Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.

Introduction State what you are doing in the essay 

o This essay will give a brief summary of the principles that define the cognitive level of analysis. 

Define the cognitive level of analysis o The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on how mental processes such as

perception, attention, language, memory and thinking in the brain processes information.

o It concerns the way we take in information from the outside world, how we make sense of that information and what use we make of it. 

State the principles of the CLA o There are three underlying principles that define the CLA:

1.  Human beings are information processors and that mental representations guide behaviour

2.  Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically by developing theories and by using a variety of research methods

3. Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes 

Purpose of the principles o These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific

areas of behaviour and cognition.o They also allow us to understand how behaviour can be influenced by cognitive

processes  Define cognition 

o Refers to a process that is based on one's mental representations of the world, such as images, words and concepts

o People likewise have different experiences and therefore each individual will have different mental representations of the world. 

Body State principle 1 

o Cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes and stored representations of the world determine behaviour and are central to human experience. 

Describe the principle 

o Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine – where they believe that it is useful to model mental processes using an information-processing approach whereby: 

Information is examined from the outside world is received and encoded Storage and representation of this information to ourselves Ways in which this information is manipulated and used by the individual And how we output information back into the world to be received by

others. 

o Many cognitive psychologists have used the computer analogy, where they have conceived the human mind as being similar to a computer, in that both can be seen as information processors, to attempt to understand how the brain manages these mental processes (information processing).

The brain in this instance is seen as the hardware and the mind, thoughts and mental representations/images as the software.

Explain Computer Analogy o Attempted to understand what occurs between input and output. o They have addressed how the mind selects and codes incoming information and

represents knowledge to itself while processing it and combining it with previously stored information (organisation), and then how inferences are made based upon this information and therefore how these cognitions affect behaviour. 

o (OR) Both people and computers store information and retrieve it when applicable to current tasks. 

People, like computers acquire information from the environment (input).  Both transform information, produce new information and then both return

the information back to the environment in the form of behaviour (output). 

Explain top-down/bottom-up processing o According to this approach, information input to the mind comes via bottom-up

processing – that is, from the sensory system. This information is processed in the mind by top-down processing via pre-stored information (schemas) in the memory. Finally, when the information is processed there is some output in the form of behaviour. 

Applications of principleo This information processing approach/principle can be seen in: 

Schema theory – assumed to operate through top-down processing; the role of schema (organized sets of associated information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of processing, but can also lead to distortions. 

They allow us to take short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts of information. 

State principle 2 o A second principle the CLA states that the mind can be studied scientifically by

developing theories and by using a number of scientific research methods.

o Mental processes/representations can be studied empirically even if they cannot be directly observed in the same way as behaviour. 

Describe the principle o Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive

structures/processes, and inferences made.o These theories can be tested using a scientific and appropriate research method of

experimentation. o Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied

scientifically. 

Applications of principleo This information processing approach/principle can be seen: 

Through memory processes such as the models of memory demonstrated by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968). 

Connection of study to principle o Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrating how cognitive processes such as memory, can

be scientifically studied.o Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory of memory, known as the multistore

model.  And this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive process.

o Thus, the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically and therefore making these cognitive theories and models be applied to real-life scenarios. 

State principle 3o A third principle that defines the CLA is that cognitive processes are influenced

by social and cultural factors. 

Describe the Principle o An example of a cognitive process is schemas

Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of people, objects, events and actions

o The schema theory is the cognitive theory of processing informationo The information that a person is exposed to can be determined by the society and

the culture that they are in.  Likewise, because people are in different societies and cultures, different

people are exposed to different information. Therefore individuals will have different schemas

o Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies depending on culture

Examples include  Religion Cultural tradition  Beliefs Morals

Whereby these examples are acquired from gatekeepers; parents, peers, teachers etc 

o This principle is demonstrated in a study conducted by Bartlett (1932)

Connection of Study tPrincipleo Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and cultural factors affect

cognitive processes as: The difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of culture

affected mental representations (schemas)/ This is demonstrated by the changing of unfamiliar words to familiar

terms  For example:

'Hunting seals' changed to 'fishing'  'Canoes' changed to 'boats' 

Conclusion There are three fundamental principles that define the cognitive level of analysis, which

help research into cognition.  However, views from all levels of analysis need to be taken into account before reaching

a determined decision on influences on human behaviour. 

Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (that is, theories and/or studies).

Introduction State what you are doing in the essay 

o This essay will give a brief summary of the principles that define the cognitive level of analysis 

Define the cognitive level of analysis o The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as

perception, attention, language, memory and thinkingo It concerns the way we take in information from the outside world, how we make

sense of that information and what use we make of it.  State the principles of the CLA 

o There are three underlying principles that define the CLA:  Human beings are information processors and that mental representations

guide behaviour  Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically by developing

theories and by using a variety of research methods  Social and cultural factors affect cognitive processes 

Purpose of the principleso These principles are the main ideas that have driven focused research on specific

areas of behaviour and physiology.o They also allow us to understand how behaviour can be caused of influences by

cognitive processes.  Define cognition 

o Refers to a process that is based on one's mental representations of the world, such as images, words and concepts.

o People likewise have different experiences and therefore each individual will have different mental representations of the world. 

For example: what boys can do, girls cannot do this cognition will influence the way they act

Body State principle 1

o Cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes and stored representations of the world determine behaviour and are central to human experience. 

Describe the principle o Psychologists see the mind as a complex machine – where they believe that it is

useful to model mental processes using an information-processing approach whereby: 

Information is examined from the outside world is received and encoded storage and representation of this information to ourselves ways in which this information is manipulated and used by the individual and how we output information back into the world to be received by

others. o Many cognitive psychologists have used the computer analogy, where they have

conceived the human mind as being similar to a computer, in that both can be seen as information processors, to attempt to understand how the brain manages these mental processes (information processing).

The brain in this instance is seen as the hardware and the mind, thoughts and mental representations/images as the software.

Explain Computer Analogy o They have attempted to understand what occurs between input and output.o They have addressed how the mind selects and codes incoming information and

represents knowledge to itself, while processing it and combining it with previously stored information (organisation), and then how inferences are made based upon this information and therefore leads to our cognitions affecting behaviour.

o (OR) Both people and computers store information and retrieve it when applicable to current tasks. 

People, like computers acquire information from the environment (input).

Both transform information, produce new information and then both return the information back to the environment in the form of behaviour (output). 

Explain top-down/bottom-up processing o According to this approach, information input to the mind comes via bottom-up

processing – that is, from the sensory system. This information is processed in the mind by top-down processing via pre-stored information (schemas) in the memory. Finally, when the information is processed there is some output in the form of behaviour. 

Applications of principle o This information processing approach/principle can be seen in:

Schema theory – assumed to operate through top-down processing; the role of schema (organized sets of associated information) shape perception and can increase efficiency of processing, but can also lead to distortions.

They allow us to take short-cuts in interpreting vast amounts of information. 

State principle 2o A second principle of the CLA states that the mind can be studied scientifically by

developing theories and by using a number of scientific research methods.o Where mental processes/representations can be studied empirically even if they

cannot be directly observed in the same way as behaviour.  

Describe the principle o Testable theories can be developed and derived from unobservable cognitive

structures/processes, and inferences made.o These theories can be tested using a scientific and appropriate research method of

experimentation. 

Applications of principle o This information processing approach/principle can be seen:

Through memory processes such as the models of memory demonstrated by Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968). 

Describe the Study o Aim: 

To investigate the processes of memory that there are different types of memory that are used for different tasks.

The multi-store model generally assumes memory is passive and that there are separate cognitive methods by which it is used. Thus, like a computer memory, it needs a separate processor to insert and retrieve memories.

o Theory (derived from study): The multi-store model consists of three parts, the sensory memory, the

short-term memory (STM) and the long term memory (LTM).

Some information from the sensory store moves to the STM (limited capacity).

Some information from the STM moves to the LTM via constant rehearsal of that information.

Once that piece of information is stored in the LTM it is long lasting; perhaps even for a lifetime if that certain piece of information is that strong.

The difference in forgetting between STM and LTM is that: memory forgotten from the short term store is lost whereas forgotten memories in the LTM are still in the system but cannot be retrieved.

Connection of study to principleo Atkinson & Shiffrin demonstrating how cognitive processes such as memory, can

be scientifically studiedo Atkinson & Shiffrin developed a theory of memory, known as the multistore

model And this theory enabled them to study memory being a cognitive process

o Thus, the study demonstrates that the mind (cognitive functions, structures and processes) can be studied scientifically, in which cognitive theories and models can be applied to real-life scenarios.

State principle 3o A third principle that defines the CLA is that cognitive processes are influenced

by social and cultural factors. 

Describe the Principle o An example of a cognitive process is schemas. 

