proposed that thought processes are a form of internal acting, or internal

behaviour. When conceptualised in this way, thought processes and the human mind itself

are no longer considered to be inaccessible and inexplicable, as they are within the

behaviourist paradigm; instead, these can be understood, theorised and accessed by the

psychologist. Piaget argued that there is a fundamental link between external and internal

actions, that is, between external behaviour and thought processes. An individuals mentalprogress from infancy to adulthood is governed by his or her interactions with others in the

social world...

In this re-written extract, each point is explained to the reader the writer clearly explicates what s/he

has understood by the central tenets of Piagets work. This, of course, partially relates to the Knowledge

and Understanding criterion (as outlined below). However, more importantly, the writer is also

beginning to compare the work of Piaget with that of other theorists the point is made that from

Piagets cognitivist perspective, by contrast to behaviourism, the mind is seen as accessible. Thus, in

Extract B the writer is beginning to move beyond a purely descriptive level of analysis: extract B is not

simply a reiteration of chunks from the course materials, instead, the writer of this extract is using the

course materials to address a specific set of issues.

An important analytical skill to develop is that of comparing and contrasting or looking for key

similarities and differences between various theories and concepts (as in the example provided above).

Indeed, many questions specifically ask for this kind of analysis by beginning with the words Compare

and contrast.... However, many questions also ask for more specific analysis. A typical question may ask

you to discuss a specific set of issues and consider the significance of these issues for the trainer or

human resource manager. To continue with the example provided above (Extracts A and B), in

addressing this kind of question, the writer would need to go on to discuss the implications for the

trainer of the cognitivist proposition that human intellectual development is governed by interactions.

Thus, in a nutshell, analysis involves examining the material you discuss within the context of the

assignment question.

There are, however, some forms of analysis which are not always clearly specified by the question. In

particular, the marker(s) of your work may comment that you have not developed any critical analysis.

Let us now consider exactly what this involves by considering three main forms of critical analysis.

(a) Existing CritiquesIt is perfectly acceptable to use existing critiques of any particular theory or concept which are provided

within the course materials. For example, when considering culture and globalisation two groups of

theorists, convergence theorists and divergence theorists are central to the debates. Divergence

theorists provide a ready made critique of convergence theorists students are encouraged to examine

this critique and counter-critique within the context of their assignments, and to consider the

implications of this debate for the trainer and human resource manager. Some writers disagree on

issues as fundamental as the meaning of a key word or phrase, and will write in direct response to oneanother. Showing awareness of these debates is also an important part of providing critical analysis. A


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good example in this connection is the concept of culture. It would be completely acceptable, indeed,

perhaps quite fruitful, for a student to examine how one writers concept of culture has developed in

critical response to the limitations of anothers. To summarise: exploring the critique and counter-

critique surrounding any set of issues provided in the course materials, and applying these debates

within the context of a specific assignment question, in itself constitutes a valid form of critical analysis.

(b) Cross-AnalysisCross-analysis involves examining the literature as a whole. It may be that you find inherent

contradictions between different writers work. Often what one writer says may undermine or contradict

what another says, and yet this may not be recognised or acknowledged by the writer. If you become

aware of this when reading the materials, use one writers work to criticise the work of another,

highlighting and exploring any such contradictions. This will demonstrate to the reader your awareness

of some of the conflicts that emerge when writers are addressing the same phenomenon.

Another example of cross-analysis is where you use the findings of one writers research to challenge the

work of another writer. Say, for example, an author writing in the 1980s contends that organisations in

the UK are increasingly adopting more flexible structures. To support this argument, the author

outlines a statistical trend since the 1970s in which an increasing proportion of UK organisations aresub-contracting work. If, during the course of further reading, you found another study published in the

early 1990s which concluded that since the 1980s a decreasing number of UK organisations were sub-

contracting, you would then be able to use this new evidence to criticise the first writers contention

that UK organisations are becoming more flexible.

(c) Philosophical CriticismAnother approach to critical analysis is to look for flaws or inconsistencies in a writers argument. This is

perhaps the most difficult type of critique to develop, particularly since as an assignment writer, and not

a researcher, you may not feel as though in a position to challenge the premises of a writers argument.

Critical observations of this type are usually philosophical in nature. For example, you may feel that a

writer has not shown awareness of the full complexity surrounding a particular set of issues, or has

ignored some important concerns which you feel are essential to the subject matter that s/he is

examining. Or, for instance, you may feel that a writer has misinterpreted the work of another author,

or has drawn false conclusions from his/her research. Alternatively, you may wish to highlight the

theoretical inadequacies or problems of a particular writers work. It is rare to find such analysis in

academic assignments, however those that do contain it usually receive high marks.

Knowledge and Understanding

One of the criteria by which your assignments will be assessed is knowledge and understanding of the

course materials. There is often some confusion in relation to this criterion, as students are unsure of the

best way to demonstrate their understanding of the key issues relating to the question that is set. As a

result there is a tendency for some students to be too descriptive when introducing a new theory,academic perspective, or school of thought. Simply reiterating in your own words what is presented in

the modules is not the same as demonstrating knowledge and understanding of those materials. For a

start, it is doubtful if everything that is written in the modules about a particular theory is relevant to

the question that is set. It is up to students to identify what they think is relevant to the question, and

for them to look in depth at those specific issues. This in effect means that you will have to be carefully

selective in your choice of which areas to cover, and the depth in which you will analyse these areas.

When reading the course materials, try to keep the question in mind at all times. It is likely that the

authors objectives and agenda in writing the article will differ significantly from your intentions in

writing an assignment. Dunleavy (1986: 29) is right to point out that the student is usually in the

business of recognising potentially relevant material and then adapting what the author is saying to suit

different purposes.


