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Research reportSeptember 2012

Coaching: the evidence base

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1 Coaching: the evidence base







and governance





Executive summary 2

1 The need for a critical approach to coaching and its evidence base 3

2 Academic coaching research: evidence or advocacy? 5

3 Using business metrics in coaching 7

4 Reflecting on practice and engaging with stakeholders 11

Conclusion and recommendations 13

Appendix 1: Evidence on coaching and approaches to research 14

Appendix 2: Evidence from psychotherapy and how it impacts the coaching evidence agenda (summarised from Smither 2011) 16

Appendix 3: From working alliance to workplace alliance: focusing on line manager coaching 19

References 22

Contents








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CoachingisawidespreadandrespectedaspectofHRandmanagementpractice.Itspowertochangemindsetsandtopropelactioniswidelyappreciatedinorganisations.Yetcoaching’sintrinsicvaluecanbecompromisedbyacontinuedweaknessinevidenceforitsdirecteffectonindividualandbusinessperformance.Takinganevidence-based approach, it’s clear that coaching has some way to go in terms of:

• theabilityofHRandL&TDpractitionerstodevelopamorecriticalapproachtoitsusewithinorganisations

• thedevelopmentofaconvincingandrobustfoundationofacademicevidencetosupportitsuse

• theintegrationofbusinessmetricsaspartofcoachingassignmentsinordertotesttheirvalue

• consistentreflectiononpracticeengagementwithstakeholdersandawillingnesstobeheldtoaccountfortheimpactofcoachingandmentoring.

Thesehavetobebalancedbythefactthatcoachingisstillarelativelyyoungdisciplineandonewithcomplexandcontestedprofessionalterrain,andwheremanyissuesofpracticeareyettoberesolved.Nevertheless,awayforward is offered on the basis that:

• Robust,well-validatedresearchinpsychologyandtherapysupportsthevalueofcoachingandmentoringskills such as listening, building rapport, asking powerful questions, feedback and the value of the relationship.

• Afocusonlinemanagercoachingoffersawayofusingtheseprovenskillsinasystematicfashion.

Supplementing line manager coaching capability with regular internal coaching will help to cement the value ofcoachinginorganisations.Inthefollowingreportwelookinsomedepthatthefourdimensionsofanevidence-basedapproachtocoachingandmentoring.Somearefairlydetailedandaresupportedbyappendicesat the end of this report, so practitioners who are interested can additionally consult the latest evidence on, for example, the nature of established coaching research and the lessons to be learned from psychotherapy, as well assomedetailedevidenceonthepositiveimpactoflinemanagercoaching.

Dr John McGurkAdviser,LearningandTalentDevelopmentCIPD

September 2012

Executive summary








and governance





ArecentarticlebyRousseauandBarends(2011)explainstheneedforanevidence-basedapproachtoHR. Theessenceofthearticleisthateffectivepracticeisbaseduponapplyingthetoolsofcriticalthought,scientificevidenceanddataanalysis.Whenthathappens,aself-reinforcing‘virtuous circle is created’.Theneed to do this is accentuated with an intervention such as coaching and mentoring, and with related developmentprogrammessuchasmanagementandleadership.Fortheevidencebaseincoachingtobeeffective,itneedstointegratetheprinciplesoftheevidence-basedHR(EBHR)approach.

EBHRisadecision-makingprocesscombiningseveralelements,allofwhichshouldbeofinteresttocoachingpractitionersanduserswhowanttomakesurethatcoachingworksfortheorganisationandtheindividual.Theelementsare:

• critical thinking, in order to appraise the intervention in its context and ensure that the right choices are both considered and acted upon

• using the best available scientific evidence, which generally, though not exclusively, is that which is published in peer-reviewed journals – although the youth of coaching means that many of its peer-reviewed journals are less established

• using the best available business metrics around key issues such as talent and retention, as well as individual performance and capability, to ensure that the intervention is aligned to business objectives

• engaging in critical reflection about the approach and integrating the views and concerns of stakeholders into any further development phase, that is, being open to criticism and suggestion about how the approachworksordoesn’tandmakinggenuineandvisibleattemptstoaddressthese.

Thissectionisconcernedwiththefirstaspectofanevidence-basedapproach:developingcriticalthinkingaroundanintervention.TheEBHRapproachissimilartotheevidence-basedmedicineapproach.Evidence-basedmedicineusesclinicaljudgement,peer-reviewedresearch,clinicaldataandpractitionerreflectiontoinformdecisions.Obviouslyit’sdifferentintermsofcontextandconsequencewhenusinganEBHRapproachthanwhenappraisinglifeordeathclinicalissues.Butwithoutbeingfacetious,alackofevidencebasecanthreatenthelifeofaprogramme.Sowhataboutcoaching’scriticaljudgement?Itwouldbefairtosaythatthecriticalstanceoncoachingisfairlyrelaxed.Mostpractitionersacceptcoachingasapositiveinterventionandmuchoftheevidencebaseoncoachingspecificallysupportsthatview.Mostcriticalthoughtaboutcoachingtendstobebasedonanassumptionoftheneedforcoachingormentoring.Criticalthoughtisfocused on whether it’s the appropriate intervention, what sorts of technique should be used and how it shouldbeintroduced.Thereislessthoughtonwhetherinfactitistherightintervention.

Thereisatremendousamountofgoodwilltowardscoaching,butfeworganisationscantakethesuccessofaninterventionongoodfaithwhenresourcesaretightandwhenallexpendituremusthaveaprovenimpact.WhileRousseauandBarends’evidence-basedapproachprovidesathinkingmaparoundtheissues,it’salsoimportanttoadoptananalyticalapproach–somethingwhichisexpoundedbyBoudreauandJesuthasan(2011).Broadly,theysuggestthatHRinterventionshouldbebasedonfouranalytics-basedmeasures.Thesearecoveredinsection3becausetheyrelatedirectlytotheuseofbusinessmetrics.

1 The need for a critical approach to coaching and its evidence base








and governance





CoachingisoftenusedasthestandardresponseforvariousHRandL&TDinterventions.Talentmanagementand succession planning, leadership and executive development all usually have an element of coaching andmentoring.It’salsousedforperformanceengagementforroutinedevelopmentofemployeesandforinduction.Indeed,coachingistheall-purposegenericsolutiontomanydevelopmentneeds–ratherlikeorganisationalaspirin.Butaspirinhas,aspartoftheevidence-basedmedicineethos,amassivefundofstudiestosupportitsefficacyforvariousconditions.Coaching’sevidencebaseismorepatchy–anditistothisthatwenowturn.








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Researchoncoachingisveryyoung.It’snomorethanabouttenyearssinceuniversitiesandresearchinstitutesbegantodevelopcoachingasafieldofresearch.Asoftenhappenswhenaconceptualfieldisdeveloping,academiccoachingresearchtendstobevariable.Themajorityofresearchoncoachingtendstofocusaround the issues of process and techniques, which generally aim to reinforce the value of coaching as an intervention(PassmoreandFillery-Travis2011).Coachingispromotedasagoodthing–andoftenitis.Butthisperceptioncanbedamaging.Theproblemisthatresearchwhichtendstobemorefromaperspectiveofadvocacyandengagementcanencouragebias.Itoftenfailstopickupdisconfirmingevidence.Thereis,though,someevidencefromthepsychologyfieldthatmightbehelpful,whichwenowexplore.

