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CPI Working Paper

Codes to Cleaner BuildingsSummer 2011

Ex Smma

Building ngy cods a usd woldwid o oo ngy cincy in uildings. Alhough hs

cods a widsad and hav h onial o yild high ngy savings, w analyss hav asudhi iac o using ngy consuion daa. Insad, os iac analyss loy uilding siu-

laion odls. Ths odls yically ak song assuions, os noaly ha cod colianc

is c and ha cods do no ac h havio o uilding occuans. In his a, w assss

h iac o sa ngy cods using sidnial ngy us daa a h sa lvl. By conducing

a gssion analysis coaing sas wih uilding ngy cods o hos wihou, w asu h

alizd ngy savings o ngy cods and coa h o h odld sias.

Codes to Cleaner Buildings

Jeff Deason and Andrew Hobbs

September 2011

Ky F

Th uilding ngy cods sudid a associad wih:

1. Lw mp p h .W nd a dcas o oughly 10% in ngy

us laiv o housholds ha w no uil und hs cods. Givn h nu o unis

acd y uilding ngy cods, w sia uilding ngy cods ducd sidnial

iay ngy consuion y 1.3% in 2008.

2. A h wa aa a a awa m - h , m ab

. W show ha housing unis uil und h sudid cods div a ga sha o hi

ngy o naual gas and lss o oh uls han unis no uil und hs cods.

This nding ay fc ovisions in h sudid cods ha ncouag high-cincy gas

unis and lcic ha us.

3. Lw m p h . Low ngy us in cod uildings ducs ngy- -

lad issions. Moov, gnaing ngy o dic cousion o naual gas is lssgnhous gas innsiv han uning oh uls such as ul oil. Ou suls suggs ha

h coind c o ngy savings and ul-swiching has dlivd aou a 16% duc-

ion in gnhous gas issions o an avag cod houshold. In aggga, his ans

ha uilding cods ducd 2008 sidnial uilding issions y aoxialy 1.8%.

Effectiveness of U.S. Building Energy Codes

A CPI Report

Version 1


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A CPI Report

Codes to Cleaner BuildingsSeptember 2011

Ths ndings a asd on an conoic analysis ha uss vaiaion in h iing o sa govn-

ns ilnaion o uilding ngy cods o isola h iac o uilding cods o undly-

ing i nds, sa chaacisics, consucion as, conoic condiions, shis in clia and

ics. Ou sagy nsus ha h ndings dscid aov canno aiud o naionwid

nds o individual sa chaacisics ha igh ohwis lad o inaccua conclusions.

Ou suls o da canno xclud h ossiiliy ha oh sa-lvl olicy changs, such as ali-anc sandads o uiliy dand-sid anagn ogas, had a ol in hs cs. I h ino-

ducion o oh ngy-saving ogas y sa is ighly could o cod inoducion, w ay

aiuing so savings o h ngy cods ha a in ac du o hs oh ogas.

Ou ndings suggs ha sandad ngining sias o ngy savings a asonal, a las o

h sudid cods; i anyhing, i aas ha hs sias ay low han acual savings. W

con ha uilding ngy cods hav ducd gnhous gas issions. Ou ndings also highligh

h iac o cods on ul choic, an c w hav no sn discussd lswh.

In uu wok, w will consid conolling o addiional olicis ha ay lvan; assssing cos

iacs o h cods; and coaing cod savings acoss din sas o idniy civ il-

naion and nocn acics.


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1 I

In his sudy, w sia h iac o uilding

cods in h Unid Sas on ngy consu-

ion in h sidnial sco using sa ngy

consuion daa. Rsidnial uildings consu22% o U.S. iay ngy and oduc 21% o

U.S. caon dioxid issions, so h onial

iac o cods govning his ngy us is su-

sanial. Much o his ngy (aou 54% in nal

s o 42% in iay s as o 2008) is

usd o sac haing and sac cooling, hough

h shas vay y gion.

Building ngy us o sac haing and cooling

dnds signicanly on ha fow ino and ou

o h uilding, which is conolld y h uild-

ing nvlo. Building ngy cods a dsigndincially o gula h oanc o h

nvlo. Many uilding ngy cods also ac

h choic o haing, ai condiioning, and wa

haing unis du o ovisions ha allow nv-

lo quins o add o agains high

cincy quin (s scion 2.3 o o

dail). As shown in Figu 1, haing and cool-

ing loads accoun o o han hal o iay

houshold ngy us in cold gions and only

slighly lss in wa gions. Wa haing

accouns o aoxialy 15% o addiional

iay ngy us.

Building ngy cods a widly usd and con-

sidd an ioan div o ioving ngycincy (Mz al. (2007)). Fo govnn,

cods a inxnsiv o iln laiv o in-

cnivs o nancing asus.1 Fo hoowns,

hy ncouag cincy asus a h i

o consucion, which is gnally uch cha

han ilning hs asus a uilding

consucion.

1 We should note that enorcement o building codes, the responsibil-

ity or which alls to local government planning departments, is a

potentially time-consuming and expensive undertaking. Because o

the time and expense required, it is generally recognized that code

noncompliance is an issue. See, or example, Yang (2005).

Fl y (al mm calld gy)

mau h gy dlvd h buldg

l. Py y (al mm calld

uc gy) mau h gy

ul hmlv b hy a cvd

cday gy m. Th dc bw

h w mau zabl lccy,

whch a cday ul gad mly m

may ul uch a cal ad aual ga. Pma-

y gy vd a ull accu h hu-

hld gy , ad w h cu

may gy mac h , hugh

fal gy ul a cludd h adc.

Figure 1. Residential primary energy use proles vary throughout the U.S.

Souc: Buildings Engy Daaook 2011


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Scion 2 o his a dscis uilding ngy

cods in h Unid Sas, including hi hisoy,

dvlon ocss, and an ovviw o hi

ovisions. Scion 3 viws h liau on

sias o cod iacs. Scion 4 dscis

ou hods and h daa w usd o sia

uilding ngy cod iacs. Scion 5 sns

ou suls o da. Scion 6 discusss h olicy

ilicaions o ou suls, and Scion 7 idni-

s onial nx ss o uu sach.