Schemas are organised mental representations of knowledge of people, objects, eventsand actions.

o The schema theory is the cognitive theory of processing information.o The information that a person is exposed to can be determined by the society and

the culture that they are in Likewise, because people are in different societies and cultures, different

people are exposed to different information Therefore individuals will have different schemas

o Social and cultural factors are factors that is dependent on/varies depending on culture

Examples include  Religion Cultural tradition  Beliefs Morals

Whereby these examples are acquired from gatekeepers; parents, peers, teachers etc 

o This principle is demonstrated in a study conducted by Bartlett (1932)

Describe the Study o Aim: 

Bartlett aimed to investigate the effect of culture on memory.  Participants were English. 

o Method:  Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk

tale. Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated

reproduction, where they were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals. 

o Results:  Both methods lead to similar results. As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and

there were more changes to the story. 

o Conclusion:  These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what

the English participants were culturally familiar with. This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’

experiences and cultural background (schemas). 

Connection of Study tPrinciple o Bartlett's study supports the principle that social and cultural factors affect

cognitive processes as:  The difference in participants and the stimuli used in terms of culture

affected mental representations (schemas).

Conclusion There are three fundamental principles that define the cognitive level of analysis, which

help research into cognition.  However, views from all levels of analysis need to be taken into account before reaching

a determined decision on influences on human behaviour. 

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.

Introduction State what you are doing in the essay 

o This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis (CLA). 

Define the cognitive level of analysis o The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as

perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking, which are carried out by the brain and guide our behaviour.

o The CLA is involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the world and how it uses this knowledge. 

Outline what is a research method? / What is the purpose of research methods in Psychology? 

o Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data.o There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to

conduct their studies.o Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their

studies. 

State the main research methods used in psychological research o There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the

following:  Experiments  Case Studies  Observational Studies  Interviews  Surveys/Questionnaires  Correlational Studies 

Introduce the concept of triangulation o Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research

methods of investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher.

o It also increases credibility. o There are 4 main types of triangulation: 

Data  Researcher  Theoretical  Methodological 

State, make the examiner aware of the biases involved in psychological research o In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or

influence the findings of the experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature.

o There are two major types of biases, which are:  Researcher bias: 

The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study. 

Observer bias

The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study.

State (introduce) the research methods used at the CLA o In cognitive psychology, testable theories are developed about cognitive

structures and processes which cannot be directly observed.o These theories are tested using research methods such as experiments and case

studies. o At the CLA, the methods of investigation undertaken by cognitive psychologists

range from laboratory experiments and case studies. o They have in common the aim of obtaining relevant information on mental

processes used to acquire, store, retrieve and apply knowledge about the world. 

State what you are doing in the essay o These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at studies and

how and why these research methods are used.

BodyEXPERIMENTS

Define what an experiment is?  o What is the purpose of an experiment?

Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).

Outline how experiments are usedo Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent

variable (DV)o Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled

conditions (laboratory experiments)o Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative

data may be collected as well

Types of experimental settingso There are three different types of experiments, which include a

laboratory experiment, a natural (QUASI) experiment and a field experiment.

 

 

Outline why experiments are usedo It is considered/perceived to be the most scientific research method o Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)

Outline experiments used in the CLAo Loftus & Palmer (1974) o Craik & Tulving (1975) o French & Richards (1993)

Evidence

Study 1: Loftus & Palmer (1974)

How does it reflect an experiment?o IV: Verb in the leading questiono DV: Average speed estimates (smash, collide, bump, hit, contacted)o Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in

a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated  Why was an experiment used? 

o Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised  Cause: The verbs in the leading questions – The wording of the question

in eyewitness testimony/testimonials   Effect: Their schema a particular factor or experience in their life can be

influenced, as their study shows that people are affect by the wording of a question.  

o The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)

o This would not be able to be able to be found as effectively with other research methods such as observation or case study, as experiments was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

Study 2: Craik and Tulving, 1975

How does it reflect an experiment?o IV: Depth or level of processing (shallow or deep)o DV: Memory recall of the original words from a list of 180 words in which

theriginal series of 60 words in the question were interrelated/mixed into the 180 word series.

o Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated  

Why was an experiment used?o Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised

Cause: Level of (Shallow and Deep) Processing Effect: Affects memory recall

o The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.)

o It was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

Results

Participants recalled more words that were semantically processed compared to phonemically and visually processed.

Conclusion:

Semantically processed words involve deep processing which results in more accurate recall.

Study 3: French & Richards (1993) – Study of influence of schemata on memory retrieval

How does it reflect an experiment?o IV: There were three conditions:

 Condition One: participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to draw the clock from memory 

 Condition Two: the same procedure, except the participants were told beforehand that they would be required to draw the clock from memory 

 Condition Three: the clock was left in full view of the participants and they just had to draw the clock  

o DV: Memory Retrieval – how they recalled the memory of the clock that was shown to them and reproduced on paper. 

o Experimental Type: Laboratory Experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated

Why was an experiment used?o Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised

 Cause: Influence of schemata, our schema (our knowledge and viewpoint of how we perceive the world); in this case how we perceive clocks to look like. 

 Effect: Memory Retrieval – how much they would be able to remember.  o The cause and effect relationship would not have been able to be found usingther

research methods (e.g. observational or interviews, etc.) o It was the most suitable type to use for this particular study.

CASE STUDIES

Introduce the next research method (case studies) and relate it within the context.o Like experiments, another key research method used frequently in the BLA is a

case study. Outline how case studies are used

o In-depth study of an individual or small group Because of this, case studies obtain information that may not be

identifiable by using other research methodso Case studies are considered a qualitative research method, however quantitative

data may be collected as wello They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as

interviews and observations The conclusions are more valid than what may be gained from any of

these research methods individually

Outline why case studies are used 

o To obtain enriched (especially qualitative) data and information about mediating processes which could not be gained in any other way.

o To study unusual psychological phenomenao Stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena o To study a particular variable that cannot be produced in a laboratory. For

example, due to ethical or financial restrictions.o To obtain other information they may not be able to get from other methods. 

Outline why case studies are not used limitations o Researchers may develop more personal relationships with participants

 may result in subjective data or different behaviour of participants and researchers

o Results of case studies are affected by the researcher's interpretations  may be subjective and influenced by the researcher's beliefs, values, and

opinionso May cost a lot of time, effort & money due to the amount of data and time of a

case studyo Cannot be replicatedo Lacks population validity extent to which findings can be generalised to the whole

population Small participant sample  Especially if study investigates a unique phenomenon 

Outline case studies used in the CLAo Shallice & Warrington “KF” (1974) o Curtiss “Genie” (1981)o Milner “HM” (1966)

Evidence

Study 1: Shallice & Warrington (1974) – KF 

How does it reflect a case study? o It was an in-depth study of KF’s condition, which lasted for a duration of years to

trace the impact it had on his life. Why was a case study used?

o To study the unusual phenomena of a man who was in a motorcycle accident, which resulted in brain damage and impaired his memory functions.

o To study a man who suffered from a motorcycle accident impairing his short term memory, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment.

o In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (experiments, observations, etc.). 

Study 2: Curtiss (1981) – Genie

How does it reflect a case study?

o It was an in-depth study of Genie’s condition, which lasted for a duration of years to trace the impact of the deprivation of normal and social environment from a young age on the rest of her life. Why was a case study used? To study the unusual phenomena of a young girl who experienced a deprivation of a normal exposure to language earlier on in her life, which impacted heavily her language and communication skills, and her ability to act like a ‘normal’ human being.’ 

o To study a girl who experienced a deprivation of a normal, social environment impacting her language acquisition skills and other daily human tasks, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment.

o This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.

Study 3: Milner (1966) – HM

How does it reflect a case study?o It was an in-depth study of HM’s amnesia condition, which resulted from a

head injury sustained when he was 9 years old, suffering epileptic seizures along with it. 

Why was a case study used? o To study the unusual phenomena of how as a result of the removal of HM’s

hippocampus and parts of his temporal lobe, amnesia can occur, as removing these significant parts of the brain can damage the formation of memories or impact parts of a person’s memory in general. 

o To study the case of a man who suffered from anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) as a result of the removal of tissue from the temporal lobe including the hippocampus, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory experiment, as it would most likely cause a similar condition to the extent of HM’s.

o A case study allowed researchers to observe HM’s behaviour from when he was a young child, to his adolescent years, and after the surgery, in which they found out a link between the temporal lobe/hippocampi and memory  which led to further research, findings and advances in later studies, helping improve people’s understanding of certain disorders such as amnesia, and memory in general.

o This unusual phenomenon could not be studied using other research methods such as experiments or naturalistic observation and in-depth information would not be able to be obtained/collected if case studies weren’t used.

Conclusion Research methods are methods used for collecting and analysing data.  The type of research method used is dependent on the aim.  At the CLA, the two main research methods used are experiments and case studies. 

Experiments

To determine a cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)  Whereby an IV and DV may be manipulated. Likewise, advantages and disadvantages of experiments depends on the type of

experiment being conducted There are three types: laboratory, field and natural/quasi experiments.

Case studies

In depth study of an individual or a small group; thus being able to collect enriched and detailed data.

Studies unusual psychological phenomena. Considered to be a qualitative research method, but quantitative data may also be

collected. They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews

and observations, which can aid in finding significant and relevant information in the study.

Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.

Introduction State what you are doing in the essay 

o This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of ethical considerations related to research at the cognitive level of analysis (CLA). 