The published research on coaching

Variousauthorshavetriedtoshedlightontheresearchconductedintocoaching.GrantandCavanaghand their various collaborators – though supportive of coaching as an intervention – have made creditable attemptstotestitsevidencebase.Intheirfirstpaper,GrantandCavanagh(2007)conductedareviewofthepsychologicalcoachingoutcomeliterature.Theyfocusedonthepsychologyliterature,whichtendstobe the basis of most coaching research, although there is a wealth of what might be called pseudo research inmanagementjournalsandperiodicals.Theyreviewedatotalof69outcomestudiesbetween1980andJuly2007:23casestudies,34within-subjectstudiesand12between-subjectstudies(seeAppendix1).Onlyeightrandomisedcontrolledstudieshadbeenconducted.GrantandCavanaghcommentedfurtherthat:‘This indicates that coaching psychology is still in the early stages of development, and can be understood as an emerging or protoscientific psychological discipline’(GrantandCavanagh2007).

Inafurtherarticle,Grantetal(2010)surveyedthefieldagainlookingforafurtherfloweringofresearchandfoundasignificantgrowthintheoutputofacademicresearchcomparedwiththeir2007study.Theyfoundatotalof518publishedscholarlyarticlesanddissertations.Theyfoundthatinthe62yearsbetween1937and1999,only93papershadbeenpublished,butinthetenyearsfrom2000toMay2009,afour-and-a-half-foldincreasewasevident.Thisreflectstheexplosivegrowthofcoachingasadisciplineinthedecade.However,ofthe499publishedpaperssince1980,Grantetal(2010)foundthat265havebeenopinionpapers,theoreticaldiscussionordescriptivearticles.Therehavealsobeen77PhDdissertationsandonly186studieswhichcouldbedescribedasempirical,thatis,usingobservedfactsanddataandevaluatingevidence.Ofthose,mostweresurveys.Butcrucially,verylittleresearchwasconductedexaminingtheefficacyofcoachingasaninterventionforcreatingorganisationalandindividualchange.Appendix1providesadetailedaccountofthisevidence.

When we refer to evidence for coaching and mentoring, we often focus on organisational coaching and primarilycoachingofexecutivesandseniormanagers.Themostregularlyquotedstudies,suchastheManchesterstudyofexecutivecoaching,indicatethattheevidenceforthisisoftenweakandpartial(seeAnderson2001).Yet,astrongpoolofresearchinsightonthevalueofcoachingasaninterventionisavailablefromarelatedfieldusingbroadlythesametechniquesandbasedonthesametypeofrelationshipbutinanaltogetherdifferentcontext.Thisistheevidencefrompsychotherapyresearch,whichweillustratebelow.

The promise of psychotherapy research for coaching

One area of research in interpersonal helping interventions is rich in randomised controlled studies and rigorousresearch.Psychotherapysometimesgetsachequeredreputation,perhapsbasedontheweightofFreudandpsychoanalysisorvarioustragi-comicmediaportrayals,suchasthatbetweenthetroubledNewJerseymobsterTonySopranoandhistherapist,buildingaperceptionthattherapyisaless-than-effective

2 Academic coaching research: evidence or advocacy?








and governance





talkingcure.Yetpsychotherapiesareregularlyusedinplaceoforincombinationwithdrugstohelppeoplewithavarietyofmentalandcognitiveconditions.Moreover,theUShealthcaresystemandothersrequirethesetobeevidencedandfortheirefficacytobefullytested(seeDeHaan2008).Overitslongandregularuse, psychotherapy has amassed enough studies to conduct what might be termed the platinum standard ofacademicresearch,namelymeta-analyses.Byanalysingmanystudies,meta-analysesallowresearcherstoidentifywhatisknownasan‘effectsize’–apowerfulstatisticalindicatoroftheimpactofaparticulartreatment.DeHaan(2008)andAhnandWampold(2001)explaininsomedetailhowsuchstudieswork.AndDeHaanexplainstheirrelationshiptocoachingandmentoring(seeAppendix3ofthisreport).Oneexampleillustrateshowmeta-analyseshaveestablishedcognitivebehaviouraltherapy(CBT)asoneofthemostsuccessfulinterventionsinhelpingpeopleovercomeaddictionsandphobias.Theacuteandclinicalnatureofpsychotherapy practice is obviously different from coaching, but the growing evidence suggests that three key factorsarepresentinanyinterpersonalhelpingintervention.

• astrongrelationshipbetweenclientandtherapist,knownasthe‘workingalliance’

• the personality of the therapist as someone who is perceived to help the client

• consistencyinusingaparticularapproachormethod.

TheseareexactlythebehaviourswhichDeHaan(2008)suggeststhataneffectivecoachexhibits.Whilehisinsights are like much coaching theory developed in the context of specialised executive coaching sessions, they are equally relevant to the type of coaching that takes place in most settings – that delivered by line managers.Linemanagersaregenerallynottrainedcoaches,butwhenusingcoachingandmentoringbehaviours at their most productive they can be seen to exhibit:

• a positive and supportive but challenging and accountable relationship between the coach/manager and the coached

• an intent to help and enable by releasing the individual’s potential for change and learning

• consistent use of skilled questioning, active listening, helpful clarification and constructive feedback towards goalsandobjectives.

AswewillseeinAppendix3,thesekeybehaviours,skillsandattitudesarethebedrockofeffectivecoachingand,indeed,sustainablemanagementpractice.

In summary

Mostcoachingresearchdoesnotyethavearobustevidencebase.Thisisforseveralreasons.Muchoftheresearchisadvocacyratherthanenquiry.Mostofitisbasedontheoreticaldisputesandschoolsofcoaching,andmuchofitfocusesonmodelsandtechniques.Mostofthestudiesarecasestudies,whicharegenerallydescriptive, and most of these case studies don’t involve rigorous experimental designs of the type needed toproveefficacy,certainlywithinthepsychologyliterature.Fewstudiesusethegoldstandardmethodofrandomised controlled trials so that we can genuinely assign an effect to coaching as an intervention, mainly becauseitismoredifficultforresearcherstogetaccesstoorganisationsonalong-termbasis.Yetevidencefrompsychotherapyintotheeffectivenessofvariousapproachesshowsthatthekeyskillsidentifiedaretranslatabletoacoachingcontext.Obviouslyacademicevidenceisonlyoneaspectofestablishinganevidencebase.Businessandorganisationaldataanddataaroundperformanceandoutputcanalsobeused.Itistothisaspectwenowturn.








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Continuing with our evidence-based approach to coaching, it’s clear that the third aspect – that of being ableto‘buildreliableandvalidfacts,metricsandassessments’oftheinterventionorprogrammeweintendtopursue–iscrucial.TheCIPD’sReal-world Coaching Evaluation report, published in 2010, outlined the considerablestockofdataavailabletogaugetheimpactofcoaching.Table1setsoutthekeydata.

ForreasonsofscopeinReal-world Coaching Evaluation, we omitted the bottom three aspects of corporate data.However,noorderofimportanceisassumed.Thesedataarealsokey.First,the‘hard’businessprocessand production data, such as six sigma, quality and lean production metrics, should be used where the organisationalcontextdrivestheiruse.Second,weomittedthesortoftargetandattainmentdatacommonlyusedinthehealthcareandeducationsector.Financialdata–suchasthatwhichrecordsturnover,revenue,earningsandprofitsandwhichcanbeconvertedtoratiosforcomparison–isalsoakeyfoundationofcorporatedata.Again,incontexttheseandotherbusinessmetrics,suchassalesandcustomerretention,arecritical.Allofthesearethelow-hangingfruitofeverydaydatawhicheveryoneintheorganisationisfocuseduponandthroughwhichcoachingandmentoringprogrammescanalign.