2 Ra B

E C h

U Sa

2.1 C C D

A Pc

Fdal, sa, and local govnn agncis all

aicia in uilding ngy cod dsign and

ilnaion in h U.S. (s Figu 2). Rsi-

dnial odl cods a dsignd y h Inna-

ional Cod Council (ICC).2 Th ICC is a nono

on-shi oganizaion coosd o

snaivs o vaious lvls o govnn

as wll as uilding indusy ossionals and

oh lvan oganizaions and individuals. Only

govnnal s hav voing ighs, u all

s aicia in discussions aou cod

dsign and vision. Cods a cunly visdon a h-ya cycl. Th ICC ngy cod3 is

known as h Innaional Engy Consvaion

Cod (IECC).

2 Despite the title and open membership, the ICC is an American insti-

tution. No other countries make direct use o the ICC codes, though

many countries use them as a reerence or their own code design.

3 The ICC also issues many other building codes covering issues such

re saety, plumbing, mechanical and electrical systems, etc.

Th U.S. Dan o Engy (DOE) analyzs

ach nw odl cod o din whh i is

xcd o sav ngy coad o is d-

csso and ulishs is valuaion. DOEs Build-

ing Engy Cods Poga (BECP) hn oos

h odl cod o h sas and ovids nan-

cial and chnical assisanc o sa os o

ado, noc, and assss colianc wih hs

odl cods. Howv, h dal govnn

has no auhoiy o dicly gula uilding n-

gy cincy in any sa o local juisdicion.4

Th sas do hav his auhoiy, and as o

id-2011 40 o h 50 sas hav adod a

sawid sidnial uilding ngy cod. Whn

a nw odl ngy cod is issud and DOE

dins ha i will sav ngy, sas a -

quid o assss whh h cod is aoia

in hi conx, hough hy a no quid o

ado i. Mos sas hav adod so vsion

o h IECC, on wih a handul o siulad

visions o ada i o h aicula sasing. Fou sas Calionia, Floida, Ogon,

and Washingon hav dsignd and adod

sa ngy cods ha a no closly lad o

h IECC. As o id-2011, accoding o BECP, n

sas hav dclind o ado a inding sawid

cod, hough so o hs sas oo cods

and o suo o local govnns ha wish

o ado h o o uilds who coly on a

volunay asis.5

Local govnns us aly h sawid

cod. Thy also hav h auhoiy o adongy cods hslvs, and in so cass do

so. A w unicialiis hav also adod o

singn ovisions han h sawid ngy

4 The ederal government can regulate ederal buildings and manuac-

tured housing (more commonly known as mobile homes).

5 The BECP maintains a map indicating the residential building energy

code status o each state at http://www.energycodes.gov/states/

maps/residentialStatus.stm.

Figure 2. The code adoption process


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cod, vn wh on is sn.

2.2 Hy C C

A

In h aly 1970s, so sas gan iln-ing uilding ngy cods. Th s cod o s

widsad adoion was h Aican Sociy o

Haing, Rigaing, and Ai Condiioning Engi-

ns (ASHRAE) Sandad 90-75, issud in 1975

and ackd y h Council o Aican Building

Ocials (CABO) in 1977 ollowing a ulic ha-

ing and vision ocss sonsod y h Engy

Rsach and Dvlon Adinisaion (a

dcsso o DOE). This cod was udad in

1980 as Sandad 90A-1980. I aas ha os

sas had adod a vsion o hs cods y

h i h s naional odl cod was ad-od in 1992 (Hldnand (2001)).

Th Engy Policy Ac o 1992 cad h BECP

and andad DOEs ol in h dvlon

o odl cods and in suoing sa ado-

ion. Sinc h ogas incion, h DOE has

adod cods dsignd y uilding associaions

coisd o govnn and iva acos. Th

s sidnial odl cod was h 1992 Modl

Engy Cod (MEC) issud y h CABO. Udas

w issud in 1993 and 1995. CABO hn gd

wih sval oh uildings associaions o o

h ICC in 1998. Th ICC issud h s IECC in

1998, wih udas in 2000, 2003, 2006, and

2009. A nw IECC will adod in 2012. Th

ICC has also issud occasional sulns o

h cod.

As shown in Figu 3, h 1992 MEC is o

singn han Sandad 90A-1980; ngining

sias suggs i should sav 5% o ngy

us in a yical ho laiv o h Sandad.

Accoding o hs sias, os-1992 udas

o h odl cod hav had laivly lil ngy

saving iac u unil h 2009 cod, which

sns a susanial ighning o h qui-

ns. Unounaly, ngy consuion daa

a no y availal o h yas sinc h 2009

cod was adod.

Mos sas hav adod so vsion o h

IECC o h MEC. Howv, any lag yas hind

h cun odl cod (s gu 4).6

6 The data used to generate the gure were developed by Pacic

Northwest National Laboratory (D. Belzer, personal communication,

28 July 2011). Where state-developed codes are in place, they are

designated by the model code deemed most closely equivalent.

Some states that do not have statewide codes were judged to have

efectively adopted state codes due to local action, and thus appear

as having codes in this gure.

Figure 3. Projected impacts o building codes relative to baseline.

Source: D. Belzer, Pacic Northwest National Laboratory


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2.3 C Pv

Acy

Boadly saking, h IECC sidnial cod lacs

quins on h uilding hal nvlo

and haing, cooling, and wa haing syss

(such as iing and ducwok). Th cod dos nodicly gula7 h ngy oanc o a-

liancs hslvs; dvics such as unacs, ai

condiions, igaos, and wa has a

gulad y DOEs Aliancs and Cocial

Equin Sandads Poga. Howv, cods

io o h 2009 IECC allowd ados wn

haing, cooling, and wa haing quin

and oh cod quins (s h o-

anc colianc hod low). Th hal

nvlo ovisions s vaious quins o

R-valus o insulaion, U-acos o windows,and sola ha gain cocins, which vay y

7 Some code editions include minimum perormance requirements or

heating, cooling, and water heating equipment; however, these provi-

sions match the prevailing appliance standards.

clia zon.8 Oh ovisions includ ai igh-

nss quins and insulaion quins

o ducs and is.