Define the cognitive level of analysis o The cognitive level of analysis (CLA) is based on mental processes such as

perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking.  Describe ethical considerations 

o In psychology, ethics must be considered to ensure participants (humans and animals) are not harmed and that research conducted is ethically valid

o Researchers should always conduct research in an ethical manner and studies should always be critically evaluated for ethical issues. 

o Ethical standards made by the American Psychology Association (APA) that all research done in psychology must abide by.

o These ethics are:  Protection of participants 

Participants should be protected from physical and mental harm and distress 

This includes humiliation, stress, injury, etc.  Participants should not be forced to reveal personal information. 

Consent  Participants must be informed of the true aims and nature of

research before giving consent

Sometimes it is not possible to give full information about research. 

Participant bias: knowing the true aims of a study may affect participants' behaviour and thus the results of a study 

It is considered acceptable not to give full informed consent if no harm is expected 

A guardian or family member should also give consent to the study if the participants are 

Children under 18 years of age  Adults incompetent of understanding the true nature and aims of

the study  Right to withdraw 

Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw their participation and data at any time in the study (even at the end) without penalty. 

Confidentiality  Data collected in a study should remain confidential and

anonymous to protect participants from possible consequences that may result from their data 

Deception Deception should be avoided But slight deception is considered acceptable if: 

Participant bias would result from participants knowing the true aims of the study 

The research has potential significant contribution  It is unavoidable  The deception does not cause any distress to the participant,

including upon being informed of the deception If deception is involved, informed consent is not obtained  Any deception must be revealed at the earliest opportunity 

Debriefing  Any deception must be revealed and justified Participants should leave the study without undue stress  Findings of the research should be made available to participants

as soon as possible

BodyEvidence

Study 1: ‘Genie’ Curtiss (1981)

Background:

Genie was a girl who had been deprived of normal exposure to language early in life 

She had no apparent language skills when she was discovered at age 13. 

Aim: 

To investigate the sensitive period hypothesis there is a sensitive learning period (before puberty) during which language must be acquired to develop normally. 

Method: 

Researchers encouraged her to verbalise and socialise.  They communicated with her, taught her sign language, and provided a caring

environment for Genie. 

Ethical issues of this study:

There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

Participant Protection

Genie was protected from harm during the study  But when researchers concluded the study, Genie was left to live in an adult foster home 

o Genie may have experienced mental distress from the dramatic change in environment and carers and the leaving of the researchers 

Consent 

Genie could not be fully informed or give consent to the study due to language restrictions and mental state 

But Genie was not in a healthy state of mind to understand the nature and aims of the study 

o Therefore, it may not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

Genie would not be able to express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions and mental state 

Confidentiality 

Her identity was kept anonymous as 'Genie' is not her real name  Although her real name was not revealed, her case was exposed to the world of

psychology 

Debriefing 

Genie was not debriefed at the end of the study 

She ended up living in an adult foster home, still requiring treatment as she is still language impaired. 

However, since she did not know that she was being studied, she would not desire a debriefing. 

Inappropriate behaviour of researchers 

Researchers had a very personal and attached relationship with Genie  This was inappropriate for scientific research  Leads to the questioning of objectivity and their aims for studying Genie 

Study 2: Clive Wearing Sacks (2007)

Background: 

Clive Wearing was a musician who got a viral infection encephalitis.  This left him with serious brain damage in the hippocampus, which caused memory

impairment.  He suffers: 

o anterograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember after a particular incident o retrograde amnesia impairment in ability to remember before a particular

incident.  Wearing still has ability to talk, read, write, and sight-read music (procedural

knowledge)  He could not transfer information from STM tLTM.  His memory lasted 7-30 seconds, and he was unable to form new memories. 

Ethical issues of this study

There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

Consent

Wearing did not give consent to being in a study o His wife gave consent for him to be studied 

But Wearing would not remember being informed of the study or giving consent due to his short memory span 

Confidentiality 

Sacks violated Wearing's right to confidentiality o Wearing’s real name was revealed o His case was revealed to the world of psychology 

But since Wearing's memory lasts a short period of time, he would not remember that his confidentiality was violated 

Withdraw 

Wearing would not remember being in a study or his right to withdraw and so would not express any desires to withdraw 

Debriefing 

Wearing was not debriefed  But because of his short memory span, he would not know he is in a study and would not

desire a debriefing

APA Guidelines for Animal Research 

Tries to avoid harm to animals o But harm may still be inflicted on animals, 

The research may potentially provide significant benefit to the health or welfare of humans or other animals 

If it is unavoidable  If the procedure would cause pain to humans, it should be assumed that it will cause pain

to animals  Animal welfare should be monitored  Animals should be euthanized as soon as possible if research 

o Causes long term/serious harm o Affects their ability to live 

Normally  Pain-free 

Study 3: Blakemore & Cooper (1970) “Kitten carrousel” 

Aim: 

To investigate the effect of exposure to spatially periodic patterns on the brains of cats 

Ethics:

Participant protection

6 male cats were placed in a drum with only vertical or only horizontal lines  Kittens were made to wear a cuff around the neck to prevent them seeing lines of any

other orientation o Cats may have experienced distress from being forced to live in a confined,

unnatural environment and wearing a cuff  The cats' primary visual cortex would fire in response to the lines presented in the

orientation they were exposed to and not lines which were perpendicular o There was physical degeneration in the visual cortex as a result of the lines the

cats were exposed to 

Researchers caused permanent physical damage to the cats' visual cortex

Animal ethics

Researchers had done permanent damage to the cats that may have affected their ability to live a normal, pain-free live 

But the cats were not euthanized  The welfare of cats was not monitored 

Consent 

Cats could not be fully informed about the study  Cats could not give consent  But cats would not be able to understand if they were being studied 

o Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

Cats could not express any desires to withdraw from the study 

Debriefing 

Cats were not debriefed  But since they are animals and they did not know they were in a study, they may not

desire a debriefing

Study 4: Gardner and Gardner (1969) “Washoe”

Aim: 

To demonstrate that a chimpanzee has the capability to use human language 

Ethical issues of this study:There were a set of ethical issues in this study, which include:

Participant protection 

Researchers caught Washoe an infant female chimp, estimated to be 8-14 months old and reared her as a human child in America 

They attempted to teach Washoe American Sign Language (ASL) o Washoe may have experienced distress from being removed from her natural

environment, living in an unnatural environment and learning sign language

Consent

Washoe could not be fully informed about the study 

Washoe could not give consent  But Washoe would not be able to understand if she was being studied 

o Therefore, it would not be possible to gain informed consent 

Withdrawal 

Washoe could not express any desires to withdraw from the study due to language restrictions 

Debriefing 

Washoe was not debriefed  But since Washoe is an animal and may not have not known she was in a study, she may

not desire a debriefing 

Conclusion  Ethical considerations in all research in psychology includes, 

o Protection of participants from harm o Consento Withdrawalo Confidentiality o Deception o Debriefing 

But there are slight exceptions for consent and deception  Animal research has slightly different ethical considerations 

o Differences regard harming participants and ethical euthanasia

Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

Introduction Define schema 

o Schemas are cognitive structures that organise knowledge stored in our memory.o They are mental representations of categories (from our knowledge, beliefs and

expectations) about particular aspects of the world such as people, objects, events, and situations. 

Expand on schema o Knowledge that is stored in our memory is organized as a set of schemas (or

knowledge structures), which represent the general knowledge about the world, people, events, objects, actions and situations that has been acquired from past experiences.

o Types of schemas:  Scripts provide information about the sequence of events that occur in

particular contexts (e.g. going to a restaurant, visiting the dentist, attending class).s 

Self-schemas organise information we have about ourselves (information stored in our memory about our strengths and weaknesses and how we feel about them). 

Social schemas (e.g. stereotypes) – represent information about groups of people (e.g. Americans, Egyptians, women, accountants, etc.). 

Define schema theory o Cognitive theory of processing and organizing information.o Schema theory states that “as active processors of information, humans integrate

new information with existing, stored information.”  Expand on schema theory Effects 

o Existing knowledge stored in our memory (what we already know) and organized in the form of schemas will affect information processing and behaviour in specific settings. 

E.g. Information we already know affects the way we interpret new information and events and how we store it in our memory.

o It is not possible to see how knowledge is processed and stored in the brain, but the concept of schema theory helps psychologists understand and discuss what cannot be seen.

o Schema theory can describe how specific knowledge is organised and stored in memory so that it can be retrieved.

State what you are doing in the essayo Schema theory will be evaluated, making an appraisal by weighing up strengths

and limitations with some reference to studies on the effect of schema on memory.

o Schema theory provides the theoretical basis for the studies reported below.

BodySupporting Studies

Bartlett – “War of the Ghosts” (1932)  Anderson & Pichert (1978)  Brewer & Treyens – “picnic basket” (1981)  French & Richards (1933) 

*Choose three studies from the above studies in the evaluation of schema theory Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932) – “War of the Ghost” Introduce Study/Signpost: 

A significant researcher into schemas, Bartlett (1932) introduced the idea of schemas in his study entitled “The War of the Ghost.” 

Aim: 

Bartlett aimed to determine how social and cultural factors influence schemas and hence can lead to memory distortions. 

