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Cognitive Approach Towards Leisure and Recreation Concepts:
Word Association Test
Meltem ALTINAY ÖZDEMİR*
*Travel, Tourism and Leisure Services, Vocational School, İstanbul Arel University, Turkey
Abstract
This research is aimed to reveal cognitive structures about leisure and recreation related concepts of students who are
studying in tourism programs at Istanbul Arel University and to determine misconseptions. A deliberate sampling method
was used in the research using qualitative research design. According to this sampling method, 63 (42 female, 21 male)
students who study at Culinary and Tourist Guidance Programs, Vocational School, İstanbul Arel University have been
applied Word Association Test (WAT) on 17th-18th September 2018. According to WAT, students are given key concepts
of leisure time and recreation, and they are asked to write the words that these key concepts brings to their minds within
certain period of time. The answers given by the students to concepts of leisure and recreation were created frequency tables
and concept maps using the NVivo program. As a result, 523 responses were collected from the students as total, leisure
(278) and recreation (245) responses. Cognitive perceptions of students for leisure are more dominant than recreation. The
concept of leisure is mostly associated with "resting" and "reading" words. "Traveling", "reading", "listening to music" and
"walking" are associated with the concept of recreation. Finally, it is seen that recreation usually has a cognitive perception
based on activities when leisure has a comprehensive cognitive perception in terms of tourism students.
Keywords: Leisure time, Recreation Culinary program, Tourist Guidance program, Word Association Test (WAT)
INTRODUCTION
Leisure has a centralized imporatnce within the social, cultural, economic and educational dimension of
modern cities. Leisure phenomenon of social factors including a significant period of time, affects almost
all aspects of social life. Recreation evaluated in leisure; makes it possible for people to change and renew
physically and mentally. According to Kılbaş (2010); leisure and recreational activities are in a constant
change relative to the needs of society and individual. In social structure, leisure and recreational
activities, which have a social or individual function, interact with socio-economic variables of society
and individual. First, socio-economic factors have characteristics specific to variables such as age and
gender. Individuals' social value judgments can also affect the way they view leisure and recreational
activities (Altınay, 2016).
This research aimed to determine knowledge levels about leisure and recreation by revealing cognitive
structures related to leisure and recreation concepts which have an important place in the social life of
individuals. This research has been carried out by the students who are studying in first and second
classes of Istanbul Arel University, Cooking and Tourist Guidance Programs. The answers given to
leisure and recreation concepts in the research using Word Association Test (WAT). Frequency tables and
concept maps were created using NVivo program.
1. LEISURE AND RECREATION
The concept of leisure which derives from the Latin word ‘licere’ is based on the Ancient Greek era
although it is based on primitive periods but is separated from other time varieties (D. J. McLean, 2006).
Leisure in ancient Greece; it is defined as the time spent to deal with and think about the superior values
of the world such as goodness, beauty, truth and knowledge (Aytaç, 2002). According to this definition,
leisure seems to be of great importance to the Greeks in terms of education. According to the definition
made during the Roman period, leisure is defined as being away from work and action, becoming
independent, living calm, calm and peaceful life. The Romans' view of leisure time is more utilitarian
than that of Greeks, and there are differences between the concepts of leisure time in the two periods.
Because, according to the Greeks, leisure does not have the same meaning for the Romans when
expressing concepts of aesthetic, spiritual and mental development. (Karaküçük, 2016).
When we look at the Middle Ages, the adoption of the Christian ideology, which emerged with the
collapse of the Roman Empire as a way of life, deeply affected the opinions of people on leisure. In this
period, leisure refers to work, learn, access to wisdom and transform according to social developments
(Holba, 2007). In the Industrial Revolution, which started in England in the 18th century, leisure became
more important as people started to work in factory in dissatisfied conditions and regular hours (Sarım,
1996). Changes in the social order, such as shorter working hours, longer annual leave and an increase in
retirement age necessitated the redefinition ofconcept of leisure. According to these changes, leisure is
defined as the time spent by individuals to sustain their lives (eating, drinking, sleeping and the simplest
personal cleaning) and0, time spent outside wages spent on continuity of their lives (making money,
social responsibilities) (Clawson & Kenetsch, 1971). As a result, leisure has become a factor in shaping
social building as a good quality, healthy and long life necessity (Altınay, 2016).