Th IECC alis o nw sidnial consucion9

as wll as o so alaions o xising suc-

us. Th a a nu o xcions o silalaions, and vn non-x alaions only

igg h cod o h ald sac, no h

ni housing uni. Unounaly, lial daa on

housing alaions a unavailal. In his analy-

sis w assu cods sav ngy only hough

hi iac on nw housing unis.10

8 R-values and U-actors are used to measure thermal resistance in

insulation and windows, respectively.

9 The residential portion o the IECC applies to all residential buildings

under our stories in height. Taller residential buildings are regulated

by commercial building codes. We omit buildings with more than vehousing units rom our analysis to account or this act, but doing so

does not substantially afect the results.

10 Most existing estimates make this assumption as well. Two excep-

tions are Alliance to Save Energy (2010) and Wilcox (2007). In these

studies, however, only 15 to 20% o savings come through alterations

to existing buildings, so their work provides some justication or

No: Sa dvlod cods a achd wih oughly quivaln IECC cods in his gahic. Souc: D.

Blz, Pacic Nohws Naional Laoaoy

Figure 4: Building code stringency


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To coly wih h IECC, on ay choos ih

h sciiv o oanc ahway. Fo

h sciiv ahway, on ay ih saisy

all ovisions individually o choos a oal uild-

ing aoach ha calculas h U-aco o h

ni uilding hal nvlo whil ullling

oh quins individually. Th oancahway uss siulad uilding oanc

sowa o calcula h annual ngy cos o

h uilding as dsignd, nsuing ha i is lss

han o qual o ha o an quivaln uilding

uil in accodanc wih h individual ovisions.

DOE anags h dvlon o h RESChck

sowa ool, which is aovd y os sas

o oal uilding U-aco calculaions. Whil RE-

SChck is no a oal uilding siulaion, i dos

ovid an aoxia uilding-wid calculaion

ha so sas hav aovd o h o-anc ah. Sa o local cod ocials a -

sonsil o aoving oh uilding siulaion

sowa o oanc ah dinaions.

In odl cods io o 2009, insalling a high-

cincy unac an h insulaion qui-

ns o h aind o h uilding w

ducd. Th 2009 IECC liinas h ailiy o

ad nvlo quins agains uni -

oanc. Many oh cods, in U.S. sas and

ovsas, coninu o allow such ados.11

3 Ex Wk

Evn hough uilding ngy cods hav xisd in

h U.S. o alos 40 yas, vidnc o hi -

civnss asd on acual ngy consuion

daa has only cnly gun o g. Mos

sias o cod iac ha w hav ound us

uilding ngy siulaions o calcula h di-

nc wn a yical unis ngy consu-

ion und h nw cod and und h viouscod. Thy hn ulily his aoun y h oal

nu o unis consucd und h nw cod

ocusing on new build impacts.

11 Examples: In addition to previous versions o the IECC, which are still

in use in many states, the current version o Caliornias Title 24 code

(which is not substantially based on the IECC) allows these tradeofs

in the perormance path, as does the German energy code.

o sia oal cod savings.12

Rasons o xc ha nd us ngy savings

causd y h cod igh di o ngining

sias includ:

Cd cmlac. Engining calculaions i-licily assu ha cod colianc is -

c. In ac, any sudis (s Yang (2005)

o a suay) hav shown ha colianc

is a o c. Moov, vn wh

h is aan colianc, is-insallaion

o io ainnanc can duc h

ngy-saving iac o cod asus.

N-addal cd v. Ths calcula-

ions assu ha h ngy-saving a-

sus quid y h nw cod would no

hav n undakn wihou h cod. This

ay no always h cas; o xal,

chnological iovns igh lad o n-

gy savings vn i h cod did no qui

h.

Rbud c. An iovd uilding nvlo

aks i cha o ha and cool, as lss

condiiond ai is los o h nvionn.

As a sul, uilding occuans ay incas

hi us o sac condiioning o so

xn, osing so o h ngy savings

h nvlo gnas. Building ngy siu-

laions do no aco in havioal sonss

o his kind.

Sllv c. Building cods ay ac

uilding acics gionally and lad o

iovns in acic ousid o hi

juisdicions. I his is h cas, ou odl will

undsia h c o ngy cods, as

i will coaing h o a aslin ha is

also xincing so ngy savings o

h cod. Ths sillov ns will no

caud y ou sias.

Ou conoic analysis ds hs acos.

Ou sia yilds h n iac o h cods;

howv, i is siln on h laiv iacs o

hs acos.

12Analyses using variants o this calculation include Alliance to Save

Energy (2010), Wilcox (2007), and Pacic Northwest National

Laboratory (2009).


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Th alis conoic sudy w a awa o

ha ss h iac o uilding ngy cods

wih ngy us daa is Ja and Savins (1995).

Th auhos us sval vaials, including uild-

ing cods, o xlain h lvl o insalld hal

insulaion in nw ho consucion in h U.S.

Thy nd ha h sudid cods do no hav asaisically signican c on insulaion lv-

ls. Thi xlanaion is ha os cods in hi

sudy (all o which dad h 1992 MEC) w

likly non-addiional in h sns ha sandad

insulaion acic alady o xcdd h.

Aiua al. (2009) sudy h iac o uiliy

dand-sid anagn on sa lciciy

consuion ov a siila i a o ou

sudy and includ uilding cods as a conolling

vaial. Thi s sia o cod iacs is a

vy sall lciciy savings.

On h oh hand, h cn sudis ocus on

cods and show saisically signican iacs.

Jacosn and Kochn (2010) sudy h iac

o a singl chang o h Floida sa cod on

lciciy and naual gas consuion using

houshold-lvl illing daa. Thy show ha -

sidnc lciciy and naual gas consuion

dcasd y aoxialy 4% and 6% sc-

ivly a h ilnaion o h cod, and

ha hs changs a no xlaind y -x-

ising nds. Cosa and Kahn (2010) us hous-hold-lvl daa in a Calionia couny o show ha

uilding cods hav n associad wih ducd

sidnial lciciy dand. Thy do no si-

a cs on naual gas consuion. Aoon-

ungsawa al. (2009) is h closs cousin

o ou sudy. Th auhos us vaiaion in cod

adoion y sa ov i o idniy h c

o cods on sidnial lciciy consuion in

h U.S. Thy nd ha uilding ngy cods a

associad wih a 2 o 5% ducion in caia

sidnial lciciy consuion. Thy also

show h lvl o o sas x o iln

and noc cod colianc, as asud y h

Aican Council o an Engy Ecin Econoy

(ACEEE)s Sa Engy Ecincy Scocad, is

usul in xlaining cod iacs: sas wih a

sco show ga lciciy savings. Thy

do no sia cod cs on h consuion

o naual gas o oh uls.