Psychometrics

Therearemanypsychometrictests,gaugingeverythingfrompsychologicalfitnesstocognitiveability,skillsandperformance.Inmanyorganisationssuchtestsareusedasapre-recruitmentscreeningexercise.Thedataisoftensensitive,sometimesconfidential,andthetimeperiodofthetestingneedstobetakenintoaccount.Thefactthatpeoplelearnandchangemeansthattheoftenfixedanddeterministicapproachofpsychometrictestsshouldnotbetakenatfacevalue.PsychologistscanadministerinstrumentssuchasMBTI,SavilleWaveandOPQduringrecruitmentanddevelopmentprogrammes.Normallytheserequireexpertoratleasttrainedfeedback.Manylookatpersonalityintermsofdimensionsandseektoidentifycorebehavioursandskills(seeSavilleandHopton(2009)foranaccessibleguidetotheSavilleWavetechniquethroughtestsonsportsandbusinesspersonalities).

Appraisal and performance data, for example of 360-degree appraisal

360-degree appraisal is often used to inform coaching assignments precisely because it offers feedback on performanceandbehaviourfromalllevelsoftheorganisation.Theinstrumentshouldbewelldesignedandproperlywordedandtheemphasisshouldbedevelopmental,notpunitiveorperformancefocused.If,for

3 Using business metrics in coaching

Table 1: Data available for use in coaching effectiveness studies

psychometrics

360-degree feedback and other performance appraisal records

individual diagnostics, such as learning styles

team diagnostics and performance data

employee surveys and polls

HRsystemsdataonabsence,retention,talentmanagement,learningattainments,andsoon

business process, quality and productivity data

target, audit and compliance data

financial data (for example revenue, profit and earnings data)








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example, an individual has issues such as a failure to deliver on time or an inability to accept feedback, the datacanbefedintoacoachingassignment.Since,aswithmanypsychometricsandotherappraisaldata,theindividualwillalreadyknowabouttheir360profile,thiscanbeaproductivesteppingstoneforthecoachingprocess.Performanceappraisalisusuallybasedonwrittenreportsofdiscussionandisusuallyheldasastructuredreport,whichcanbeaveryusefulreferencedocument.

Individual diagnostics such as learning styles

ManylearningandtalentspecialistsarefamiliarwithinstrumentssuchastheHoneyandMumfordlearninginventoryandtheKolblearningstylesapproach.Thesetendtousequestionnairestodevelopa‘construct’oftheindividual’slearningpreference,suchastheirtendencytowardsactivist/reflectorortheorist/pragmatist.Thesestatesmightdescribeactivistsasbetteratgettingonwiththingsandlessgoodatassessingtheirimpactorpayingattentiontodetail.Ontheotherhand,someonedisplayingtheoristbiasmightover-engineeraprojectbutbelessgoodatprogressingit.SomehavecriticisedthisandtheoriginalKolbapproachasbeingpoorly validated, but used as indicative tools they can help people to develop awareness, take responsibility andpayattentiontotheirlearning(DeHaan2008).Assuch,theycanprovideacomponentofthecoachingandmentoringeffectivenessdata.

Team diagnostics and performance data

TeamperformancedatacanbegarneredfromeverythingfromsixsigmadatainanengineeringoperationtoteamdevelopmentmodelssuchastheBelbinteamrolesinventory,whenusedappropriately.Theycanrangefrombasicquestionnairestosophisticatedpsychometrics.Althoughteamcoachingislikelytobetheprovinceofhighlyqualifiedcoachesandleaders,theinformationfromteaminteractions,whererelevant,canbeveryusefulinassistingcoachingconversations.Giventhegrowingimportanceofcollaboration,communicationandknowledge-sharing, there are a growing number of tools measuring how people interact within organisational settings,someofwhich,suchassociometrics,arebeingincreasinglyused(seeFliasterandSpiess2008).

Employee surveys

Mostorganisationsusesurveysofsomekindtogaugetheopinionsandviewsoftheiremployees.Engagementsurveysrangefromself-designedinstrumentstothewell-knownGallupQ12,whichuses12‘critical’questionstogaugesatisfactionandengagement.Employeeengagementisincreasinglyseenasakeydriverofsustainableorganisationalperformance(seeCIPD2010).

Engagementscorescanoftenprovidedetailedinformationonhowleadersareengagedwiththeirteam.Theycanbeusedasabasisofdiscussionforcoachinginleadershipdevelopment.Anemployeesurveycanalsobeusedtoidentifydisengagedandburnt-outemployees,especiallythoseinkeyareas,to‘re-motivate’themandtoidentifypersonalityconflictswherethey‘downrate’theirmanagersomuchthattheystandoutfromotherteammembers.Lookingatthemanager’sdatamayidentifyapersonalityclash.Givenitsoftensubjectivenature,suchdatashouldbeusednotasadecisiontoolbutasadiscoverytool.

General HR data on absence, retention, exit interviews, talent planning

HRdepartmentshaveawealthofotherinformationthatcanbeusedtoevaluatetheimpactofinterventionssuchascoaching.SystemscontainedwithinHRinformationdatabases–storinginformationonsuchissuesasabsence management and retention, job levels, promotions and vacancies – can all be used to some degree as dataforgaugingtheimpactofcoachingandotherlearningandtalentinterventions.








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Relating these diverse sources of data to coaching and mentoring programmes

Allofthisrequiresasystematicapproachusingwell-designedtools.BoudreauandJesuthasan(2011)provideacompellingframeworkforHRanalyticsthatcanbeappliedtocoaching.Itcomprises:

Logic-driven analyticsAnalyticsthatarelogicdrivenarethosewhichusekeycompanydataandinformationflowsandlinkthesewiththevariousaspectsofanorganisation.Forexample,ifanorganisationhasamajorsales and customer service aspect to its operations, how are practitioners using this business driver toensurethatcoachinghelpsdevelopkeysalesskillsandbehaviours?Theyshouldbeabletouseperformance and appraisal data linked with sales target data to connect the various capability needs forwhichcoachingmightbeappropriate.

SegmentationSegmentingemployeesandteamsisakeydriverofanevidence-basedapproach.Segmenteddatacanbeusedtogaininsight.Forexample,ifthesalesperformanceinoneteamsellingslower-moving goods is differentiated from those selling fast-moving goods, better decisions can be madeabouthowtodevelopteams.Perhapscoachinginthebusinessobjectivesandenvironmentof key customers and suppliers could provide new capability to one team and working on sales conversationscouldhelpanother.

Risk leverageManagingpeoplepresentsrisksofvariouslevelsdependingonthebusinessandthecontext.Gatheringandupdatingtheevidenceonsuchriskscanbeveryuseful.Theserisksareleveraged;someareworthtaking,othersareworthminimising.IntheCIPD’sDeveloping Coaching Capability in Organisationsreport(KnightsandPoppleton2008)weshowedhowM&GAssetManagementusedpsychometricssuchastheHoganinventoryrelatedtoskillsmentoringtomonitorandcalibratetheriskbehaviouroftheirfundmanagers.Asitturnedout,thoughdesignedasatalentprogramme,thishad the very positive by-product of inculcating a culture of appropriate risk and reward, something whichmanyotherfinancialinstitutionsarelearningfrom.