The recreation (Ozankaya, 1980), deriving from the word ‘recreatio’, which means renewal, rebuilding
or restructuring in Latin means activities in which people participate voluntarily with leisure and sports
purposes according to the Turkish Language Institution (Turkish Language Institution, 2018). However,
there are many definitions and explanations of recreation which covers a wide range of activities in scope.
Some of these definitions are as follows. According to Kraus (1985), recreation is a volunteer activity that
renews and rests the person after compulsory work and activities (Karaküçük, 2001). Edginton and Ford
describe recreation as activities in which volunteers participate in leisure of the individual (Edginton &
Ford, 1985). According to Sağcan's definition, recreation refers to voluntary participation in activities for
fun and rest in the leisure of individuals (Sağcan, 1986). According to Bayer, recreation defines the
person as a mental and physical renewal by making, or participating in these activities, connecting,
restoring, entertaining and enjoying life (Bayer, 1992). From a different perspective, McLean, Hurd and
Rogers describe recreation as all of the activities taking place in natural parks, cities, towns, community
centers, sports fields, water parks, recreational areas and parks in global dimension through public, semi-
public and private initiatives. (D. D. McLean, Hurd, & Rogers, 2008)
According to Bucher and Bucher, recreation is described as a sociological phenomenon, as well as social,
cultural and sportive activities that are appropriate for self, self-enjoyment making it a social personality
by getting rid of daily life and interacting with other people (Bucher & Bucher, 1974). Parallel to this,
Zorba means that recreation is important not in satisfaction of needs of an individual but in motivation of
society. Because individuals are considered as a part of society; recreational activities seem to be closely
related to society (Zorba, 2007).
Since the concept of recreation has a very wide range, no clear classification can be made. In the
literature, however, recreational activities have been tried to be categorized. These are classified
according to purposes including social, cultural, artistic, sportive, tourism and rest purposes (Karaküçük,
2001; Mirzeoğlu, 2003). Another classification is classified according to the action type that supports
active and passive participation. In addition to this classification, Mieczkowski classifies recreation both
openly and closedly in spatial terms (Mieczkowski, 1990). Another classification that Mirzeoglu has done
is classification of age, number of participants, time, space used and tsociological content and special
functions as commercial, social, international, aesthetic, physical and forest recreation (Mirzeoğlu, 2003).
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Aim of The Study
People want to get rid of their routine life standards, get new experiences outside the routine routine to be
physically, mentally and emotionally renewed and participate in various leisure activities to get rid of
their daily pleasurely in the activity (Akoğlan Kozak, 2017). In addition to this definition, when leisure
and recreation literature is examined, it is seen that different definitions are made within framework of
certain rules for leisure and recreation. However as the scope of the two concepts is broad, it affects the
definition of what is accepted and understood by all.
There is a certain awareness of these two concepts which are considered to be indispensable parts of life.
But as leisure and recreation are different definitions in literature, difference of each individual’s
participation in leisure and enjoyment activities cause cognitive differentiation. This differentiation also
leads to the difficult formation and uncertainty of cognitive structure of two concepts. That is why this
difficult form of cognitive structure arises from the fact that people can not fully relate conceptual
structures of subjects to their minds. For this reason, it is difficult for people to explain cognitive
structures of any subject. Gilbert et al, say that these structures can be explained by people’s thoughts on
key concepts (Gılbert, Boulter, & Rutherford, 1998).
For this reason, it was aimed to understand concepts of leisure and recreation in the research, to make
concept analysis and show scientific validity using Word Association Test and NVivo program. In this
direction, it was thought that students who study in the tourism-oriented programs of the vocational
school had information about leisure and recreation concepts and so conceptual framework of these
concepts has been researched.
2.2. Sample
Investigations aimed at examining cognitive perceptions express that it is difficult for individuals to
explain the cognitive structures that occur in the result of learning on any topic and these structures can
only be explained by revealing people's thoughts on key concepts (Keskin & Örgün, 2015; Yücel Güngör,
Doğan, & Güngör, 2017). For this reason, Word Association Test (WAT) was applied on January 17th-
18th to determine ideas of leisure and recreation of students in tourist guidance and cookery programs of
vocational school.