4 S Mh a

Daa

This sudy sias h c o uilding ngy

cods on sidnial ngy consuion and

gnhous gas issions a h sa lvl. W

xain cod iacs on lciciy, naual gas,

and oh uls individually, as wll as iacs on

oal nal and iay ngy consuion and

gnhous gas issions. In od o isola h

iac o h cods, w conol o oh io-

an acos acing uilding ngy consu-

ion, such as ngy ics, conoic condiions,

wah, clia, and sidnial consucion

as. Ou odl also accouns o acos ha do

no vay acoss sas, such as dal olicy o

naionwid nds. Ou daa cov h 48 con-innal U.S. sas and h yas 1986 hough

2008. S Andix A o dails on h daa.

To u ou sagy o wok, w nd o know

whn ach sa adod ach vsion o h

cod. Cod adoion daa a asd on a daa-

as coild y sa involvd in h Da-

n o Engys Building Engy Cods Poga

a h Pacic Nohws Laoaoy.13 Th daa

indica whn ach sa adod ach d-

al odl cod, ginning wih h 1992 MEC.

Wh sas dvlo hi own cods, h PNNL

daa ach h sa cod wih h os siila

naional odl cod a h i.

Coining daa on nw consucion and cod

saus, w asu h acion o occuid unis

in a givn sa uil und an ngy cod a las

as singn as h 1992 MEC. This is h iay

vaial o ins o ou analysis. I uilding

ngy cods sav ngy, sas wih a lag

cnag o housing sock uil und a cod

should consu lss ngy housing uni,holding all ls qual. W gss his vaial

on vaious asus o sidnial ngy us in

ach sa in ach ya. Ou odl conols o

h oh vaials discussd aov as wll as o

13 Data supplied by D. Belzer, PNNL. In addition to work by staf at

PNNL, the code adoption dates are also based upon newsletters pub-

lished by the Building Codes Assistance Project (BCAP). See website

http://bcap-energy.org/.


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naionwid i nds and sa-scic acos

ha igh diso ou sul. R o Andix

B o a o daild discussion o ou odling

hodology.

Ou as analysis as as qual all cods ha

a a las as singn as h 1992 MEC, u oand including h 2006 IECC, ho siaing

h avag c o all hs cods as a gou.

This choic signicanly incass h saisical

ow o ou aoachin oh wods, ou ailiy

o disinguish h c o h cods o oh

nds. As Figu 5 shows, ou daa includ a aily

sall nu o yas duing which a os-1992

cod was in lac. Th sall nu o osva-

ions ducs ou ow o sia h iacs

o ach cod saaly. In Andix 1, w s-

n suls o odls ha sia h co ach cod saaly. Ths suls cay o

saisical uncainy, so w hav lss condnc

in h.

W should no ha h a sval asons o

liv ha h cods adod y din sas

would hav din iacs. Fis, odl cods

hav co sowha o singn ov i.

Accoding o ngining siulaions, howv,

h dincs wn h cods w sudy a

no daaic. Figu 3 shows ha h odld

nal ngy savings o h 1992 MEC laiv o

h sud Sandad 90A aslin is aou 4

o 5%, and ha susqun cods hough h

2006 IECC iov on h 1992 MEC y aou

h sa aoun in oal.14 Scond, sas on

ado odl cods wih andns, aning

ha wo sas adoing cods asd on h sa

odl cod a likly no adoing h xac sa

ovisions. W undsand o convsaions

wih uildings xs ha hs changs nd o

ino, alhough so ay hav ilicaions

o ou ul-scic suls.15 W ho do no

a h xlicily, so ou sia asu h

avag c o all cod vsions. Thid, h lvl

o o sas dvo o ooing cod coli-

anc hough aining and nocn aciviis

vais. Aoonungsawa al. (2009) show hasas scoing on uilding ngy cod

colianc os in ACEEEs Engy Ecincy

Scocad sav o ngy hough hi cods.

W ay xlo such cs in a uu xnsion

14The considerably more aggressive 2009 and 2012 codes provide ad-

ditional evidence that we should view the post-1992 changes through

2006 as relatively minor.

15 Specically, at least a ew states have adopted provisions limiting the

use o electric resistance heating, an issue we may address in uture

work.

Figure 5: Percent o occupied units under each code: 2008 regional average

Basd on cnsus consucion daa and cod adoion daa sulid y D. Blz o Pacic

Nohws Naional Laoaoy


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o his analysis. In h nd w a condn ha

non o hs issus invalidas ou choic o ool

all h cods o his sudy.

5 Ema CImpa

W siad wo odls o cod c. Th

s (Modl 1) asus h avag iac o

all uilding ngy cods a las as singn as

h 1992 MEC. Th scond (Modl 2) asus

h avag iac o all sa cods ha a

asd on a naional odl cod. Fou sas in ou

daasCalionia, Floida, Ogon, and Washing-

onhav dvlod hi own cods ha a no

asd on any vsion o h MEC o IECC, so hya oid in Modl 2.

Figus 6 and 7 sn h avag siad

-houshold iac o uilding ngy cods on

ou ngy us asus: oal iay ngy,

naual gas, iay lciciy, and oh uls.

As xlaind ali, iay ngy is h oal

houshold ngy ooin.

As shown, h snc o an ngy cod is

associad wih low iay ngy us

houshold. Th cods a also associad wih

dcasd consuion o lciciy and oh

uls16 and qual o slighly incasd consu-

ion o naual gas. W sia ha h ngy

savings cosond o a 16% (3.7 onns) duc-

ion in gnhous gas issions17 houshold

16 Primarily uel oil, but also includes wood, kerosene, coal, and

propane.

17 We calculate greenhouse gas emissions changes rom natural gas,electricity, and uel oil only. We aggregate uel-specic CO

2-equiva-

lent emissions actors or CO2, CH

4, and N

2O.