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To give an example of what we mean, consider Skinners theory of operant conditioning. In order to give

the reader a good introduction to Skinners work the relevant readings provide you with:

Some brief biographical details on Skinners own background; A historical introduction to his work and how it related to contemporary thinking in the field of

psychology when it was first introduced; Some of the similarities and differences between classical conditioning as practised by Pavlov

and Watson, and Skinners own operant, or non-reflexive, conditioning;

A detailed description of Skinners experiments using the famous Skinner box; The rationale behind reinforcement in terms of the use of positive and negative reinforcers,

primary and secondary reinforcers, schedules of reinforcement, the concept of punishment and

so on;

Some of the limitations of this approach in terms of, for example, the way that it ignores thecognitive processes involved in responding to environmental stimuli and the generalisation from

animal to human behaviour.

This is only a small sample of some of the issues that are covered in our assessment of Skinnerscontribution to the psychology of learning. If you decide to use additional textbooks you may find areas

that are covered in much more depth than in the modules; and Skinners own publications, although

fairly easy to read in relation to some primary psychological texts, obviously go into the theory of

operant conditioning in far greater depth than most secondary sources. All of which suggests that it is

easy to become overloaded with information, and to lose track of what is relevant to the question. As

the idea is to introduce topics without assuming prior knowledge on behalf of the reader, you will, to

reiterate an earlier point, obviously have to be selective in your choice of which areas to cover.

Sometimes students feel confident that they are aware of all the key issues relating to a question. In this

case it might be an idea to first brainstorm around the essay title. At this stage you are not being

critical about your ideas and there will be many areas that are not directly relevant to the question.

Brainstorming can be useful in the sense that an original or innovative approach to answering the

question might emerge from this session. However, having generated a range of ideas you will have to

be careful to eliminate those ideas which are not relevant and which may detract from the focus of the

argument (Dunleavy, 1986: 108).

When thinking about how to approach assignment writing it is useful to think of the following areas as

outlined by James (1967: 55):

Ensure that all material is relevant. Be ruthlessly selective; Emphasise the main points; Avoid catalogues of facts; Endeavour to maintain interest; Do not copy verbatim from other sources; Allocate space proportionately to the various items included. Do not put emphasis on an aspect

simply because it interests you, while neglecting parts which you find less absorbing.

If, for example, the question asks you to assess the practical relevance of behaviourism from the

viewpoint of the trainer, you should draw the readers attention to what you see as the key areas in

terms of practicality for the trainer. Obviously, in order to present a balanced argument you will also

need to draw attention to the potential shortcomings and limitations of this particular theory. When

compiling this list of what to include as relevant in an academic essay, you will recall from the discussion

above that it is better to cover a few areas in some depth rather than provide a one or two line

introduction to numerous topics. If you are in some doubt about the relevance of an academic debate

to the set question then it is probably safer to leave it out. Having gained some experience in readingthe course materials you will find it easier to discard information that is not directly relevant to the


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question. Casey gives some useful advice in this respect when he urges students to keep to the subject

and ensure that everything you write is relevant, in other words that it contributes to answering the

question (Casey 1993: 60).

Essay Construction

In this section, we will examine what the term construction refers to, before offering some guidelines

and examples which should enable you to structure and organise your work more effectively. After

discussing how to break down and identify the key parts of an assignment question, we will then go

on to examine what constitutes good construction in relation to the introduction, main body, and

conclusion of an assignment.

What is construction?

Essay Construction refers to the structure and organisation of your assignment. In organising and

structuring your work, your central aim should be to allow the reader to easily follow your discussion. In

a well-structured assignment, the discussion is divided into clearly identifiable sections, material is

presented in a logical order, and the points that are made are consistently related to the assignmentquestion.

A well-constructed assignment will allow you to sell your ideas far more easily. Good organisation will

also make the content of your assignment accessible. Conversely, poor or sloppy construction will make

your answer difficult to follow. For the marker, having to read the same paragraph a number of times,

or having to check the front page to see which assignment question is being answered, are clear signs

of work which has not been well constructed. Poor construction will detract from the overall coherence

of your discussion, and will obstruct the marker from concentrating on the merits of the knowledge and

understanding displayed, and the analysis that is developed.

So how can you ensure that your assignments are appropriately constructed? Having described what the

term refers to, we will now offer some guidelines and examples which should enhance your

understanding of what constitutes a well constructed answer.

Understanding the question

The first, perhaps most crucial, step is to read the question, and to ensure that you understand it. You

should also identify any key terms referred to in the question. Note that some assignment questions

include two or more individual parts. When answering this kind of question, it is important that you

address all of its parts, rather than just one of them. The structure of your answer will need to be

balanced in such a way that the entire question is answered. A common mistake is for students to fail to

address adequately one part of a question. Such an error will always lead to lower marks, simply

because the question has not been answered comprehensively. Consider the following two questions:

Example Question 1

Should the concept of skill be of concern to the trainer for the development of the human

resource?

Example Question 2

Compare and contrast two theories of learning. Which makes the greatest contribution to

our understanding of management development and why?

You can see here that the first question consists of just one part, whereas the second is split into two

main parts. In the case of the latter, you will be expected to address both parts of the question, and,

moreover, to explore the relationship between these two parts.


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You should also be careful that you answer the question exactly as it is set, and that it is not changed in

any way. Occasionally, students accidentally paraphrase an assignment question. Paraphrasing occurs

when one or more words are changed from the original question set. If you