2.3. Data Collection Method
The research is based on a descriptive model attempts to describe and explain what events, objects,
entities, institutions, groups, and various fields are. Since the cognitive structure is a network (Tokcan &
Yiter, 2017) that describes relationships between concepts in memory at a certain level, descriptive
scanning model provides the opportunity to understand and group them well and their relationships are
determined (Selçuk, Palancı, & Kandemir, 2014). Word Association Test (WAT) was used as the data
collection tool in the study. This technique which is generally used in the field of science (Akpinar, 2016;
Ayaz, Karakaş, & Sarıkaya, 2016; Bahar & Özatlı, 2003; Kırtak Ad & Demirci, 2012; Köseoğlu & Bayır,
2011; Nakiboğlu, 2008; Özata Yücel & Özkan, 2010; Özatlı & Bahar, 2010; Polat, 2013) has recently
been used in social areas such as education (Çiftçi, 2009; Ekici, Gökmen, & Kurt, 2014; Ekici & H.,
2014; Eren, 2012; Işıklı, Taşdere, & Göz, 2011) and tourism (Keskin & Örgün, 2015; Keskin, Örgün,
Akbas Tuna, & Tuna, 2016; Keskin, Örgün, & Akbulut, 2017; Yücel Güngör et al., 2017).
WAT is one of the alternative measurement assessment techniques helps to determine whether the
relationships between concepts in memory are adequate and meaningful, allowing cognitive building, the
connection between concepts that make up this, the observation of the information network established in
the mind (Özatlı ve Bahar, 2010). A list of concepts associated with key concept is obtained in the mind
of the person by this method. It is assumed that answer words given by the individual calling from a long
recurring memory for a key concept indicate bonds and semantic closeness between these words in the
cognitive structure (Canbazoğlu, 2016; Köseoğlu & Bayır, 2011; Kurt, 2013; Önel & Yüce, 2016; Polat,
2013; Taştan & Kaya, 2014).
“Leisure and recreation” concepts are listed on a page 5 times as one under the other in the research. The
reason why one under the other is written 5 times is to avoid chained answer risk. Because participant is
able to write words that concept he writes as a response to the concept instead of the key concept in the
writing of the concept, and this can prevent it from reaching the purpose of the test. Because, participant
can write other words that concept he writes as an answer to concept instead of key concept in the concept
writing. This can prevent test from reaching its goal (Polat, 2013). In the study, participants were asked to
write relevant concepts that brought to mind of key concept within 30 seconds by explaining WAT. The
time period of 30 seconds was considered as appropriate time because it was determined as the most
appropriate time period in previous academic studies (Bahar, Johnstone, & Sutcliffe, 1999; Bahar &
Kılıç, 2001; Bahar & Özatlı, 2003; Çardak, 2009; Dikmenli, 2010a, 2010b; Ercan, Taşdere, & Ercan,
2010; Işıklı et al., 2011; Kempa & Nicholls, 1983; Keskin & Örgün, 2015; Özatlı, 2006; Polat, 2013).
Participants wrote words they thought were related to leisure and recreation concepts during this period.
In addition, the participant was given an extra 20 seconds as relevant sentence part (Ercan et al., 2010;
Şimsek, 2013) was more complicated and higher level than a single answer sentence (whether the answer
was scientific or not, containing different conceptual misconceptions) and played an important role in the
evaluation process.
2.4. Analysis of data
Collected data are evaluated in two ways. Scoring is done on the first evaluation. If words given by
individuals are correct, test score can be calculated by giving a score. A separate score is also given for
the desired sentence to check whether the answer given is meaningful. In the second evaluation, it is done
by frequency table consisting of answers given to key concepts. Frequency table and concept map are
created to see cognitive structure and conceptual connections (Güneş & Gözüm, 2013; Tokcan & Yiter,
2017).
The second assessment was used in this study. First, the answer papers are numbered from 1 to 63. The
number of data collected and type of responses were evaluated and classified through NVivo program.
Then, frequency table and concept map of responses given in response to key concepts were created. A
total of 526 responses were obtained from participants. Finally, after all answers are examined, concepts
related to leisure and recreation of participants are divided into categories in result of analysis.
3. FINDINGS
A total of 63 students participated in the research. According to demographic characteristics of
participants, participants are predominantly female and 18-20 years (Table 1).