Figure 6: (Model 1) Average estimated annual impacts o building energy codes on household pri-

mary energy consumption

Eo as indica 95% condnc inval asd on a wo-aild s.

Figure 7: (Model 2) Average estimated annual impacts o model code-based building energy codes

on household primary energy consumption

Eo as indica 95% condnc inval asd on a wo-aild s.


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9A CPI Report


ya in Modl 1 and an 11% (2.6 onns)

ducion houshold ya in Modl 2.

Ou ovall suls a siila o h wo od-

ls. Howv, Modl 1 shows a lag, saisically

signican dcas in lciciy us and a sall

incas in naual gas us, whil Modl 2 showsa sall dcas in lciciy us and ssn-

ially no chang in gas us. W us ho

cauious in asciing cs on hs wo

uls o h odl cods; i aas ha h ou

sa-dvlod cods ay hav ah din

iacs. W discuss his issu uh in Scion

5.2 low.

5.1 Ic Py Ey U

W nd ha h ngy cods sudid a savingngy in sidnial uildings. Modl 1 suggss

11% iay ngy savings, whil Modl 2 sug-

gss 10%. Boh suls a saisically signi-

can. Agggaing h Modl 1 savings sia

ov all cod-uil housing unis in 2008, h nal

ya o ou daa, indicas ha h sudid cods

savd 28 illion BTUs o ngy in ha ya. This

sns 1.3% o U.S. iay sidnial ngy

us in 2008.

Ou s sias o h c o cods on i-

ay ngy consuion a high han siula-ions suggs. Coining daa on h nu o

unis consucd und ach cod wih siulad

sias o Pacic Nohws Naional La,

h avag ho uil und a cod duing h

iod sudid would xcd o duc is

ngy consuion y 5%. Whil ou sias

a high, 5% is conaind in h condnc

inval o oh sias.18

Th a sval acos ha could hl xlain

why ou sias o ngy savings housing

uni a high han h ngining sias:

Ou cun odl dos no conol o oh

olicy (such as alianc sandads and uiliy

DSM ogas) ha would xcd o

18 5% savings is within the 95% condence interval in both model. The

5% estimate is also within the 90% condence interval in Model 2,

though it is just outside the 90% condence interval in Model 1.

duc houshold ngy us. I sas19 nd

o ado hs oh asus a h sa

i as hy ado uilding ngy cods,20

ou cun odl would aiu so o

h iacs o hs ogas o cods.

Du o daa liiaions, i is likly ha wxcludd so housing unis o ou coun

o cod-uil unis. In od o liina lag

uildings covd y cocial cods, w

dod all unis in uildings wih o han

v unis. This ans w a aiuing ov-

all ngy savings o h cod o a sall

nu o unis, incasing h -uni c

siz. Whn w un h sa analysis wih all

o hs unis includd, ou -uni iay

ngy savings sia in Modl 1 dos

u only o 9% (s Andix A and Tal

13 o o). This valu ovids a ouslow ound sia, as his odl cainly

ovsias h nu o unis acd y

h cod. Th nu o cod unis assud

should hav no c on ou calculaion o

oal cod savings, howv.

Rladly, w do no accoun o h sav-

ings cods ay achiv hough os o

xising uildings. As discussd in Scion 2.3

aov, so xising analyss suggs ha 15

o 20% o cod iacs ay co hough

o. I u, ou sias o iay n-gy iacs nw housing uni a aou

2% oo high. Again, ou oal ngy savings

sias should sill accua.

In consucing h ngining sia, w

us Sandad 90A-1980 o sia aslin

ngy us. I insad so o hs sas

had no cod, o cods inio o Sandad

90A-1980, io o adoing a os-1992 MEC

cod, hn h aslin ngy cincy in

ou daa is wos han h ngining si-

a aslin, aning ou suls would no coaal o h ngining sias.

This aco dos no ac h accuacy o ou

19 Fdal regulatory activity would not be an issue here, as our xed

efects econometric model controls or changes that afect all states

at the same time; see Appendix B or discussion o the model.

20 Arimura et al. (2009) show that building code adoption and utility

DSM expenditures are slightly correlated in their dataset, which is

similar to ours.


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10A CPI Report


sia, u ah h validiy o h co-

aison o h ngining sia.

On h oh hand, on aco suggss ha ou

suls ay iss so ngy savings cad y

h cods. Whn cods advanc uilding acic

in juisdicions ha ado h, h is ason

o xc ha hs advancs ay sill ov

ino oh sas as uilds ada and lan.

Ou odls do no accoun o such cs, and

hy undcoun savings in wo ways. Fis,

savings in sas wihou cods a no cdid o

h cods y ou odl. Scond, non-cod sas

in ou odls o h aslin o o which cod

savings a siad. I h ngy us o hs

sas ds so savings, his aslin is

o cin han a u no-cod aslin, and i

ho aas ha cods a saving lss han

hy ally a.

Givn h uncainy in ou odl as wll as h

acos discussd in h vious aagahs, w

viw ou suls as consisn wih h ngin-

ing sias, suggsing ha, i anyhing, h

ngining sias a oo low.

5.2 F-Scfc Ic

Us o oh uls iaily ul oil has alln

in oh odls; hs suls a saisically sig-

nican. Modl 1 shows a saisically signican

dcas in lciciy us o aoxialy h

sa cnag as h ovall dcas in ngy

us. Modl 2 shows a sall c on lciciy

ha is no saisically signican. Modl 1 sug-

gss ha naual gas us has isn, hough h

nding is no saisically signican; Modl 2

shows no c on naual gas us.

In ining hs suls, w no ha ach is

a coosi o wo cs: a gnal dcas in

ngy us and, onially, a shi in ul choic.This is aiculaly noal o lciciy, which

coiss a lag sha o sidnial iay

ngy in h U.S. Whn w dic h sha

o ngy us o ach ul wih ou gssion

odl, w lan ha h lciciy sha is un-

changd in Modl 1 and acually gos u in Modl

2. Gas shas go u and oh shas down in

oh odls.