Integration and synergyDeveloping an understanding of how the organisation works across its varied departments, centres and partnershipsmeansrecognisingthevalueofintegrationandsynergy.Thisisavitalcomponentoftheevidence-basedapproachandenhanceseffectiveness.InanNHStrust,forexample,ifweknowthatclinical staff are offered a coaching-based leadership programme, this can help us align other areas thatworkinpartnershipwiththem,suchasnursingandlabstaff.Thishelpscoachingandmentoringinterventionstobecomeeffectiveandwidespreadandaddsincreasedvalueifdoneproperly.

OptimisationEnsuringthatinvestmentandresourceistargetedinordertodrivethebestoutcomesistheroleofoptimisation.Usingtheinsightsalreadygleanedfromourinvestigationofanalyticsandourjudgementsaboutsegmentationhelpstoinformandtargetinterventionssuchascoaching.Forexample, though it’s often assumed that coaching works better with high-potentials and leadership teams, evidence from call centres shows that it can be a very effective mechanism for developing and retainingemployeeswithlimitedcareeropportunitiesandfairlyroutinejobroles.








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In summary

Organisationaldatacanbeusedtoaligncoachingwithbusinessobjectives.Muchofthatdataiscollectedon recruitment and development milestones, for example psychometrics and appraisal data, and can, with someeffortandinsistence,beusedtopreparecoachingassignments.Teamdiagnosticsandotherdatarelatingtoteamperformancecanalsobeusedtosupportbothindividualandteamcoaching.Otherkeyorganisational data, such as employee surveys and production and quality data as well as targets and KPIs, shouldalsobefocuseduponbecausetheyarelikelytoberegularlyusedandreflectedupon.Thesystematicandregularuseofbusinessmetricsisakeyaspectofcoachingandmentoring’sevidencebase.TheBoudreauand Jesuthasan analytics framework offers a systematic approach that can be used with various streams ofbusinessandHRdatatodeveloptheevidencebaseforcoaching.Dataisofcoursecritical,butit’salsoimportantforpractitionerstoengagewithstakeholdersandreflectuponthesuccessesandfailuresofcoachingprogrammes.Thishelpstoensurerealalignmentand,thus,effectiveness,andisthesubjectofournextsection.








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Acentralaspectofadoptinganevidence-basedapproachistobereflectiveandthoughtfulabouttheapproachandtobeopentotheviewsandconcernsofstakeholders.Thisishugelyimportantbecausestakeholdersare,inthemain,theusersofL&TDinterventionssuchascoaching.Oftenthecoachingworldcan be internally focused and insular, focusing on a narrow group of stakeholders – primarily a select band of executivecoachesorthosewhodefinethemselvesassuchand,secondly,thosewhoreceivecoaching.

It’sequallyimportanttofocusontheneedsoftheorganisation,itscustomers,clients,patientsortaxpayers.Inthe CIPD’s Real-world Coaching Evaluationreport(2010),weaddressedtheseissuesinrespectofevaluation;however,astakeholderfocusisequallyimportantwhenwearedevelopinganL&TDintervention.Thekeyissuesarehowwebuildstakeholderengagementovercoachingandmentoringinterventions.

AsourDeveloping Coaching Capability in Organisations report (Knights and Poppleton 2008) explained, coachingoccursindistinctphasesandapproacheswithinanorganisation.Coachingcantakeplaceonasupported and sponsored basis, with senior executives driving coaching and mentoring and promoting it as ‘thewaywedothingsroundhere’.Alternatively,coachingandmentoringcanbeemergent,whereitgrowsand spreads from a number of key coaching initiatives, perhaps in a single team or department, or even some keyindividuals.

Anotherformofcoachingcapabilitycandevelopinformally,asourDeveloping Coaching Capability in Organisationsreport(KnightsandPoppleton2008)indicates.Theseareusedbypeoplewhobelieveincoachingbutwhodon’tnecessarilyhaveorganisationalsupport.Suchanapproachseekstobuildthebrandofcoachingasapowerfulprogrammeforlearningandchange.Thisiswhereconnectingwithstakeholdersiscritical.It’salsoimportantwhenassessingtheevidencebasethatwelookatthreeissueswhichareimportantwhenconsideringhowcoachingintegrateswithstakeholders.

Sponsorship

Coaching and mentoring can be very popular with leaders and executives and is generally held in high esteem byHRleaders.Thatcancreatethenecessarysponsorshipandownershipforcoaching,protectingresourceandensuringtimecommitmentandmotivationtopursueacoaching-basedstrategy.However,sponsorshipcan become an issue when leaders insist or even decree that the organisation become a coaching culture, for example.Likeanyorganisationalandculturalintervention,thiscanfallonstonyground.Mindfulpractitionersshouldwatchoutforthatsortofmindsetandcounteractit.Coachingisnotforeveryorganisationand,indeed, in some cultures can be counterproductive, so sponsorship needs to be tempered with a level-headed assessmentofwhatcoachingcandeliverandhowitfitswiththeorganisation.Evidence-focusedHRandL&TDpractitionerstreatcoachinglikeanyotherintervention.Theyasksearchingquestions,forinstance:isitappropriateandforwhom?Anddoesitfitwiththeorganisation?Howwillithelptochangethecultureandwhatskillsandbehavioursshouldweseektodevelop?

Coverage and development

Coverageanddevelopmentarekeyquestions.Whoisbeingofferedcoachingandmentoring?Arethereexamplesofpeoplebeing‘forced’toacceptone-to-onecoachingwhodonotwishtoavailthemselvesofthatapproach,perhapsbecausetheyareuncomfortableorhostiletotheapproach?Arelinemanagerswhoarereluctantorunskilledincoachingpracticebeinghelpedtodevelopandimprovetheseskills?

4 Reflecting on practice and engaging with stakeholders








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Aremanagerswhoareexpectedtoline-managewithcoachingbehavioursreceivingminimalsupportafteraninitial‘sheep-dip’coachingskillscourseoraretheyexpectedtopickuptheskillsfromabook?Theissueoftime and space is also critical: do managers have it, how can they coach employees and task and monitor at thesametimeiftheirjobrequiresthis?Wherecoachingiscentralised,theremaybeimpatiencewithlaggardsand‘refuseniks’,butreluctantcoaching,eithergivenorreceived,isnotproductive.It’stheroleofcoachingpractitionersandL&TDspecialiststochallengesuchthinking.Isconfidentialitygettinginthewayofeffectivealignmentofcoachingandmentoringwiththerestofthebusiness?