Table 1. Participants' demographic characteristics
Age f % Genger f %
18-20 28 44,5 Female 42 66,7
21-23 17 27,0 Male 21 33,3
24-26 6 9,5 Total 63 100
27-29 2 3,2
30 and over 10 15,8
Total 63 100
As a result of the obtained data, 26 responses with frequencies 2 or less, which are given to leisure key
concept, are not included in the list. When Table 2 is examined, it is seen that 24 different responses with
frequencies 3 and higher appeared in response to leisure key concept. Number of repetitions of leisure key
concept responses is 278. In addition, 71 responses with frequencies 2 or less given to recreation key
concept were not included in the list. Except for these responses, there are 29 responses with frequences 3
and over given to recreation key concept. Repetition rate of these responses is 148. Total number of
repetitions is 245.
Table 2. Responses and Frequency Values of Leisure and Recreation Concepts
Leisure key concept responses f Recreation key concept responses f
Resting 31 Reading 10
Reading 26 Traveling 10
Computer and Internet Games 17 Listening to music 10
Traveling 16 Walking 9
Fun 14 Swimming 8
Watching movie 14 Renewal 8
Listening to Music 14 Trip 7
Spend time with family 13 Cook 7
Social media 11 Shopping 5
Personal improvement 10 Entertainment 5
Sport 9 Watching film 5
Activity 9 Being interested in animals 5
Cinema 7 Serenity 5
Seeking 6 Activity 4
Talk to Friends 6 Talk to Friends 4
Studying 5 Resting 4
Think 5 Culture 4
Hobbies 4 Social responsibility 4
Watching TV 4 Reaction 4
Happiness 4 Energetic 3
Socializing 4 Event 3
Holiday 4 İmprovement 3
Loneliness 3 Personal care 3
Plan 3 Happiness 3
Other 39 Play game 3
Total 278 Art 3
Health 3
Love 3
Cinema 3
Other 97
Total 245
In ‘Other’ option in Table 2, frequency of collected data is two or less. The responses are as follow.
Other responses of leisure key concepts;
-Cleaning, shopping, nightlife, coffee, hiking, chat, relax, art, swimming, innovaiton, theatre, watching
video,free time, clothing, development, cooking, literatüre, depression, go outside, education, nature,
event, discover, query,dance-
Other responses of recreation key concepts;
-Basketball, bicycle, leisure time, dance, sea, change, discovery, jogging, match, meditation, park, pilates,
respect, socialize, spirituality, sport, creativity, help, green area, adrenalin, family, research, shoot,
togerherness, computer game, cycling, bowling, leisure, evaluation, decoration, studying, nature, emotional
intelligence, empathize, interaction, awareness, benefit, festival, idea, fitness, playing guitar, sun, mobility,
precision, hobby, drink coffee, surreptitious, pleasant time, personal evolution, adventure, make-up, view,
forest, picnic, relaxation, picture, healthy lifestyle, chat, sociability, sport, stress, trouble, holiday, satisfaction,
play tennis, therapy, stimulant, sleep, play volleyball, yoga, spending time with kids -
Figure 1. Participants’ Leisure Concept Word Cloud Image by Frequency of Responses
The word cloud image, which is formed by taking into account frequency values of responses given by
the participants to leisure concepts is shown in Figure 1. As seen in word cloud, it seems that words of
“resting” and “reading” are mostly repeated. Based on this data, participants are encouraged to spend their
leisure with more reading activities and to participate in leisure activities for relaxation.
Figure 2. Participants’ Recreation Concept Word Cloud Image by Frequency of Responses
When recreation key concept responses are examined, It seems that participants repeated words of
“traveling”, “reading”, “listening to music” and “walking”. On the other hand, participants are often told
that they see recreation as activity or event. Looking at above word clouds, it seems that responses given
to recreation and leisure concepts are very close to each other. And this makes right definitions that
recreation is whole of the activities taken place in leisure. Although recreation and leisure concepts
resemble each other, there are certain differences between two concepts. These differences and
similarities are seen partly in the concept map given in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Explanatory Concept Map Based on Results of the Keyword Association Test
When explanatory concept map of leisure and recreation key concepts is looked at, it is generally accepted that both
concepts are handled on the basis of activities and the responses are in that direction. Since activities of “reading,
traveling, listening to music” are the most repetitive answers of both concepts, it can be said that the participants
performed the most recreational activities during leisure. When looking at activity participation purposes, it seems
that main purpose of leisure is “resting, fun, personal improvement, seeking, think, hobbies, socializing and plan”.