As nod in scion 2.3, h odl cods in his

sudy allow ngy-saving ados wn

haing and wa haing unis and h uild-

ing nvlo wh h oanc ahway

is lcd. Ths ovisions scically ncou-

agd naual gas haing and wa haing and

lcic ha us, whil discouaging lcicsisanc ha. Th incass in naual gas us

ha w osv a consisn wih his ovision,

whil h dcas in us o oh uls suggss

susiuion away o h and owads naual

gas o ha us.

As o lciciy, h n iac o h cod ovi-

sions on ul choic is aiguous, as hy n-

couag ha us whil discouaging lcic

sisanc haing. Modl 1 (all uilding ngy

cods) shows a song ducion in lciciyus han Modl 2 (cods asd on naional odl

only). This suggss h ou sa-dvlod

cods igh includ song ovisions o dis-

couag lciciy us. In ac, h h Ws

Coas sas hav cod ovisions ha discouag

lcic sisanc ha. Haing is a laivly

sall coniuo o uilding ngy consuion

in h ouh sa (Floida), so w would xc

lil ngy iac o any haing-lad ul-

swiching ha h cods did oiva.

5.3 Ic Gh G

E

Boh odls show susanial and saisically

signican ducions in gnhous gas is-

sions associad wih cods. Modl 1 sias a

16% ducion in issions houshold, whil

Modl 2 sias 11%. Th ac ha Modl 1

sias ga gnhous gas ducions can

acd o h ul-scic iacs. Modl 1

(and y ilicaion h ou sas xcludd o

Modl 2) shows o naual gas us and lsslciciy us in cod housholds. Buning naual

gas in h ho is considaly lss issions-

innsiv han consuing lciciy o h

cun U.S. gnaion ix.

Taking h -houshold ducion sia

nod und Modl 1 aov and ulilying i y

h 14 illion housholds uil und on o h


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11A CPI Report


sudid cods in 2008, w sia ha is-

sions w 52 illion onns CO2-quivaln

low in 2008 han hy would hav n had in

h asnc o ngy cods. This is aou 1.8%

o U.S. gnhous gas issions o sidn-

ial uildings in 2008 (U.S. Dan o En-

gy (2010)). As uilding ngy cods cosic and h ooion o sidnial uildings

uil und odn cods iss, hs savings can

xcd o incas signicanly.

6 P Impa

W highligh ou oins o olicy ha ollow

o ou sudy.

Fis, uilding ngy cods claly aa o succssul in saving ngy in sidnial uild-

ings. Nowihsanding onial colicaions

cad y noncolianc, non-addiional cods,

and ound cs, ou odls show savings

wih a high lvl o cainy. Th avag

houshold ngy savings (asud in ih

nal o iay s) dlivd y ngy cods

in h iod o 1992-2008 a on h od o

n cn laiv o io acic.

Scond, uilding ngy cods hav n civ

in ducing gnhous gas issions o uild-

ings. Ou odl sias ha houss uil und

ngy cod gis w associad wih 16%

low gnhous gas issions, yilding a 1.8%

ovall ducion in sidnial uilding issions

in 2008.

Thid, ou suls suggs ha h sudid cods

dlivd savings ha a siila o hos s-

iad y ngining odls. Ou sias

asd on x ngy us daa a sowha

high, hough sval acos nod in scion 5.1ay xlain his discancy. Moov, h un-

cainy in ou sias o cod iacs ans

hy a no inconsisn wih h ngining

sias. Could wih oh cn ndings

(Aoonungsawa al. (2009) and Jacosn

and Kochn (2010)), ou suls suggs ha

non o h aov-nod colicaions is signi-

can nough o waan a sysaic downwad

adjusn o odld savings.

Fouh, cod ovisions acing ul choic

hough h us o h oanc ahway o

colianc o hough sa-scic ovisions

aa o hav had an iac. Th colianc

ahway ovisions a oaly cin olicyin h sho un, u ay lss so in h long

un. A uni ha aks advanag o hs ados

ay insall a lss cin nvlo han would

ohwis allowd. Envlos a a o

ann uilding au han haing, cooling,

o wa haing unis. Tho, hs uildings

will likly lss cin han hy ohwis

would onc hs oiginal unis hav n

lacd. Moov, as h U.S. lcic suly is

dcaonizd, naual gas unis will dliv w

issions savings. Policyaks will nd o al-anc hs sho un and long-un iacs. W

no ha h 2009 IECC no long allows hs

ados, alhough so sas (.g., Calionia)

and naions (.g., Gany) do.

7 Pa Nx Sp/

F Wk

W hav idnid h ollowing avnus o o-

nial uu sach, and wlco dack:

Consid cos iacs o h cods. W can

calcula h oaional savings o -

ducd ngy ills achivd y cods using

ou daa. W could hn coa h o

sias o h addiional u-on cos

iosd y h cods o g a sns o h

ayack iod and dolla savings achivd

y h cods o housholds. W could also

consid such iacs o h sas and h

couny as a whol. Such ndings could

usul as indicaos o onial savings osas ha hav no y adod hs cods.

Incooa vaials ino ou odl ha con-

ol o oh sa-lvl olicis such as a-

lianc sandads and uiliy DSM ogas.

Th DSM vaial would fc vaious n-

gy cincy asus, oh o nw uild

and o, ha should hl xlain sidn-


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12A CPI Report


ial ngy consuion. Alianc sandads

would also ac oh nw uild and o,

hough h is laivly lil sa-scic

alianc gulaion. Including hs vaials

would allow us o isola h iac o

cods o oh coincidn olicy. W igh

also wan o includ a vaial cognizing

hos sas ha hav includd signican

disincnivs o lcic sisanc haing in

hi cod andns.

A o idniy which sas a achiving

ga ngy savings and issions duc-

ions hough hs cods hough hi i-

lnaion and nocn os. A s

s in his analysis would o incooa a

vaial o lvl o sa o in h odl,

as Aoonungsawa al. (2009) do wih h

ACEEE Scocad. I his vaial has xlana-oy ow (as i dos in Aoonungsawa

al. (2009)), w will hav ason o liv

ha ilnaion and nocn hav

signican dinial iacs and a woh

invsigaing. W should no ha il-

naion and nocn occu lagly a

h local lvls, which ans ha sa-lvl

analysis could iss ioan dincs.

Exlo h ossiiliy o gional sillovs.