Method: 

Participants used were of an English background.  Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk tale.  Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated reproduction,

where they were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals. o Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on paper,

which is then read by a second participant who reproduces the first participant’s reproduction, and so on until it is reproduced by six or seven different participants.

o Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur between time intervals from 15 minutes to as long as several years. 

Results: 

Both methods lead to similar results.  As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more

changes to the story. o For example, ‘hunting seals’ changed into ‘fishing’ and ‘canoes’ became ‘boats’. 

These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants were culturally familiar with, 

This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and cultural background (schemas). 

He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective (rationalization). 

Conclusion: 

Memory is very inaccurate o It is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas 

Bartlett’s study helped to explain through the understanding of schemas when people remember stories, they typically omit (”leave out”) some details, and introduce rationalisations and distortions, because they reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of their knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up in and experiences in the form of schemas. 

Evaluation:

Limitations: 

o Bartlett did not explicitly ask participants to be as accurate as possible in their reproduction 

o Experiment was not very controlled  instructions were not standardised (specific)  disregard for environmental setting of experiment 

Connection of study to question 

Bartlett's study shows how schema theory is useful for understand how people categorise information, interpret stories, and make inferences. 

It also contributes to understanding of cognitive distortions in memory. 

Supporting Study 2: Anderson and Pichert (1978) Introduce Study/Signpost: 

Further support for the influence of schemas of memory on cognition memory at encoding point was reported by Anderson and Pichert (1978). 

Aim: 

To investigate if schema processing influences encoding and retrieval. 

Method: 

Half the participants were given the schema of a burglar and the other half was given the schema of a potential house-buyer. 

Participants then heard a story which was based on 72 points, previously rated by a group of people based on their importance to a potential house-buyer (leaky roof, damp basement) or a burglar (10speed bike, colour TV). 

Participants performed a distraction task for 12 minutes, before recall was tested.  After another 5 minute delay, half of the participants were given the switched schema.

Participants with burglar schema were given house-buyer schema and vice versa.  The other half of the participants kept the same schema.  All participants’ recalls were tested again.  Shorter Method: 

o Participants read a story from the perspective of either a burglar or potential home buyer. After they had recalled as much as they could of the story from the perspective they had been given, they were shifted to the alternative perspective (schema) and were asked to recall the story again. 

Results: 

Participants who changed schema recalled 7% more points on the second recall test than the first. 

There was also a 10% increase in the recall of points directly linked to the new schema.  The group who kept the same schema did not recall as many ideas in the second testing. 

Research also showed that people encoded different information which was irrelevant to their prevailing schema (those who had buyer schema at encoding were able to recall burglar information when the schema was changed, and vice versa). 

o This shows that our schemas of “knowledge,” etc. are not always correct, because of external influences. 

Summary: On the second recall, participants recalled more information that was important only to the second perspective or schema than they had done on the first recall. 

Conclusion:

Schema processing has an influence at the encoding and retrieval stage, as new schema influenced recall at the retrieval stage. 

Evaluation: 

Strengths o Controlled laboratory experiment allowed researchers to determine a cause-effect

relationship on how schemas affect different memory processes.  Limitations 

o Lacks ecological validity  Laboratory setting  Unrealistic task, which does not reflect something that the general

population would do 

Connection of study to question 

This study provides evidence to support schema theory affecting the cognitive process of memory. 

o Strength of schema theorythere is research evidence to support it. 

Supporting Study 3: Brewer and Treyens (1981) “picnic basket” Introduce Study/Signpost: 

Another study demonstrating schema theory is by Brewer and Treyens (1981).  

Aim:

To see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory (recall) of an office. 

Methods: 

Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. 

They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office. 

Results: 

Participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema.  They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office. 

Conclusions: 

Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it.  They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical

office” schema. 

Evaluation: 

Strengths: o Strict control over variables --> to determine cause & effect relationship

Limitation: o Lacks ecological validity 

Laboratory setting artificial environment  Task does not reflect daily activity 

Connection of study to question 

This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory. 

Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory. o Strength of schema theory – there is many types of research evidence to support

it. 

Supporting Study 4: French and Richards (1933)

Introduce Study/Signpost:

A further study demonstrating schematic influence is by French and Richards (1933). 

Aim: 

To investigate the schemata influence on memory retrieval. 

Methods: 

In the study there were three conditions: o Condition 1: Participants were shown a clock with roman numerals and asked to

draw from memory.o Condition 2: The same procedure, except the participants were told beforehand

that they would be required to draw the clock from memory. 

o Condition 3: The clock was left in full view of the participants and just had to draw it. 

The clock used represented the number four with IIII, not the conventional IV. 

Results: 

In the first two conditions, the participants reverted to the conventional IV notation, whereas in the third condition, the IIII notation, because of the direct copy. 

They found that subjects asked to draw from memory a clock that had Roman numerals on its face typically represented the number four on the clock face as “IV” rather than the correct “IIII,” whereas those merely asked to copy it typically drew “IIII.” 

Conclusions: 

French and Richards explained this result in terms of schematic knowledge of roman numerals affecting memory retrieval. 

The findings supported the idea that subjects in the copy condition were more likely than subjects in other conditions to draw the clock without invoking schematic knowledge of Roman numerals. 

Evaluation: 

Strengths: o Strict control over variables to determine cause & effect relationship

Limitation:  Lacks ecological validity 

o Laboratory setting artificial environment o Task does not reflect daily activity 

Connection of study to question 

This study provides evidence to support how our schemas can affect our cognition/cognitive processes, in particular memory. 

Our schemas influence what we recall in our memory. o Strength of schema theory – there is many types of research evidence to support

it. 

Summary of evaluation of schema theory: 

Define strengths of schema theory: o Supported by lots of research to suggest schemas affect memory processes

knowledge, both in a positive and negative sense.o Through supporting studies, schema theory was demonstrated in its usefulness for

understanding how memory is categorized, how inferences are made, how stories are interpreted, memory distortions and social cognition. 

Define weaknesses of schema theory: 

o Not many studies/research evidence that evaluate and find limitations of schema theory 

o Lacks explanationo It is not clear exactly

how schemas are initially acquired  how they influence cognitive processes  how people choose between relevant schemas when categorising people 

o Cohen (1993) argued that:  The concept of a schema is too vague to be useful.  Schema theory does not show how schemas are required. It is not clear

which develops first, the schema to interpret the experiences or vice versa. 

Schema theory explains how new information is categorised according to existing knowledge.

o But it does not account for completely new information that cannot link with existing knowledge.

o Therefore, it does not explain how new information is organised in early life E.g. language acquisition 

Conclusion Thus schemas affect our cognitive processes and are used to organize our knowledge,

assist recall, guide our behaviour, predict likely happenings and help make sense of current experiences helps us understand how we organize our knowledge. 

In conclusion, strengths of schema theory: o Provides an explanation for how knowledge is stored in the mind something that

is unobservable and remains unknown in psychologyo There is much research that supports schema theory 

But its limitations are that, o It is unclear exactly how schemas are acquired and how people choose between

schemas o It does not account for new information without a link to existing schemas 

Overall, with the amount of evidence, schema theory should be considered an important theory that provides insight into information processing and behaviour. 

It has contributed largely to our understanding of mental processes.  But the theory requires further research and refinements to overcome its limitations and

uncover its unclear aspect

Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.

Introduction

State what you are doing in the essay o This essay will attempt to give a detailed account including reasons or causes of

how biological factors may affect the cognitive process of memory in Alzheimer's disease (AD) 

State interaction between cognition and biological factors o Human cognitive processes have a biological basis. 

Define memory o Memory is the cognitive process whereby information is retained and recalled

from past experiences, in which memory processes are used to acquire, store, retain and later retrieve information from past information and knowledge. 

Define Alzheimer's disease o AD is a serious and progressive degenerative brain disease, which leads to the

loss of neurons and often leading to dementia.  Outline AD 

o The onset of symptoms is gradual but its progression is irreversible.o AD impairs the creation of new memories but procedural memory (how to die a

bike or play a musical instrument) is largely unaffected.o Episodic memory (memory of events and personal experiences) is the most

severely affected. Episodic memory problems are the earliest symptoms of ADo AD also causes a steady decline in the semantic memory – general knowledge

about the world, concepts and language.  State biological factors affecting AD 

o Medial temporal lobeo Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine o Amyloid plaqueso Neurofibrillary tangleso Genetic predisposition 

Signposto Therefore, to answer this question, the link between the biological causes and

effects of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) will be investigated in regards to the effect it has on a person’s cognition of memory processing.

BodyBiological Factor 1: Medial temporal lobe

Introduce the Medial temporal lobe (MTL) o One biological factor that may cause AD and then affect memory is the medial

temporal love (MTL).o The MTL has been investigated because it is known to play a role in episodic

memory and it is the first area to show pathological changes in the brain. 

Supporting Study 1: Schwindt and Black (2009) Introduction --> link to question: 

A study that shows how the MTL plays a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Schwindt and Black (2009). 

Aim: 

To test the effect of episodic memory on AD. 

Method: 

They conducted a meta-analysis of fMRI studies on episodic memory in AD patients, compared to normal & AD patients. 