Similarly it is noted that activity participation purpose of recreation is “resting, social responsibility, improvement,
personal care and health”. Looking at responses that reflect feelings and thoughts of participants, Leisure is
expressed as “happiness and loneliness” for the participants; recreation is expressed as "serenity, energetic,
happiness, love”. According to concept map, concept of recreation differs from leisure by dictionary meaning.
Participants seem to give descriptive responses to concept of recreation, while leisure can not provide a consistent
response to definition of word in the literature. The lack of a definition that Turkish Language Institution (TLI) has
RECREATION
Activities
Reading
TravelingListening to music
Walking
SwimmingTrip
Cook
ShoppingWatching movie
Being interested in animals
ActivityTalk to friends
Cultural activities
Play gameCinema
Artistic events
Activity participation
purpose
RestingSocial Responsibility
Improvement
Personal CareHealth
Feeling and thought
Serenity
EnergeticHappiness
Love
Dictionary meaning
Renewal
FunEvent
LEISURE
Activities
Reading
Computer and Internet GamesTraveling
Watching movie
Listening to musicSpend time with family
Social media
SportActivity
Cinema
Talk to FriendsStudying
Watching TV
Holiday
Activity participation purpose
Resting
FunPersonal improvement
Seeking
ThinkHobbies
Socializing
Plan
Feeling and thought
Happiness
Loneliness
made about leisure can be given as a sign of absence of a clear response defining leisure. The responses to recreation
concept in concept map show that TLI is directly related to the recreation definition.
In the second part of Word Association Test, the sentences that students have built for leisure and recreation
concepts are examined and are categorized according to meanings. The categorizations of the sentences used
categorization Ercan et al. (2010), Keskin and Örgün (2015) and Yücel Güngör et al. (2017) have used in their
studies. According to category, sentences are categorized as sentences containing scientific information, sentences
containing non-scientific and superficial information and sentences containing misconceptions.
Table 3. Frequency Table of Sentences for Leisure and Recreation Concepts
Sentences Containing
Scientific Information
Sentences Containing Non-
Scientific and Superficial
Information
Sentences Containing
Misconceptions
Leisure 1 39 18
Recreation 2 48 10
In the grouping of sentences containing scientific information, it was examined whether participants’ sentences were
related to both key concept and whether it was scientifically correct. If sentences of participants are related to key
concept in same sense, in the sentence and it is scientifically correct with all the other items, this sentence has been
put into this category. In the grouping of sentences with non-scientific and superficial information, contrary to words
that participants have associated with key concept, if they have set up sentences that are not scientific, used in
everyday life. In the grouping of sentences containing concept misconceptions, participants have tried to load
scientific meaning key concepts in sentences but if they have confused these concepts with different and misleading
concepts, then this sentence is categorized. Accordingly, Table 4 containing sample sentences was obtained.
Table 4. Sample Sentences
Sentences Containing
Scientific Information
Sentences Containing Non-Scientific and
Superficial Information
Sentences Containing
Misconceptions
Lei
sure
It is the type of time that
is left for rest and fun
except for daily work.
It is time for fun.
It is time for the individual to self-actualize.
People want to discover new places in
leisure time.
It is time to relax and social life.
It is time that man/woman has set
himself/herself apart.
Leisure is important as psychological.
Leisure refers to time that a person has
reserved for activity.
Leisure rests on the human soul.
Leisure improves people's relationships with
each other and gives people happiness.
Leisure is generally research.
There is no free time,
there is chance to
evaluate.
It is time period that is
limited and important.
We must leisure fully.
Rec
rea
tio
n
It is the activity that
person joins with his/her
will and allows the body
to relax mentally and
physically.
Recreation is whole of
the activities carried out
in leisure.
Recreational touring is the most recreational
activity I have ever done.
It is recreation that activities I am doing for
fun.
Recreational activities have different values
for each participant.
Recreation provides a suitable environment
for socializing.
Recreation ensures that people are at peace
with themselves.
Recreational activities allow people to
identify themselves.
It is a happiness-like activity that is similar
to leisure.
In daily life, people are activities they feel
for better and renewed.
Recreation is voluntary freedoms.
Recreation is that live
happiness.
It reacts to any event.
It is a peaceful moment.