Ethics and organisational impact

Atthetopendoforganisations,iscoachingaproductivebusinessrelationshipwhichhelpsdeliverfortheorganisation,orisitaclosedconfidentialbubblewhichcouldhideunethicalbehaviours?CoachingconsultantsJonBlakeyandIanDayhaveaddressedthisissue,takingacriticalviewaboutcoaching(BlakeyandDay2012).Theyassertthatcoachinghasbecomeindulgentofpoorandunethicalperformancebybeingtoosupportive,notchallengingenoughandhasbecomeinsularandineffectiveasaresult.Theysuggestaneedtorebalancecoachingtowardsamorerobust,challengingandbusiness-focusedstance.Theytakeissuewith much of the focus of one-to-one coaching and its tendency to neglect the interests of stakeholders, especiallywhenincompetent,riskyandunethicalbehavioursareexposedbutnotmeaningfullychallenged.Likemuchresearchandcommentaryoncoachingandmentoring,BlakeyandDay’sobservationsarebasedonexecutiveandleadershipcoaching;theydrawparticularlessonsfromtheirexperienceofcoachingseniorleadersinbankingandfinance.Manycoachesandcoachingpractitionerswilldisagreewiththisperspective,butitshowsthattheroleofthestakeholderandcriticalreflectiononthepartofpractitionersisakeyaspectofevidence-basedcoaching.

In summary

Akeypillaroftheevidence-basedapproachistoreflectcriticallyuponpracticetounderstandhowcoachingis working and not working for various stakeholders and to seek to learn and improve what is, after all, a learningapproach.Byfocusingonthekeyissuesofsponsorship,culture,coverage,development,ethicsandorganisationalimpact,L&TDandotherpractitionerscandevelopausefulperspectiveforbothreflectivepracticeandstakeholderengagement.Theneedtofearlesslyandfranklyconfrontacceptedpracticewisdom,suchastheneedforcoachingtoalwaysbesupportiveandunquestioningoftheindividual,isanother.Thatsaid,muchofthisinsightisbaseduponexecutiveandleadershipcoaching;it’salsoimportanttolookatwherecoachingreallyoccursandtheconsequencesofthat.ThisisthesubjectofAppendix3,whereweofferawayforwardforcoachingbasedoncorelinemanagerskills.








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Thepopularityandwidespreadproliferationofcoachingthroughoutorganisationsmeansthosemanaginganddeliveringcoachingneedtoengagemorewiththeevidencebasethatdemonstrateshowcoachingworks.Anevidence-based approach to coaching is based upon:

• critically appraising coaching interventions

• understanding the scientific basis of evidence and integrating its practice-relevant insights

• linking coaching assignments with key organisational data and metrics

• reflectingontheseandintegratingstakeholders’concernsandsuggestions.

Takingamorecriticalapproachtocoachingandappraisingitasaninterventionisthefirststep.Thatoftenmeans shifting a mindset that sees coaching as the best solution in all cases towards a more evaluative approach.Understandingtheavailableacademicevidence,itsstrengthsandweaknesses,aswellasconnectingcoaching with real business metrics and using an analytical framework all help to ensure that its use is targeted uponorganisationalimpact.Takingareflectiveapproachtotheimplementationofcoachingandmentoringandengagingwithstakeholderconcernsandsuggestionsisanotherpillarofevidenceforeffectivecoaching.Finally,focusing on how line manager coaching capability can move the needle on performance and engagement canembedtherealvalueofcoaching.Thisrequiresbasicskillsandanunderstandingoftheimportanceofasupportiveapproach.Arisingfromthisreport,anumberofrecommendationscanbemade.

• Approachcoachingcriticallyinyourorganisation.Howhascoachingarisen?Hasthequestionbeenaskedaboutitsvalueandeffectiveness?Iscoachingthebestinterventionavailableorisitaknee-jerkresponse?Iscoachingbeingusedasorganisationalaspirin,genericandroutine?OurDeveloping Coaching Capability tool(CIPD2008)helpstoanswerthesesortsofquestions.

• Becomefamiliarwiththeacademicevidenceforcoachingandrelatedareas.Appendices1and2ofthisreportaredesignedtohelpyoudothat,butmakesureyouscanthelatestevidence.AperiodicsearchusingGoogleScholarwillgiveyouaccesstokeyabstracts.OntheCIPDwebsiteonlinejournalscanbesearched for evidence in particular settings, for example healthcare or customer service, to find a great deal more.

• Understandhowcoachingcontributestowardslinemanagereffectivenessbasedonkeybasicandadvancedskills.Itisimportanttofocuslessontechniquesandtheoriesofcoachingandmoreontheabilitytohaveproductivecoachingconversationsaboutperformance,goal-settingandlearning.TheCIPD’sCoaching at the Sharp Endreport(Andersonetal2009)andtool(CIPD2009a)helpwiththis.

• Support the coaching and mentoring skills and behaviours of line managers and emphasise the consequenceandimpactofdifferentapproaches.Shortcoursesandprescribedreadingcanbesupplemented by better embedded learning of coaching skills, for example, action learning sets around coaching skills, CPD and allowing some managers to train as internal coaches through accredited programmesanddevelopingthemasinternalcoaches.

• Contributetotheevidence-informedapproach.Whetheryoudelivercoachingasacoach,helpdeliveritasanL&TDspecialistoruseitaspartofyourmanagementapproach,we’dliketohearabouthowyoufocusonthekeyevidence-informedprinciplesandhowyoubuildtheevidenceforcoachingandmentoring.

Conclusion and recommendations








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Case studies

Themajorityofthesestudieshavebeenofthecasestudyvariety.Casestudiesofferadeepandofteninsightfulviewofanorganisation’spracticeandarewidelyusedinHRandpsychologyresearch.Theyvaryinquality,withthebestbeingproperlytheorisedandusingadvancedmethodologyforbothdesignandanalysis.Generally,however,theyarefocuseduponpracticeissuesandaredescriptive.Mostcasestudiesdevelopedwithin academic studies are anonymised, while a great many are reviewed in periodicals and other channels suchasprofessionalconferences,whichcananddoaddinsightandaregenerallynamed.Thisaddstotheirsalience as exemplars of coaching practice, but arguably adds to the sometimes mistaken perception of a coachingevidencebase.Generallytheseareadifferenttypeofresearchandcanbeusefulintheoverallevidencemix.Buttheimportantissueisthattheydon’tsetouttotestorprobe;theirobjectiveismainlytoprovidecommentary.

Within-subject studies

Casestudiesandanyothertypeofstudythatisconducted‘within-subject’aregenerallythosethatareconductedonallpeople(subjects)involvedinassessingtheintervention.Thisisamootpointwithmostcoachingcasestudies.Bydefinitionmostcoachingcasestudiesareconductedinanorganisationthathasacoachingprogramme,sotheyare‘within-subject’bydefinition.

Between-subject studies

Between-subjectstudiesarethosewhereasubjectisexposedtothetreatmentorinterventionmorethanonceandinsomecasesarematchedtoothersubjects.It’ssometimescalledarepeatedmeasuresapproachandallowstheuseofbetterstatisticaltests,whicharenecessarytovalidateanintervention.Only16‘between-subject’caseswereconductedandthesecanbedefinedfurtherinto:

Randomised controlled studies (RCSs)

Whatever research or approach we use, we can only be truly certain (within an accepted margin of error) that the actual effect we witnessed was not down to pure chance by assigning subjects randomly to be subject tooromittedfromanintervention.Then,whenwetesttheimpact,wecancomparetwogroupsinwhatis

Appendix 1: Evidence on coaching and approaches to research

Table 2: Coaching research in psychology literature

Outcome study 156Mostlydescriptive

Of which case study 101

Within-subject 39Mostlyempirical

Between-subject 16

Randomised controlled study 11 Empiricalandevidential








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equivalent to a laboratory test: the people who had the intervention versus those who did not receive the intervention,andsometimesanadditional‘placebo’group(givensomethingresemblingtheintervention).RCSs are mostly used in medical and psychological research and aren’t always easy to conduct in a business environment.ButasPassmoreandFillery-Travis(2011)suggest,theyarehappeningmore,thoughitwilltakeanothertenyearsofdetailedstudiestojudgetheefficacy.Therewillalsobeobstaclestoconductingtheseinthebusinessenvironment.