Results: 

There was greater brain activity in the MTL and frontal lobe in the control group.  Compared to controls, the AD patients showed decreased activation in the MTL and

increased activation in the prefrontal cortex.  There were a number of consistent findings across the previous studies. 

Conclusion: 

It was well-established that AD patients show decreased activation in the MTL. 

Connection of study to question 

Schwindt and Black’s study supports the biological factor of the MTL in causing AD and thus, impairment in memory. 

Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the next biological factor: 

o AD develops through a series of stages. First, the MTLs are affected, in particular the hippocampus, then the parietal lobes and other brain regions.

o The symptoms of AD seem to be caused by the loss of brain cells and the deterioration of neurons. 

Biological Factor 2: Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine hippocampus

Introduce the next biological factor being explained:  Therefore, another biological factor that can affect memory is the deterioration of

neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine. 

o This is particularly prevalent in the hippocampi area of the brain.o The hippocampus has been found to affect memory from cases of amnesia

patients such as HM (Milner and Scoville, 1957) and Clive Wearing (Baddeley, 1997). 

Supporting Study 2: Mosconi (2005) Introduction --> link to question: 

A study that shows how biological factors occurring in the hippocampi play a role in AD therefore affecting memory is by Mosconi (2005). 

Aim: 

To test how the hippocampi region interacts with AD/To investigate metabolism in the hippocampus, which is when the neurons in the brain activate responses in the body and dies. 

Method: 

Followed a sample of 52 normal participants for a period of 9 – 24 years (longitudinal).  They used a brain scan based computer program that measures metabolic activity in the

hippocampus.

Results: 

Reduced metabolism in the hippocampus was associated with later AD. 

Connection of study to question 

Mosconi’s study supports the role of the hippocampus in AD.  This can be explained by the fact that the hippocampus of normal people contains high

concentration of acetylcholine (Squire, 1987).  Low concentrations are found in people with AD.  This results from severe brain tissue loss in areas of the forebrain, known to secrete

acetylcholine. 

Outline the series of stages that AD develops in so you could link it with the next biological factor: 

o Autopsies reveal two characteristic abnormalities in these acetylcholine-producing neurons. 

o These neurons in AD patients also show abnormal levels of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. 

Biological Factor 3: Amyloid plaques 

Introduce next AD Factor: o AD is caused by deposits of amyloid-B protein which accumulates in spaces

between neurons and damages the membranes of axons and dendrites (Lorenzo et al., 2000)

o The amyloid plaques are formed from the degenerating axons and dendrites and contain a dense core of amyloid-ß protein, in which the plaques accumulate in the spaces between neurons. 

o Most AD patients accumulate amyloid plaques before onset of AD (Selkoe, 1990). 

Supporting Study 3: Murphy and Levine (2010)Introduction --> link to question:

A study that shows how amyloid plaques interact in causing AD is by Murphy and Levine (2010). 

Aim: 

To investigate whether is a relationship between default activity patterns in cortical regions in early adulthood and amyloid deposition in elderly AD patients. 

Method: 

Eighteen older participants were enrolled from the longitudinal sample of the Washington University  Alzheimer’s Disease Research Centre and screened to exclude neurological illness, psychoactive medications and medical conditions that may produce cognitive impairment. 

Results: 

Presence of amyloid-B protein 42 in early AD starts a chain of events that leads tAD. 

Connection of study to question 

Therefore, the results of this study support the biological factor of amyloid-B protein in AD. 

Biological Factor 4: Neurofibrillary tangles 

Introduce AD Biological Factor: As well as amyloid plaques, another factor which plays a role in the degrading of neurons that is significant for the onset of AD is neurofibrillary tangles. 

o The tangles are microtubules found in the cell body and dendrites of neurons, which forms abnormally and causes the microtubules to tangle (neurofibrillary tangles).

o When they tangle, the neuron loses its structure and no long has support, thus shrivels up and dies. 

o The inhibition of the movement of neurotransmitters across the synapse prevents electrical messages to be passed from one neuron to the other; therefore, certain actions in the body are unable to be activated.

o It is caused by the accumulation of an abnormal form of tau protein around the support structure of neurons that causes them to collapse. 

AD is thought to be affected by amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles that degrade neurons in the brain, which causes atrophy of areas of the brain (hippocampus). 

Biological Factor 5: Genetic predisposition 

Introduce AD Biological Factor o Another important biological factor in causing AD is our genetic predisposition to

diseases such as AD.  Outline the factor 

o Research has found that genes play a role in producing amyloid-B protein. Research by... 

Lott (1982): Demonstrate and early onset Alzheimer’s linked to chromosome 21 (down’s syndrome) 

Levy-Lahad eta al (1995): Early onset Alzheimer’s gene found on chromosome 1 

Schellenberg et al (1992): Early onset Alzheimer’s gene found on chromosome 14 

Ertekin-Taner et al (2000): Gene for later onset Alzheimer’s found on chromosome 10 

o But genes do not provide a full explanation of AD, which is demonstrated by:  St George-Hislop (2000): Half of all Alzheimer’s patients have no

relatives with the illness Hendrie (2001): Yoruba people have Alzheimer’s genes, but much lower

rates of the illness.

Conclusion In conclusion, it is shown that the following biological factors...

o Medial temporal lobe(Schwindt and Black, 2009)o Deterioration of neurons involved in the production of acetylcholine (Mosconi,

2005) o Amyloid plaques (Murphy and Levine, 2010)o Neurofibrillary tangleso Genetic predisposition

... all play a role in the development of Alzheimer’s Disease, affecting memory processing, which is a significant part of our cognition.

Therefore it can be assumed that biological factors affect memory in AD.

(OR)

State its physiological basis

o It can be seen that AD interacts directly with physiology because it is caused by biological factors such as a genetic predisposition to the disease; damage in brain; and the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles; occurring mainly in the hippocampi region of the brain, which contributes to the degradation of the neurons developing the onset of AD.

State its cognitive basiso Therefore, the physiological effects of amnesia are what influences/affects

cognition, in regards to memory processing.

Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process.

Introduction State what you are doing in the essay (in terms of factor & cognitive process) 

o An example of the effect of social or cultural factors on one cognitive process is the effect of schemas on memory. 

Define schemas o Schemas are cognitive structures that organise knowledge stored in our memory.o They are mental representations of categories from our knowledge, beliefs and

expectations.  Expand on schema 

o Any information about particular aspects of the world the world, such as people, events, and actions are stored in a person’s brain in the form of schema.

o The information that people are exposed to is affected by the society and culture they are in. 

o Because people in different societies and cultures are exposed to different information, they will have different schemas. 

o There are three different types of schemas  Scripts – provide information about sequences of events that occur in

particular contexts  Self-Schemas – organize information we have about ourselves  Social Schemas – represent information about different groups of people  Schemas contain stereotypes and expectations acquired during life 

Explain briefly how schemas and memory interact o Schemas are influenced by external factors such as social and cultural aspects,

which then affect what is stored in our memory processes.  Define Memory 

o The cognitive processes whereby past experiences is remembered.  Relationship between cultural influences on memory 

o Memory content opens up a window through which we can observe cultural influences on the ways in which individuals attend to represent, organize, retrieve and share event information. 

Signpost

o This relationship will be investigated in the following essay, offering a balanced review of the influence of social and cultural factors, with a particular focus on cultural factors” including a range of arguments and factors and supported by appropriate evidence such as research/empirical studies.

Body Supporting Studies: {Italics = CULTURAL STUDIES; Normal = SOCIAL STUDIES}

o **Bartlett – “War of the Ghosts” (1932) o Brewer & Treyens – “picnic basket” (1981) – social setting; however your culture

can also dictate – interaction and integration between. However, these studies are deemed, and can be explained in a social/cultural state. 

o Allport & Postman (1947) – classed as social o French and Richards – Culture (how people can determine time – differently –

some cultures might not use clocks, western cultures – clocks; schema for clock = roman numerals) 

o Rogoff and Wadell (1982) o **Cole and Scribner (1974) – Memory Strategies in different cultures. 

*Choose at least 2-3 studies from the above studies in the evaluation of schema theory **Main studies that should be used in regards to culture 

Supporting Study 1: Bartlett (1932) “War of the Ghost” 

Introduce Study/Signpost 

A significant researcher into schemas, Bartlett (1932) introduced the idea of schemas in his study entitled “The War of the Ghost.” 

Aim: 

Bartlett aimed to investigate the effect of culture on memory. 

Method: 

Participants used were of an English background.  Were asked to read “The War of the Ghosts” – a Native American folk tale.  Tested their memory of the story using serial reproduction and repeated reproduction,

where they were asked to recall it six or seven times over various retention intervals. o Serial reproduction: the first participant reading the story reproduces it on paper,

which is then read by a second participant who reproduces the first participant’s reproduction, and so on until it is reproduced by six or seven different participants.

o Repeated reproduction: the same participant reproduces the story six or seven times from their own previous reproductions. Their reproductions occur between time intervals from 15 minutes to as long as several years. 

Results: 

Both methods lead to similar results.  As the number of reproductions increased, the story became shorter and there were more

changes to the story. o For example, ‘hunting seals’ changed into ‘fishing’ and ‘canoes’ became ‘boats’. 