I is ossil ha iovd uilding acics

in sas wih uilding ngy cods also havso iac on nighoing sas. I nigh-

oing sas n o uilding cods,

cod cs ay ga han ou cun

sias suggs.


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13A CPI Report


R

Allianc o Sav Engy (2010). Ponial na-

ionwid savings o adoion o h 2012

IECC. Tchnical o.

Aiua, T., Nwll, R. G., and Pal, K. (2009).

Cos-civnss o lciciy ngy

cincy ogas. SSRN Liay.

Aoonungsawa, A., Auha, M., and

Sansad, A. (2009). Th iac o sa

lvl uilding cods on sidnial lciciy

consuion. Woking Pa.

Blz, D. (2011). Psonal counicaion.

Tchnical o, Pacic Nohws Naional

Laoaoy.

Cosa, D. L. and Kahn, M. E. (2010). Why has

Calionias sidnial lciciy con-

suion n so fa sinc h 1980s?:

A icoconoic aoach. Woking

Pa 15978, Naional Buau o Econoic

Rsach.

Engy Inoaion Adinisaion (2010). Sa

ngy daa sys. Tchnical o. Hl-

dnand, J. L. (2001). Dsign and Evalua-

ion Ciia o Engy Consvaion in Nw

Buildings. Naional Insiu o Sandadsand Tchnology, Gaihsug, MD.

Jacosn, G. D. and Kochn, M. J. (2010). A

uilding cods civ a saving ngy?

vidnc o sidnial illing daa in

Floida. Woking Pa 16194, Naional

Buau o Econoic Rsach.

Ja, A. B. and Savins, R. N. (1995). Dynaic

incnivs o nvionnal gulaions:

Th cs o alnaiv olicy insu-

ns on chnology diusion. Jounal oEnvionnal Econoics and Managn,

29(3):4363.

Mz, B., Davidson, O. R., Bosch, P. R., Dav,

R., and My, L. (2007). Rsidnial and

Cocial Buildings. Caidg Univsiy

Pss, Caidg, Unid Kingdo and Nw

Yok, NY, USA.

Naional Cliaic Daa Cn (2011). Haing

and cooling dg day daa. Tchnical

o.

Pacic Nohws Naional Laoaoy (2009).

Iacs o h 2009 IECC o sidnial

uildings a sa lvl. Tchnical o.

U. S. Cnsus Buau (2011a). Inco. Tchnical

o.

U. S. Cnsus Buau (2011). Nw sidnial

consucion. Tchnical o.

U.S. Dan o Engy (2010). Buildings

Engy Daaook.

Wilcox, B. (2007). 2008 uda o h Calionia

ngy cincy sandads o sidnial

and nonsidnial uildings. Tchnicalo, Achicual Engy Cooaion.

Yang, B. (2005). Rsidnial ngy cod

valuaions: Rviw and uu dicions.

Tchnical o, Building Cods Assisanc

Pojc.


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14A CPI Report


App

A D

Ou uni o osvaion is a sa-ya. W oaind daa on housing uni consucion, nu o

occuid housing unis (U. S. Cnsus Buau (2011)), and dian houshold inco (U. S. CnsusBuau (2011a)) o h U.S. Cnsus Buau. W oaind haing and cooling dg days o h

Naional Cliaic Daa Cn (Naional Cliaic Daa Cn (2011)); hs gus a oulaion-

wighd and calculad laiv o a 65F as. Daa on ngy consuion and ail lciciy and

naual gas ics a o h Engy Inoaion Adinisaions Sa Engy Daa Sys (SEDS)

(Engy Inoaion Adinisaion (2010)). Pics a h oal vnu gnad y uiliis in ha

sa dividd y nu o unis sold. As such, hs ics a oad avags acoss uiliis in ach

sa and acoss icing schduls, which on vay acoss consuion locks. Tho, hs

ics asu h ic sn y uss wih so o. Th SEDS daa ovid avag annual ics

in noinal dollas, which w dfa using h Consu Pic Indx.

Daa on housing unis a issing acoss h ni sal o h ya 1999, so hy a inolad

o ha ya. Rsidnial uilding ngy cods only aly o uildings o h sois o lss. Ouhousing daa souc dos no idniy h nu o foos, u i dos saa unis locad in uild-

ings o v o o unis. Whil his suly dos no cosond xacly o h h-soy cuo, w

xclud unis in v-o-o-uni uildings. Including hs unis dos no chang h suls susan-

ially (s Tal 13)

Daa o h unis uil und ach cod a sud acoss yas o ach sa, saing whn h

sa adod a givn cod accoding o h daa o D. Blz and PNNL (Blz (2011)). Cods a

goud ino ou ailis: h 1992, 1993, and 1995 MEC; h 1998 and 2000 IECC; h 2003 IECC;

and h 2006 IECC. As such, hs a h cod ailis usd in ou analysis. Mos o ou odls ag-

gga hs cods uh ino on singl cod/no-cod vaial.

In od o oain houshold ngy consuion, w divid oal sa ngy consuion o

h SEDS daaas y h nu o occuid unis. W hn divid unis consucd und ach

cod y h nu o occuid unis o oain h acion o h housing sock uil und ach cod.

W a assuing ha all o h unis in ou consucion daa a occuid. In ac, w a oaly

couning so unis ha a id u nv uil. Howv, w a also issing unis uil in non-

id aas. Th cnsus sias ha aou wo cn o id unis a nv uil, whil

on avag v cn o unis a uil ousid o id aas. W sily assu ha hs

os os and ak h id coun as givn. Figus in h dnoinao do no su o his

asun o, as hy alady includ sias o non-id aas, lacn o h

housing sock, and vacancy as.