It is everything that feeds
the soul
As seen in Table 4, sentences were made away from concepts of leisure and recreation sentences containing
misconceptions. Especially for concept of recreation, it seems that misconceptions of the concept (such as reaction)
have emerged. 18 respondents responded to concept of leisure; it is clear that leisure is not available or limited as a
result of inability to understand what leisure is and what it means. In particular, sentences containing non-scientific
and superficial information are predominantly form of evaluation of leisure and recreation. Apart from these
sentences, only 3 sentences reflect scientific information.
CONCLUSION
In this study, it was tried to determine the cognitive structures of leisure time and recreation concepts of the
participants who study in tourism programmes using Word Association Test (WAT). In the survey conducted with
63 participants, the majority were 21-23 years old and females. As a result of the research done, participants were
asked what the concepts of leisure and recreation meant, and 523 answer words were obtained from the participants.
When the words were examined, the concept of leisure was expressed mostly by “reading” and “have a rest” words
by individuals who study tourism. The concept of recreation is mostly associated with the words “traveling”,
“reading”, “listening to music” and “walking”.
In the second analysis of the study, the words related to leisure time and recreation words are discussed on the basis
of dimensions. The results obtained from the analysis are evaluated on the basis of activities, participation
intentions, feelings and thoughts. It is seen that the participants have the most recreational activities in leisure since
the activities of “reading, traveling, listening to music, watching movies and going to the cinema” are the most
repeated answers of both concepts. While it was seen that the purpose of evaluating the leisure of participants was
“resting, fun, personal development, search, think, socialize and plan”, recreational purpose is similar to “resting,
social responsibility, development, personal care and health”. Leisure in terms of emotion and thought, “happiness
and loneliness” for participants; recreation means “peace, reaction, energy, happiness and love”. According the
results of the study, generally the participants see leisure as recreational activities. For example, “resting, reading,
games, traveling, film, music, spend time with family, social media and personal improvement” are described as
recreational activities doing in leisure. The fact that the leisure time is comprehensive has led to the similar of
responses given to both concepts. Unlike leisure, the word meaning dimension is added to the concept of recreation.
According to this dimension, recreation means renewal, amusement and activity. This knowledge is supported by
the Turkish Language Association and Oxford English Dictionary.
In the final analysis of the study, the statements that the participants of the study expressed about leisure and
recreation concepts were analyzed and grouped. When we look at the related these statements which express leisure
and recreation, it is seen that only the sentences containing emotions and thoughts and misconceptions are used.
Only three scientific sentences were taken from the participants for the concept of leisure time and recreation. Some
students have misunderstanding the concept of recreation as a reaction. Others have stated that there is no leisure. As
a result of this association, it can be said that participants can not fully perceive what leisure and recreation concepts
mean.
According to the findings of this research, the following suggestions are presented:
In many universities that offer tourism education in the world, there are courses where recreation and
leisure contents are taught. As the cognitive levels of students in the research are seen as superficially from
the scientific standpoint, options for full learning of the students should be presented in the required
courses.
The Word Association Test (WAT), which has been mostly used in the branches of science and education
sciences, can be used as an alternative measurement and evaluation tool used in different branches such as
tourism, recreation and the like as it is in this research.
Since this research is designed according to the descriptive model, WAT which is used as a single
application to detect the existing situation, can be used to determine the conceptual changes of students by
performing intermittent evaluation in different study models.
The theme of this research is the recreation and leisure sense of tourism students. Accordingly, studies on
the availability of the word association test in different subjects and learning areas within the scope of
tourism education can be made.
Since there are not many studies that measure individual cognitive networks related to leisure and
recreation concepts, different assessment scales can be used to measure cognitive perception.
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34.
AUTHOR
Lec. Meltem ALTINAY ÖZDEMİR
Meltem Altınay Özdemir is a lecturer in Travel, Tourism and Leisure
Services department at Vocational School, Istanbul Arel University. She
is a PhD Student in Tourism Management at Istanbul Unıversity.
Meltem’s research interests encompass recreation, tourism marketing and
tourism sociology. She is particularly interested in recreation since her
graduate. Her recent researches have focused on recreational destination
marketing; destination image and personality; recreational importance of
geological areas; the importance of traditional handicrafts in terms of
creative tourism; service quality in urban recreation areas. Meltem’s
current research includes cognitive structures towards leisure time and
recreation and recreational image of destinations.