These changes show the alteration of culturally unfamiliar things into what the English participants were culturally familiar with, 

This makes the story more understandable according to the participants’ experiences and cultural background (schemas). 

He found that recalled stories were distorted and altered in various ways making it more conventional and acceptable to their own cultural perspective (rationalization). 

Conclusion:

Memory is very inaccurate o It is always subject to reconstruction based on pre-existing schemas 

Bartlett’s study helped to explain through the understanding of schemas when people remember stories, they typically omit (”leave out”) some details, and introduce rationalisations and distortions, because they reconstruct the story so as to make more sense in terms of their knowledge, the culture in which they were brought up in and experiences in the form of schemas. 

Evaluation (optional): 

Limitations: o Bartlett did not explicitly ask participants to be as accurate as possible in their

reproductiono Experiment was not very controlled 

instructions were not standardised (specific)  disregard for environmental setting of experiment 

Connection of study to question 

This study relates to the effect of culture on memory. o Participants' recall of the story which was culturally-foreign to them was altered

to be culturallyfamiliar when they were asked to recall, due to their schema (knowledge, background and past experiences).

o Hence, the culture in which people are brought up in influences how they recall and reproduce stories and events to others, introducing cognitive distortions in memory because of their mental representations in the form of schemas. 

o Barlett’s work (1932) demonstrated how schemas originating in one particular culture can affect how literature from another culture is recalled. His participants relied on schematic knowledge, acquired within their culture to understand and later recall a story from a different culture. 

Supporting Study 2: Brewer and Treyens (1981) “picnic basket” 

Introduce Study/Signpost: 

Further support for cultural factors on the influence of schemas of memory on cognition memory at encoding point was reported by Brewer and Treyens (1981). 

Aim: 

To see whether a stereotypical schema of an office would affect memory (recall) of an office 

Methods: 

Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room. 

They were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office. 

Results: 

Participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema.  They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office. 

Conclusions: 

Participants' schema of an office influenced their memory of it.  They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical

office” schema. 

Evaluation (optional):

Strengths:o Strict control over variables to determine cause & effect relationship

Limitation: o Lacks ecological validity 

Laboratory setting artificial environment  Task does not reflect daily activity 

Connection of study to question 

This study shows how both social and cultural factors can influence schemas and hence what we recall in memory. 

o Participants' typical office schema determined their recall and their non-recall of items because they did not fit into the office schema.

o But it is important to note that the culture in which the participants were from could also have a major impact on their schema for an office, as different cultures can have different representations of what an office looks like, thus influencing how the participants recalled because of their schema, influenced by culture. 

o However the above argument is valid, the study represents more social effects than cultural, as the participants “typical” office schemas were based on society’s representation of an office. Therefore it demonstrates that schemas, thus memory recall are affected by social factors. 

Supporting Study 3: Allport & Postman (1947) “Schemas and constructive memory” 

Introduce Study/Signpost: 

Another study demonstrating social influence on schemas into memory was by Allport and Postman (1947). 

Aim: 

To see if schemas affect recall. 

Method: 

“White” and “Black” Americans participated in the study.  Firstly the “White” Participants were shown a picture of an argument between a well-

dressed black man, and a poorly dressed, unshaven white man holding a cut throat razor.  Serial reproduction: Participant asked to describe picture to another white participant who

in turn described it to someone else (similar to “Chinese whispers”).  This method was repeated and the picture was shown to the “Black Participants” 

Results: 

White participants: o After a few retellings, the story had changed so that the black man was the

aggressor, holding the knife.  Black Participants: 

o Results were not the same as what the white participants had recalled. There were more correct observations from the black participants in relation to the picture showed to them. 

Conclusions: 

This study is an example of how through the social environment, what we expect (based on stereotypical schemas) can distort what we actually hear and process into our memory. 

White people were heavily influenced by the history of racism from the acts of the olden-days America, whom discriminated against and placed heavy prejudices on Black African American people. Thus, the history of how black men were portrayed as aggressive and dangerous may have also influenced how they interpreted the story, affecting their schemas. 

Evaluation:

Limitations:o Lacks ecological validity

Artificial stimulus picture rather than real life experience Ethics 

o Experiment demonstrates a racist schemao When the participants found out they had a schema of a black person being

aggressive they might have been distressed because they might not have considered themselves racist. They would have felt bad afterwards - didn't come out the same as when they went in

Connection of study to question 

This study relates to how schemas affect memory. o Reproduction of the description of the picture was affected by participants'

stereotypical schemas.  However in terms of a cultural aspect/viewpoint, the participants’ backgrounds may have

affected how they recalled and interpreted the story, due to their knowledge of and history of their culture towards black people and hence influencing their schemas. 

Supporting Study 4: Rogoff and Wadell (1982) 

Introduce Study/Signpost: 

A further study demonstrating cultural influence on schematic knowledge is by Rogoff and Wadell (1982). 

Aim: 

The aim was to determine whether non-western children would show a memory defect for contextually organised spatial material. 

Methods: 

They gave Guatemalan children a memory task that was meaningful in local terms; constructed a diorama of a Mayan village located near a mountain and a lake, similar to the locale in which the children lived. 

Each child watched as a local experimenter selected 20 miniature objects from a set of 80 and placed them in the diorama. 

o Objects included (the kind of things that would be found in a real town):  Cars  Animals  People  Furniture 

Then the 20 objects were returned to the group of 60 others remaining on the table. After a few minutes, the children were asked to reconstruct the full scene they had been shown. 

This methodology was then repeated to children from the united states (to their counterparts) 

Results: 

Under these conditions, the memory performance of the Mayan children was slightly superior to that of their United States counterparts. 

Connection of study to question 

This study supports that culture affects memory. o Guatemalan children could remember better than their UN counterparts when the

task was meaningful in local terms.o Culture heavily impacts schema, thus memory recall. Through this study, it shows

that people can remember better or perform tasks which are recognized as part of their culture, due to cultural influences and experiences stored in their schemas.

Supporting Study 5: Cole and Scribner (1974)

Introduce Study/Signpost:

A further study demonstrating cultural influence on schematic knowledge (in terms of memory strategies in different cultures – USA & Liberia) is by Cole and Scribner (1974). 

They observed the effects of formal schooling/education (in relation to culture) had on memory. 

Methods: 

Tested the memory ability of non-schooled children in the Kpelle tribe in Liberia and compared them with US school children. 

Children were expected to remember items on word lists that were organized into different categories. 

Test was repeated with the children several times. 

Results: 

The Kpelle children did not improve their performance in free recall memory tests after the age of 10 in the same way as US children; after 15 trials they only remembered 2 more items. 

Kpelle children who attended school had similar performance tUS school children.  School children in US and Liberia used categorical recall; they appeared to have chunked

the items in to linked categories as they recalled them in groups such as utensils, clothes, vegetables, tools. 

When items were presented as part of a story the Kpelle children (non-schooled) had equally good performance as the US children. 

Children with formal schooling in America and Liberia used this mnemonic which improved their memory of the items. Children without formal schooling however, did not use the categories to aid their recall and subsequently did not remember as much as children who had attended school. 

Connection of study to question:

This study supports that culture affects memory.  o The Kpelle children performed just as well as their US counterparts in a

culturally-familiar memory task, but not on a free recall task. o This is because the free-recall task that Cole and his colleagues originally used to

assess memory among Liberian tribal people has no precise analogy in traditional Liberian cultures, so it is not surprising that the corresponding way of remembering would not be acquired.

Cognitive skills (memory) are dependent on the environment – which is made up of education, social interaction, technology and in this case, culture. 

Therefore culture influences schemas, and thus our memory ability/ability to recall and have advantageous effects if asked to do a task associated with your culture. 

Conclusion As demonstrated in these four studies, cultural factors stored in our schemas affect

memory,  Therefore, human cognition is culturally independent – in the way that cognitive abilities

are influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live.  The implication of these studies is that although the ability to remember is a universal

intellectual requirement, specific forms of remembering are not universal, as factors such as cultural aspects are different, in that not cultures have the same memory strategies. 

As demonstrated by the studies, people learn to remember in ways that are relevant for their everyday lives. 

The studies established, in particular Bartlett’s work, showed that memory is, to a significant extent, a construction; moreover, one that relies heavily on the schemas we develop in our cultural settings. 

And that the schemas we develop from our cultural backgrounds can influence the cognitive process of memory.

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?

Introduction  Introduce topic 

o One cognitive process that involves questioning of reliability is memory, more specifically, its significance towards eye-witness testimony (EWT). 

Define EWT o EWT is an important area of research into cognitive psychology and memory.o EWT is a legal term. It refers to an account given by people of an event they have

witnessed.  Give an example (optional) 

o For example, they may be required to give a description at a trial of a robbery or a road accident they have witnessed. 

Where is EWT used? o EWT is vital and used in legal systems as evidence in criminal trials in countries

all over the world, which relies on the accuracy of human memory/EWT to decide whether a person is guilty or not.

o Therefore, the reliability of the testimonies is important as it determines ones precious future. 