Forexample,therecouldbeaperceived‘disbenefit’ofbeingassignedtothenon-interventiongroupifcoachingisperceivedassuchapositiveandenablingapproach.Therearepracticaldifficultiesinseparatingpeople into intervention groups, but generally if we want robust evidence on the value of an intervention, weshouldusethismethod.Only11ofthecoachingstudiesintheGrantetal(2010)studywereconductedunderthisrigorousgoldstandard.Ofthesestudies,fourwereconductedinthemedicalorhealthcarearenas (which are generally more open to and indeed demanding of this approach given its role in evidence-basedclinicalpractice).Mostfoundpositivebenefitsfromcoaching.Afurtherfourwereconductedinlife or personal coaching, which led to better goal attainment, reduced anxiety and stress, and enhanced psychologicalhealth.Theyalsohadpositiveimpactsonresilienceandcopingability.

Therehaveonlybeenafewrandomisedcontrolledstudiesofworkplacecoaching.Deviney(citedinGrantandCavanagh2007)examinedtheefficacyofsupervisorsworkingaslinemanagementcoaches.Theyfoundnochange in their skills following a multiple rater feedback instrument (employees were asked to rate the skill ofmanagers).Theotherrandomisedstudyexaminedcoaching’seffectivenessinreducingsicknessabsenceduetostressandotherwell-beingissues(Duijtsetal2008).Thestudy,conductedintheNetherlands,foundsignificantimprovementsinhealth,lifesatisfactionandreducedburnout,butnoimprovementinself-reportedsicknessabsence.Thisshowsatleastthatthescientificevidenceforcoachingisambiguous.Inanycase,thesmallnumberofproperlydesignedandvalidatedstudiesmeanswecannotdrawanyfirmconclusions.








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Appendix 2: Evidence from psychotherapy and how it impacts the coaching evidence agenda (summarised from Smither 2011)

Coaching has a rich evidence base, with peer-reviewed research, robust efficacy data and critical research studies.Thatseemscounterintuitivegiventheforegoingargumentaboutaweakanddescriptiveevidencebase.Yetit’strue.Thereasonisthatcoachingissupportedbyawealthofevidencefromthefoundationaldisciplines of psychology and therapy, particularly the skills of psychotherapy and cognitive behavioural therapy(CBT)(Smither(2011).Theskillsofanytherapeuticsettingandtherelationshipwithinitareverysimilar to coaching at an executive level and, though most coaching and mentoring is performed as part of asetofskillsinlinemanagers,thedifferencesareofemphasisandcontextratherthanconcept.Smithersetsouteightkeyquestionsforacoachingevidenceagenda.Wewilldiscusshowthesequestionshavebeenansweredinpsychotherapyresearchandcontrastthesewiththestateofknowledgeincoaching.

1 Howeffectiveiscoaching?

2 Aresomeapproachesmoreeffectivethanothers?

3 IsexecutivecoachingmoreeffectivethanalternativeHRinterventions?

4 Isthenumberofexecutivecoachingsessionsrelatedtotheefficacyofcoaching?

5 Doesthebackgroundandtrainingofexecutivecoachesaffecttheefficacyofcoaching?

6 Arethebenefitsofcoachingtemporaryoraretheysustainedovertime?

7 Doestheefficacyofcoachingdependonitbeingfacetoface?

8 Towhatextentiscoachingefficacyinfluencedbythesocialandorganisationalsupportprovidedtotheexecutive/employee?

Thesequestionshaveallbeenaddressedinpsychotherapyresearch.Wetakeeachquestioninturnbelow.

How effective is therapy?

SmithandGlass,ina1977study,showedthatof375studies,aso-called‘metastudy’foundthatatypicaltherapyclientwasbetteroffthan75%ofuntreatedindividuals.HoffmanandSmits(2008)andVanIngenandNovicki(2009)haveconfirmedthiseffect30yearson.Variousstudieshavealsolookedattheuseoftherapyfordifferentconditionsandconfirmthis.Sotherapyiseffectiveandthemeta-analyseswhichstandardiseandpoolresultsfrommanydifferentstudiesconfirmthis.

Coaching implicationsAswehaveexplained,coachingdoesnotcomeclosetotherigorousstudiespresentintherapyresearch.Manyofthesestudiesaretherandomisedcontrolled,pre-test,post-teststudiesrequiredbytheUShealthcaresystemtoregulateandfundtreatments.Coachingcouldusefullydevelopgroupcomparisonandrelymuchlessonself-reporteddata.Whileit’sachallengetodevelopcoachingcontrolgroups,itcanbedone,forexample,intalentandleadershipprogrammeswithdifferentintakes;thefirstintake(orcohort)couldbecomparedwithlaterones.








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Are some approaches more effective than others?

BoththeSmithandGlassstudyof1977andlater,morerecentstudiesfoundfewifanydifferencesintheeffectivenessoftherapeuticinterventions.Thiswasbasedoncomparingbehaviouralapproaches,suchasde-sensitisation and modification, and non-behavioural approaches, such as psychodynamic and transactional analysis.Mostlyallformsareeffective.AstudybyAhnandWampold(2001)foundthatcommonfactorspresentin all therapies – such as the healing/helping context, the working alliance, a belief in the need for treatment and inthetreatmentitself–aretheimportantingredients,notthespecificingredientsofthetreatment.

Coaching implicationsStudiessuchasthatofPeterson(2009)suggestthatalthoughcoachinghasmanydifferentschoolsand techniques, the dimensions of relationship insight, motivation, capabilities, real-world practice and organisationalcontextareallstrongerindicatorsthananyparticulartechnique.YetSegersandVloeberghs’(2009)suggestthattechniquesmaybemoreimportantincoachingthanintherapy.

Is executive coaching more effective than alternative HR interventions?

Theeffectivenessofpsychotherapycanbedirectlycomparedwiththeimpactofdrugs,non-treatmentandplacebos.Asmallnumberofstudiesshowthatpsychotherapyismoreeffectivethannon-treatment,delayedtreatment,placebosand/ordrugs.

Coaching implicationsThedifferingcontextofexecutivecoachingmeansthatmanyofthesecomparisonsarenotvalid.Coachingisnormallycomparedalongwithotherlearningandorganisationalchangeinterventions.Betterevaluationpracticewouldhelptoseparateouttheimpactofcoachingfromotherinterventions.

Is the number of sessions related to efficacy?

Psychotherapyresearchfocusesonthe‘doseeffect’.Howmuchofaninterventionwasoptimaltoimprovementinthecondition?Howardetal(1996)foundthatatenthtojustunderafifthofpatientshadaneffectatorbeforethefirstsession.Thisintentiontotreatisanimportantfactor.Byeightsessions,themajorityofpatientsshowedimprovementand,by26sessions,aroundthree-quartershadimproved.Theyfounddifferingresponsesdependingontheconditiontreated.