B Sc M

W odl h ngy consuion housing uni in h sidnial sco in sa s and ya ,E, as

a uncion o h acion o sidnial unis uil und a givn codFc,

, h acion o nw hos

(uil in 1992 o la) Nc,

, ul ics P, wah W

, and houshold inco Y

:

(1)E st = P staYst

cWst

texp g m cFc,st, b cNc,st

c = 1

C

/c = 1

C

/c mc m


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15A CPI Report


P is a vco including oh lciciy and naual gas ics, whil W includs oh haing and cool-

ing dg days. Th uncional o usd h is yical o h ngy dand liau. Though a i

o aniulaion, w aiv a h ollowing ducd o quaion:

In h cas wh w collas all cods o a singl vaial, his quaion cos

W sia hs quaions and vaians o h, as dscid in h scion low. W un h

odl on sval din dndn vaials: oal nal ngy us, oal iay ngy us, gn-

hous gas issions and (non-loggd) shas o lciciy, naual gas, and oh uls. Th co-

cins o ins in his odl a h c. Ths cocins can ind as h cn savings

aiual o h cod in qusion, o h avag cn savings aiual o all cods whn h

odl is scid as such. In h cas o h shas odls, h cocins should ind as

h chang in h sha o a givn ul aiual o cods.

W sia h odl using gnalizd hod o ons wih sandad os ha a ous ohoskdasiciy and s-od auocolaion. All odls includ sa and ya xd cs o

cau unosvd sa-scic and i-vaying acos.

Sicly saking, h ul ics (lciciy and naual gas, in ou odl) a no xognous vaials,

u a joinly dind along wih quaniis. W ho insun o hs ics using laggd

ics. As od in Tal 9, insuning o ics aks lil qualiaiv dinc in ou vaial

o ins, u oducs gnally o logical suls o h ic vaials. Laggd ic insuns

a includd in all suls unlss ohwis scid.

W also includ a lina i nd, whos cocin is saisically signican in os o ou odls.

As od in Tal 7, suls wihou h lina i nd a vy siila.

C R R

Tal 1 sns ull suls o siaion o quaion 3 on all dndn vaials. Th dndn

vaial suls a h sa as hos shown in gu 6 in h ain x, and w discuss h h.

As o h oh vaials, h gssion suls a gnally as xcd. All ls hld qual, nw

hos us o ngy and hav high issions, likly caus nw hos nd o lag han

h avag xising ho. High gas ics dcas nal ngy us, u acually incas iay

ngy us and gnhous gas issions, indicaing ha high gas ics ay ncouag swiching

o lciciy. High lciciy ics hav no iac on nal ngy us, likly again du o ul susi-

uion, u low iay ngy us and gnhous gas issions. Ex wah o ih kind

incass ovall ngy us and issions. High inco gnally incass ngy consuionand issions, u h c is usually no saisically signican.

Tal 2 shows h iac o all vaials on h shas o ach ul usd in hos. Building ngy

cod iacs a discussd in h ain x. Nw hos us lag shas o gas and oh uls, and

sall shas o lciciy. This is fciv o naional nds in nw consucion. High gas and

lciciy ics dcas h sha o hi cosonding ul and incas h sha o alnaivs.

Cold wah incass h sha o gas and dcass h sha o lciciy. Ho wah dcass

h sha o gas and oh uls, and incass h sha o lciciy. Ths suls a consisn wih

ln E st = a ln Pst + c ln Yst + t ln Wst + m stFc,st + b cNc,st + e stc = 1

C

/c = 1

C

/ (2)

lnEst = a lnPst + c lnYst +t lnWst + mFst +bNst + est (3)


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16A CPI Report


h ac ha gas and oh uls a usd iaily o haing, whil lciciy is also usd o cooling.

Inco has no signican c on ul shas. W also nd an undlying i nd owad gas and

away o oh uls.

To sn h coind c o changs in ul ix and ngy savings, w coin suls o

h sha odl (Tal 2) and oal ngy odl (Tal 1). Tha is, w coin siad changs in

iay ngy and ul shas wih aslin ngy consuion and ul sha gus o gna an

siad ovall chang in ngy us o ach ul. W calcula

wh S0 is h sha o a givn ul asn cods,S is h chang in sha, E0 is iay ngy uso a yical ho asn cods, and Eis h cn chang du o h cod. Th vaianc o hs

sias is hn calculad aoialy. This ovids h n c o oh ul swiching and

S0 +DS^ h )DE )E0 (4)


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17A CPI Report


ngy savings. Inuiivly, his caus h ac ha alhough h sha o a givn ul ay ain

unchangd, ducions in h houshold oal ay yild a n ducion.

Tal 3 shows h iac o doing sas wih sa-dvlod cods. Again, h cods vaial is

discussd in h ain x. Rsuls o all oh vaials a vy siila o h vious odl.

In Tal 5 w sn suls o odls including saa vaials o h nu o unis uil undach o h ou cod gous ovidd y Blz and PNNL. Rsuls o h 1992-1995 MEC cods a

oadly consisn wih h suls in h aggga odl, hough so ndings a lss saisically

signican. Rsuls o h 1998-2003 cods a gnally consisn wih h aggga odl, u a

alos nv saisically signican; h suls o oh uls gin o hav aically. Th 2006

suls a sang, u hy a asd on a vy sall nu o sa-yas, and hs cods a no

sn o a sucin oion o h anl o h suls o lial. Givn hs suls, w hav

o condnc in ou odls ha aggga cods.

Tal 7 shows h gssion suls wihou h lina i nd, hough ya duis a sill in

lac. No susaniv changs occu.

Tal 9 shows h odl wihou insuning o ic. No susanial changs occu in h vaial

o ins.

On onial issu o ou analysis is ha cods a adod and ad civ a vaious is du-

ing h calnda ya. PNNL ad o ack h civ da o h cod, ah han h adod

da, in hi daa; hy also s h da o h susqun calnda ya i h cod ca c-

iv duing h las ou onhs o a ya. Howv, vn wih hs daa acics, h is ason o

xlo lagging h cods. Cod colianc is gnally chckd a h dsign sag whn is a

suid. Tho, so uildings nishd sholy a a nw cod has n ilnd ay

hav alady n aovd, and colianc ay no chckd a h cod chang. W o

suls o lagging all cod adoion das y on ya in Tal 11 low. Rsuls a vy siila o

h as odl, indicaing ha h PNNL das ack acual cod ilnaion wll.

As nod in h Daa scion aov, w xclud housing unis in uildings o v o o unis o

ou daas, u his dos no xacly cosond o h s o uildings h sidnial cod covs

(hos ha a h sois o lss). In al 13 w ovid suls including hs unis. Rsuls a

siila, hough h nal ngy savings los signicanc and all cod iac sias ov owads

zo.

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