State connection between memory and EWT o Memory is very important and plays a significant role in EWT. 

Talk about reliability of memory in EWT o Beforehand, EWT was generally seen as very trustworthy and convincing; Judges,

jurors, police and parts of the law enforcement saw and treated EWT as very reliable.

o However research from various sources now shows that memory can be subjected to distortion and reconstruction. 

o Researchers have demonstrated that memory may not be as reliable as we think through the use of DNA technology; psychologists have demonstrated that eyewitnesses can be wrong.

o Memories may be influenced by other factors than what was recorded in the first place, due to the reconstructive nature of memory.

The term “reconstructive” refers to the brain’s active processing of information to make sense of the world.

State what you are doing in the essay (in terms of factor & cognitive process):

o Therefore, the reliability of memory in EWT will be investigated, considering the merits from both sides of the arguments regarding its reliability, *however with a focus on how EWT (in laboratory situations?) can be disturbingly inaccurate. This argument will be discussed in relation to appropriate evidence in the form of research studies and experiments.

o *(or)... by firstly demonstrating the inaccuracy/unreliability of EWT, then presenting a counterargument by introducing a study which refutes this idea, therefore coming to a conclusion (to an extent) of the reliability of memory in EWT.

Body Introduce significant researcher intEWT, Elizabeth Loftus and her arguments

o One of the leading researchers in the field of EWT research, Elizabeth Loftus, supports Bartlett’s idea of memory as reconstructive.

The idea that memory is a reconstructive process is crucial to an understanding of the reliability of EWT, is the idea that eyewitnesses do not reproduce what they witness, but rather, reconstruct their memories on the basis of relevant schematic information (personal interpretation dependent on our learnt or cultural norms and values – the way we make sense of the world) thus illustrating how memory is unreliable, as our schemas can be misled or influenced (by culture, social and environment factors) and are not always correct.

o She expressed concern at the over-reliance on EWT’s in court, with her research showing: 

That our memories can reconstruct information.o Therefore Loftus has argued that EWT can be highly unreliable, because of the

ability of our memories to reconstruct events. Give an example (optional)

o Many people believe that memory works something like a videotape. Where: Storing information is like recording and remembering is like playing back

what was recorded, with information being retrieved in much the same form as it was encoded. 

o However, memory does not work in this way. It is a feature of human memory that we do not store information exactly as it is presented to us. Rather, people extract from information the gist, or underlying meaning.

o In other words, people store information in the way that makes the most sense to them. We make sense of information by trying to fit it into schemas, which are a way of organising information.

o Schemas are mental 'units' of knowledge that correspond to frequently encountered people, objects or situations. They allow us to make sense of what we encounter in order that we can predict what is going to happen and what we should do in any given situation. These schemas may, in part, be determined by social values and therefore prejudice.

o Schemas are therefore capable of distorting unfamiliar or unconsciously ‘unacceptable’ information in order to ‘fit in’ with our existing knowledge or schemas. This can, therefore, result in unreliable eyewitness testimony.

State relevance of example given --> link to questiono Bartlett tested this theory using a variety of stories to illustrate that memory is an

active process and subject to individual interpretation or construction. In his famous study 'War of the Ghosts', Bartlett (1932) showed that memory is not just a factual recording of what has occurred, but that we make “effort after meaning”. By this, Bartlett meant that we try to fir what we remember with what we really know and understand about the world. As a result, we quite often change our memories so they become more sensible to us.

Main Study: Loftus & Palmer (1974) – Automobile Reconstruction

Introduce Study:

The idea that memory is a reconstructive process, is what forms the vast work/research on EWT by Loftus and her colleagues. 

Loftus has performed and demonstrated a vast majority of research intEWT, but the work with her fellow colleague, Palmer, proved to be one of her most significant research studies intEWT. The idea that memory is a reconstructive process, is what forms the work on EWT by Loftus and her colleagues. Link to question: 

Loftus claims that the nature (wording) of questions can influence witnesses’ memory of an experience. 

Leading questions – that is, questions that are suggestive in some way (hints) – and post-event information facilitate schema processing which may influence accuracy of recall. 

o Our memories can be affected (interfered) with by post-event information such as misleading questions.

Aim: 

To investigate the effect of leading questions on eye witness testimony of an event

Method:

Participants (p’s) were shown 7 films of car accidents (5-30 seconds)  After each clip, p’s were given a questionnaire asking: 

o To give an account of the accident o Number of questions, including the critical question “How fast were the cars

going when they?” o Verb in the critical question was changed to

smashed/collided/hit/bumped/contacted  Experimental conditions: Participants were split in 5 groups of 9 – each group were asked

the question with a different verb 

Results: 

Results showed that that the speed estimates were influenced by the wording (verb) used. 

The more severe-sounding verb produced higher speed estimates  For example, ‘smashed’ gave an estimated 9m/h higher than ‘contacted’ 

Conclusion: 

L & P concluded that the wording of the question did have an effect on the speed estimates given. 

Suggested it may be because: o People are poor judges of speed o People are affected by the wording of a question 

Findings can be explained by Bartlett’s view of memory as an active reconstructive process. 

o The verbs used in the various conditions activated slightly different schemas which influenced the

o speed estimates.o In this study, information was received after witnessing the accident researchers

used a leading question.o Thus after the accident was reconstructed in the participant’s mind, the schema

that were influenced by the leading question relating to the different verbs associated with speech explains how reconstructive memory works.

This study also supports the idea that when people witness complex events, they tend to report inaccurate and numeric details like time, distance and speed. 

Supporting Study: Loftus et al. (1987) Introduce Study --> link to question: 

A further study by Loftus et al. (1987) demonstrating how another factor, ‘repression’ may influence recovered memories, thus leading to unreliable answers from eyewitnesses, investigated on... 

Aim:

 ....the weapon-focus effect. 

Method: 

Participants heard a discussion going on in the room next door.  There were 2 conditions: 

o No weapon condition (man with greasy hands emerging from another room holding a pen) 

o And weapon condition (a man coming from another room with a bloody paperknife). 

Participants were asked to identify the man from a selection of 50 people. 

Results: 

Results showed that participants from the no-weapon condition were more accurate in recall. 

Conclusion: 

Loftus concluded that the weapon drew more attention than the pen, so their attention was allocated to the weapon than the face. 

Connection of study to question 

This study relates to the unreliability of memory in EWT because it was found that the more dangerous situation affected their recalling of the people’s face. 

This can be explained by repression, as the knife may have provoked their memory and emotion thus creating false memories, which is very unreliable in EWT. 

Evaluation of research (both studies) on EWT: 

Loftus’ research indicates that it is possible to create a false memory using post-event information. These results indicate that memory is not reliable but like all research studies, there are some limitations that need to be considered relating to its validity/ecological validity (EV). 

Connection of study to question

Although Loftus’ research is still valid to some extent (especially the Automobile Reconstruction) as it relates to the unreliability of memory in EWT because it was found that the leading question asked to eye-witnesses caused a distortion of memory as the result of the reconstructive processes of memory. 

o 'smashed' lead participants to remember the accident as more severe than 'contacted 

Therefore it is clear that leading questions can change/influence previously stored information in memory – (make us reconstruct memories). 

But, due to demand characteristics, it cannot be concluded that the verb in the leading question completely influenced participants' speed estimates, but played a part in its influence. 

COUNTER-ARGUMENT/STUDY 

Present Counter-Argument o However, other studies have also shown that EWT can be reliable, acquiring more

EV. 

Supporting Study 2: Yuille & Cutshall (1986) 

Introduce Study --> link to question: 

Yuille & Cutshall [Y&C] (1986) argues and criticizes against Loftus and Palmer’s viewpoint on the accuracy of EWT in real-life settings as their research lacked ecological validity (EV). 

Aim: 

Y & C investigated the accuracy/effectiveness in recall EWT using real eyewitnesses from a real crime. 

Background (details of the crime): o In this study, the crime was a real theft and gun shooting crime scene. o Incident took place in Vancouver. 

Method: 

There were 21 witnesses interviewed by the police originally who had witnessed the event from different viewpoints: (passing by in the car, walking on the street or within buildings). 

o Twenty of those eyewitnesses were contacted by the researchers four-to-five months after the event, asking them to take part in a scientific study.

o Of those 20, thirteen agreed to participate in the study.o All aged between 15-32; only three female, and ten males o The victim was not asked to participate as he did not wish to relive the trauma. 

The researchers interviewed the participants at this four or five month period after the incident. 

o The interviews were recorded and transcribed.o They used the same interviewing procedure as the police had used with them

allowing them to give their account first and then asking questions.  Of course, one of the aims was to look into the effects of leading questions, and so

following Loftus' procedures, two leading questions were used. o Half the group were asked if they saw a broken headlight, and the other half if

they saw the broken headlight, when in fact there was no broken headlight in the thief's car.

o Similarly, half of the participants were asked about a yellow panel on the car, and the others about the yellow panel, whereas the quarter panel was really blue. 

A scoring procedure was introduced to turn the qualitative data collected into quantitative data. 

o This was carefully devised, as the researchers needed to know not only the true details of the event, but also be able to compare the results to those of the police interviews.

o The researchers decided to use systems of 'action details' and 'description details' (split further into ‘object descriptions’ and ‘people descriptions’ to collate information from the interviews. 