Coaching implicationsGenerally,therapyisalongerdurationormorefrequentinterventionthancoaching.Organisationsgenerallyhaveanincentive(evenifindividualsdon’t)tominimisethelengthanddurationofcoachingassignments.However,norealresearchhasbeendone,buttheresearchfromtherapyshowsawayforward.Apointtostressisthatcoachesandmentorsaregenerallyworkingwiththepsychologicallywellandhavelessofachallenge.

Does the background training or experience affect efficacy?

SteinandLambert(1995)foundinanothermeta-analyticstudythattheleveloftherapisttrainingandexperiencewaspositivelyrelatedtoclientsreportingsatisfactionwiththeoutcome.Inmanyoutpatientsettings,therapistswithmoretrainingwerefoundtosufferfewertherapydropoutsthanlesstrainedtherapists.

Coaching implicationsCoaches have such a diverse variety of backgrounds and experience that it would be worthwhile to look at thesedimensions.Disputesbetweensomeprofessionalswhoseecoachingasfirmlyintheirdomain,suchaspsychologistsandthosewithbusinessexperience,suggestthatthiswouldbedifficult.








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Are the benefits of therapy temporary or are they sustained over time?

StudiessuchasthatbyCuijpersetal(2008)found,unsurprisingly,thatshort-termandlong-termeffectsdiffered.Otherstudiesshowedsustainedfollow-upontheintervention.Theevidenceismixed,thoughitisavailable.

Coaching implicationsTogenuinelymeasurethedurationeffectofcoachingwewouldneedamajorsupplyofcasestudies.Thisresearchisnotavailableincoachingandexplainsthereasonforpoorevaluationoutcomes.Our2009Learning and Talent Developmentsurveyindicatedthatonlyabout20%ofrespondentsconductanykindofevaluationoncoaching.

Does the efficacy depend upon face-to-face interactions?

Psychotherapy research identifies both a positive and neutral impact between face-to-face and remote interventions.Forexample,telephonetherapyreduceddepressivesymptomsandattritionordrop-outrateswerelowerthaninface-to-facesettings.Ameta-analysisontheuseofwhatisknownasbibliotherapysuggested that using written or computerised exercises to reflect on the condition gave a very respectable effectsizecomparedwithface-to-facesessions.

Coaching implicationsWewouldexpectthenetworkofrelationshipsinaworkplacetohavesomekindofimpactoncoaching.Evidencealreadyexistsontheimpactoflearningandtraining.BrightandCrockett(2012)illustrateitspositiveeffectinanexperimentalstudyofworkplacelearning.Theyidentifiedasignificantdifferenceinemployees’ability to identify solutions and heightened ability to deal with changing priorities and tight deadlines comparedwithacontrolgroup.Theexperimentalgroupalsoshowedanincreasedadeptnessforarticulatingideasmoreclearlyandconciselywhencomparedwiththecontrolgroup.

To what extent is the efficacy of therapy influenced by the social and organisational support provided to the patient/executive?

Socialsupportiscriticaltothesuccessoftherapeuticinterventions.It’sbestdescribedintermsofthenumberandqualityofrelationships.Metastudiesshowaweakpositiverelationshipbetweensuccessfulpsychotherapyoutcomesandsocialsupport.

Coaching implicationsCoachingwouldexpecttohavemorebenefitfrompositivesocialandnetworkrelationships.Tobeginwithitsarrayofrelationshipsislikelytobemorediversethanthatfoundinatherapysetting.However,itcouldequally be negative if an individual thinks they have benefited from coaching and is ready for a promotion but failstoattainit,forexample.








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Intherapeuticsettingstherelationshipbetweencounsellorandclient/patientisknownasthe‘workingalliance’.Mostcoachingresearchisfocusedonexecutivecoaching,thoughnotalwaysexclusivelyaimedat the C-suite of executives and organisational power-brokers, and it is often used with senior managers andleaders.Arguablythissortofintensecoachingintervention,thoughpowerfulindrivingtheory,islessimportantintermsofpractice.Thereasonisthatmostcoachingisdeliveredbylinemanagersusingsomebasickeyskills.Oneofthekeyissuesfromastakeholderreflectionperspectiveiswhetherourevidencebasetakestrueaccountofthatfact,andwhetherinfactitiseffectiveasanintervention.

In the CIPD’s Coaching at the Sharp Endreport(Andersonetal2009),wefoundthatalinemanagerequipped with basic coaching skills could operate at both a basic performance level useful for managing day-to-day issues, setting goals and managing output, and/or they could operate as an empowering coach useful foradvanceddevelopment,leadershipandtalenttransitionprogrammes.Byusingthebasicskillsofcoaching,managerswereabletohaveabigimpactontheirreports.Byfocusingonthesekeyskillsandensuringthat there are appropriate support networks, targeted learning and development, and, where appropriate, supervisionandqualitycontrol,coachingcancontinuetomakeasignificantandlastingorganisationalimpact.Becausearguablylinemanagersaretheload-bearersofmostorganisationalcoaching,it’sappropriatetofocusonthisaspectofcoachingandtobuildthatrelationship.

Our 2012 Learning and Talent Developmentsurveyreportshowsthatsince2009coachingbylinemanagershasbeenseenasoneofthemosteffectiveformsofdevelopmentbyL&TDpractitioners.AsFigure1shows,linecoachinghasalsobeenseenasmoreeffectivethancoachingbyexternalpractitioners.

Appendix 3: From working alliance to workplace alliance: focusing on line manager coaching

0

2012

2011

2010

2009

Percentage

Line manager coaching

20 3010 40 50 60 70 80 90

External coaching

52 16

54 24

33 6351 18

33 46 16

Figure 1: Trend towards line manager coaching

Source: Compiled from the CIPD Learning and Talent Developmentsurveyreport2012.








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Mostevidenceabouttheimpactofcoachingfocusesontheimpactofexternalcoaches,who,inreality,provideonlyasmallnumberofspecialisedcoachinginterventions.Somemajoracademicstudieshavefocusedonmanagementcoaching.Therefore,themostlikelychannelforcoachingcapabilityisvialinemanagement.Figure2showsthebasicmodeloflinemanagercoachingdevelopedfromtheCIPD’sresearch.

Figure 2: The dimensions of coaching capability in managers

Coaching characteristics

Primary coaching

PERFORMANCE FOCUS

Maturecoaching

EMPOWERMENT FOCUS

• powerfulquestioning

• usingideas

• shareddecision-making

• encouragingproblem-solving

Development orientation

Performance orientation

Planning/ goal-setting

Effectivefeedback








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Theseskillsoflistening,questioning,beingsupportivebutchallenging,aswellashelpinganindividualtoclarifytheirthoughtsarefairlycommontoallhelpinginterventions.AsDeHaan(2008)explains,theyareessentially about the importance of the relationship:

The recent findings in psychotherapy are both sobering and instructive. If we accept them in relation to coaching as well, it is clear that we should place much less emphasis on ourselves as coaches during coaching, but should learn to put our relationships with our coaches and what is going on for coachees more at the centre. Following my reading of the meta analyses of psychotherapy I now find that many guides for coaches, including my own…place too much emphasis on the coach and specific coaching techniques.

One of the more interesting coaching research studies of recent years has focused on line management coachingbehaviouratoneUSfirm(ShipperandWeer2011).Thestudy–over15yearsusingalongitudinalapproach–hasmajorimplicationsforbothcoachingandmanagementpractice.Longitudinalstudiesevenofonefirmarerichresearchapproachesastheytrackdifferentcohortsofemployeesandeffectivelyallowustogaugeabeforeandaftereffect.Knownasapost-test and pre-test approach in psychological research, it’sarobustapproach.Thisisaveryrobustdesignforresearchintoworkplaceissues.Thestudy,thoughnotyetpublished,confirmsthefindingsofsomekeyworkinmanagementandpsychologyaroundthe‘intent’ofmanagementbehaviourusingadvanceddatamodellingbasedon360data.Itsuggeststhatwhateverthejob-taskingrequirement,andwhateverthedifficultyinmanagingthattask,theintent of the manager as a supportive individual and their ability to be level-headed, temperate and wise reduces stress levels and increaseseffectivenessofemployees.

Theresearchbuildsuponearlierworkthatidentifiedaknownratioofpositivetonegativecoaching.LosadaandHeaphy(2004)foundthattheratioofpositivetonegativecoachingisindicativeofteameffectiveness.Losada(1999)reportedthathighlyeffectiveteamshaveapositive/negative(P/N)ratioof5.6:1;moderatelyeffectiveteamshaveaP/Nratioof1.9:1;andlowlyeffectiveteamshaveaP/Nof0.36:1.Thus,itwouldappear that it would take three positive incidents of coaching to overcome a single negative incident of coachingrelativetoimprovingworkgroupeffectiveness.Thus,thelengthoftheimpactofpositiveversusnegativecoachingisofinterestaswellastherelativeweightsofthetwotypesofcoaching.

Shipper suggests that coaching by line managers conducted in a positive and supportive approach forms whatpsychologistscallpositiveemotionalattractors(PEAs).Feedbackgiveninanoffhandway,ortaskingor work allocation which doesn’t take account of an employee’s needs or stress levels, is seen as being a negativeemotionalattractor(NEA).ThisisbackedupbyneuroscientificstudiesconductedbyBoyatzisetal(2010)usingfunctionalmagneticresonanceimaging(fMRI).Theresearchisespeciallyresonantforteams–andforlinemanagercoaching.Iteffectivelyconfirmsmuchofthecommon-senseviewaboutwhatgoodlinemanagersdo.Anditconfirmsthevalueofquestioning,listening,empathyandsupportivechallenge,whichareattheheartofcoachingandmentoring.Byfocusingonthesesimpleandreplicabledimensionsof coaching and by moving away from the obsession with theories, techniques and schools, a core coaching capability in line managers can be developed that supports positive engagement, contributing to sustainable organisationperformance.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatthelinemanageristheonlyformofcoaching,butarguablythat conversation between line managers and members of their teams is the fulcrum of most organisational coachingandmentoring.Whatcouldbecalled‘workplacealliance’shouldbefocuseduponmorebecausetherearemajorbenefitstogettingitright.

Practitionersshouldalsoseektocapturethekeyinformationwithinthecoachingprocess.Eachcoachingconversation, for example, will use models such as GROW or solutions focus tools to develop the structure oftheconversation.IntheGROWconversation,forexample,the‘wayforward’stagecanbeusedforaten-minuteevaluationperiodaddressingwhetherthecoachandcoacheethinkprogresshasbeenmade.Thisshouldthenbequicklyreflectedonwithotherpartiestothecoachingrelationship.Suchapproachesofferasimpleandquickreviewoftheprocess.Scaling–wherethenumberedscaleisusedtodeterminehowmuchprogress has been made and target future improvements – is another useful approach to gathering data withinthecoachingconversation.Thiscanbelinkedtootherkeydataintheevidencecycle.








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AHN,H-N.andWAMPOLD,B.(2001)Whereohwherearethespecificingredients?Ameta-analysisofcomponentstudiesincounselingandpsychotherapy.Journal of Counseling Psychology.Vol48,No3,July.pp251–7.

ANDERSON,M.(2001)Case study on the return on investment of executive coaching [online].Executivebriefing.DesMoines,IA:MetrixGlobal.Availableat:http://www.coachfederation.org/includes/docs/053metrixglobal-coaching-roi-briefing.pdf[Accessed19September2012].

ANDERSON,V.,RAYNER,C.andSCHYNS,B.(2009)Coaching at the sharp end: the role of line managers in coaching at work.London:CharteredInstituteofPersonnelandDevelopment.

BLAKEY,J.andDAY,I.(2012)Challenging coaching: going beyond traditional coaching to face the FACTS. London:NicholasBrealey.

BOUDREAU,J.andJESUTHASAN,R.(2011)Transformative HR: how great companies use evidence-based change for sustainable advantage.SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.

BOYATZIS,R.,JACK,A.andCESARO,R.(2010)Coachingwithcompassion:anfMRIstudyofcoachingtothepositiveornegativeemotionalattractor.Academy of Management 2010 Best Paper Proceedings.BriarcliffManor,NY:AcademyofManagement.

BRIGHT,D.andCROCKETT,A.(2012)Trainingcombinedwithcoachingcanmakeasignificantdifferenceinjobperformanceandsatisfaction.Coaching: an International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice.Vol5,No1.pp4–21.

CHARTEREDINSTITUTEOFPERSONNELANDDEVELOPMENT.(2009a)Coaching at the sharp end: developing and supporting the line manager as coach [online].Practicaltool.London:CIPD.Availableat:http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/practical-tools/developing-line-manager-coaching.aspx[Accessed25September2012].

CHARTEREDINSTITUTEOFPERSONNELANDDEVELOPMENT.(2008)Developing coaching capability: how to design effective coaching systems in organisations [online].Practicaltool.London:CIPD.Availableat:http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/practical-tools/design-effective-coaching-systems-organisations.aspx[Accessed25September2012].

CHARTEREDINSTITUTEOFPERSONNELANDDEVELOPMENT.(2012)Learning and talent development [online]. Annualsurveyreport.London:CIPD.Availableat:http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/survey-reports/learning-talent-development-2012.aspx[Accessed25September2012].

CHARTEREDINSTITUTEOFPERSONNELANDDEVELOPMENT.(2009b)Learning and talent development. Annualsurveyreport.London:CIPD.

CHARTEREDINSTITUTEOFPERSONNELANDDEVELOPMENT.(2010)Real-world coaching evaluation: a guide for practitioners [online].Guide.London:CIPD.Availableat:http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/guides/real-world-coaching-evaluation.aspx[Accessed25September2012].

CHARTEREDINSTITUTEOFPERSONNELANDDEVELOPMENT.(2011)Sustainable organisation performance: what really makes the difference?Finalreport.(ShapingtheFuture).London:CIPD.http://www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/research/sustainable-organisation-performance-final-report.aspx[Accessed25September2012].

CUIJPERS,P.,VANSTRATEN,A.andANDERSSON,G.(2008)Psychotherapyfordepressioninadults:ameta-analysisofcomparativeoutcomestudies.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.Vol76,No6,December.pp909–22.

DEHAAN,E.(2008)Relational coaching: journeys towards mastering one-to-one learning.Chichester:Wiley.

DUIJTS,S.,KANT,I.andVANDENBRANDT,P.(2008)Effectivenessofapreventativecoachinginterventionforemployeesatriskforsicknessabsenceduetopsychosocialhealthcomplaints:resultsofarandomizedcontrolledtrial.Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.Vol50,No7,July.pp765–76.

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