Results:

The researchers ended up obtaining more details than the police had.  The police found 392 action details against the researchers' 552 action details.  What was found is that the misleading questions had very little effect on their recall.  Ten of the eyewitnesses said that there was no broken headlight and no yellow quarter

panel at all on the thief's car which was correct to identify. 

Discussion/Conclusion: 

This was the first case study of EWT, which was a field study and a study therefore of a real case that had not been manipulated by the researchers. 

It was useful to compare the findings of this, therefore valid, study against other studies (such as Loftus and Palmer), which were laboratory experiments, and so tended not to be valid. 

o This enabled the researchers to see the extent to which the conclusions of such previous studies were reliable. 

It was found that eyewitnesses were actually very reliable.  There were several factors which made this true, including correctly recalling large

numbers of accurate details; almost always arguing the misleading questions and a healthy comparison between the police and research interviews. 

However, they agreed it would be hard to generalise the findings of this study, as the case (as with any other case study) is unique, and it is difficult to find a similar one naturally occurring again. 

o Even more so, as there were only thirteen participants to this study eight of the original witnesses either moved or did not want to take part. 

Yuille and Cutshall concluded that eyewitnesses were in fact not inaccurate, contrary to the findings of the vast majority of previous research into eyewitness testimony, which had all been from laboratory experiments. The misleading questions had had little effect on the eyewitness, which again disagreed with a Loftus' theory of misleading questions. 

Evaluation:

Conclusion

Answer the question! 

To what extent is memory reliable? State either to a great extent or to a less extent and include supporting reasons why.

o Because the findings of Loftus & Palmer's experiment are considered invalid, and the experiment lacked ecological validity in comparison tYuille & Cutshall's study, which was a QUASI (natural) experiment, it can be concluded that memory in eyewitness testimony is still reliable, to some extent. 

o Thus, the unreliability of reconstructive memory (that can be influenced by incorrect/distortive schemas) and research by Loftus shows that memory is reliable to a small extent. However, due to the limitations and artificial nature of Loftus’ work, including that it lacks ecological validity (EV) and demand characteristics were present, which is overcome by Yuille & Cutshall’s real EWT study. This suggests that memory is reliable to a great extent. Overall, it can be considered that memory is reliable to some extent. 

Example o CP5: With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one

cognitive process reliable. We examined this learning outcome in the context of reconstructive memory, firstly with schema theory, and then in the applied field of eyewitness memory and testimony. Write a 22mk response tCP5. Remember that you are developing an argument. If your argument is, “memory is unreliable” then you need to present studies that support this, present studies that refute this, and then explain why you discount the refuting evidence. E.g. present research by Loftus and colleagues supporting memory is unreliable; present research by Yuille for example that criticises the research for ecological validity. An example of a counter-claim to Yuille’s criticisms might be a statement about improvements in ecological validity since Yuille’s criticisms, but you would need evidence of this. 

Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.

Introduction State what you are doing in the essay 

o The following essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. 

State the different types of brain imaging technologies o PET: Positron Emission Topographyo MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imagingo fMRI: functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging EEG: Electroencephalogramo CAT: Computerised Axial Tomography 

Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages and are appropriate in varying situations

Explain why Brain imaging technologies are used at the CLA

o Brain imaging technologies are methods used in psychology to examine the human brain. 

o Brain imaging technologies are quite useful in neuropsychology... As it provides an opportunity to study the active brain

o Allows researchers to see where specific brain processes take placeo Predominantly used to define brain differences in groups while they perform

cognitive tasks o Enables researchers to study localisation of function in a living human brain

State the cognitive processes being discussedo The cognitive processes being discussed in this essay are:

Memory  Language

State the brain imaging technology being discussedo Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) o Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Example Responseo In the following essay, the brain imaging technology that will be discussed are

MRI and PET Scans and will be investigated in terms of its role in investigating the correlations/relationships between cognitive processes of memory and language.

BodyCognitive Process 1: MEMORYBrain Imaging Technology 1: MRI Scans

Introduce the cognitive process of memory o The first brain imaging technology, MRI scans, will be firstly investigated with

the cognitive process of memory.  Describe the MRI brain imaging technology 

o This technique uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images.

o MRI scans involve people to remove all metal objects and clothing where they lie within an MRI machine.

o It can distinguish among different types of soft tissue and allows researchers to see structures within the brain. 

Supporting Study: Maguire et al. (2000)

Introduce Study Connection of study to question:

An example of a study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate the cognitive process of memory is a study conducted by Maguire et al. (2000). 

Aim: 

Maguire hypothesised that full licensed taxi drivers in London would have a different hippocampi structure in their brains compared to ‘normal’ people. 

Methods: 

This was based on the knowledge that London taxi drivers must do a two-year training course where they end up being able to find their way around the city without a map. 

MRI scans were used to scan the structure of their hippocampi, which were compared to already existing MRI scans of healthy males who did not drive taxis. 

Results: 

Taxi drivers’ left and right hippocampi had a larger volume compared to the non-taxi drivers. 

Some parts of the hippocampi were smaller in the taxi drivers. 

Conclusions: 

Maguire concluded that there was probably a redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampi of taxi drivers due to the regular use of the spatial memory skills required to remember roads; the neurons are stronger in areas of the brain which are used most. 

Connection of study to question 

By using an MRI, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the brain and find a correlation between the hippocampi (biological factor) and memory skills (cognitive process). 

Maguire used MRI scans to investigate the structure of the hippocampi, which would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as an EEG or a PET scan 

Supporting Study 2: HM Milner and Scoville (1957)

Introduce StudyConnection of study to question: 

Another study which utilizes MRI scans to investigate memory is a study conducted by Milner and Scoville (1957). 

Background: o HM suffered epileptic seizures after a head injury at age 9 o Doctors performed surgery to stop seizures o Tissue from temporal lobe, and hippocampus was removed o HM suffered anterograde amnesia 

He could recall information from early life but could not form new memories 

o HM was studied using an MRI in 1997  Findings: 

o The brain scan showed that there was damage to the hippocampus, amygdala, and areas close to the hippocampus 

Connection of study to question 

By using MRI scanning technology, researchers were able to investigate the cognitive process of memory and make a correlation between certain brain areas (biological factor) and memory (cognitive process). 

MRI scans were used to see the structures of the brain to determine the extent of brain damage 

o The structures would not be able to be clearly seen using other technologies such as EEGs or CTs. 

Cognitive Process 2: LANGUAGEBrain Imaging Technology 2: PET Scans 

Introduce the cognitive process of languageo The next cognitive process which will be discussed with the brain imaging

technology of PET Scans is language. Describe PET brain imaging technology

o PET scans require patients to be injected with a radioactive glucose tracer which shows the areas where glucose is absorbed in the active brain.

o More glucose metabolism means more brain activity.o PET scans show a coloured visual display of brain activity; where radioactive

tracer is absorbed Red indicates areas with the most activity  Blue indicates areas with the least activity 

Supporting Study 3: Tierney et al (2001)

Introduce Study --> Connection of study to question:

An example of a study which utilizes PET scans to investigate the cognitive process of language is a study conducted by Tierney et al. (2001). 

Aim: 

To evaluate, using PET scans, the bilingual language compensation following early childhood brain damage 

Background: 

37 year old man (known as MA) with normal speech functions who was participating in a normal speech study 

It was discovered that he had a lesion in his left frontal lobe o Probably as a result of encephalitis he suffered at the age of 6 weeks o He had no significant long-term, clinically consequences 

Both his parents were deaf and he used sign language at home from a very young age. 

Researchers were curious to know if this might have had something to do with his ability to speak despite the brain damage (that should have prevented him from doing so. 

Methods: 

Researchers compared MA to 12 control participants, who were fluent in sign language  PET scanning technologies were used while the participants produced narrative speech or

signs 

Results: 

MA's right hemisphere was more active than the controls' during the production of both speech and sign language 

Conclusion: 

Language function seems to have developed in the right hemisphere instead of the left hemisphere as an adaptation following his early brain damage 

Connection of study to outcome 

Tierney utilised PET scans to investigate the cognitive processes of language and observe the areas of the brain (biological factor) that activated while MA produced language (cognitive process). 

o The ongoing activity in the brain would not be able to be seen using other technologies such as EEGs or MRIs. 

Conclusion What is the significance of using brain scans? Answer the question

o In conclusion, brain imaging technologies are very useful in investigating cognitive processes. 

o Useful in different situations.o All these methods have their own advantages and disadvantages, primarily

involving invasiveness and levels of radioactivity.o However, all of these methods contribute to investigating the relationship between

cognitive processes and behaviour.o It is important to note that different brain scans are used depending on the

individual, the cause of the problem and or the cognitive process being investigated.

To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?

Introduction Introduce topic by explaining the cognitive level of analysis 

o The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner processes of the mind and how cognitive processes guide behaviour.

o As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been investigated in terms of the biological and cognitive influences. 

What is emotion? o Emotion can be defined as the body’s adaptive response to a particular situation. 

Give Examples o Ekman et al. (1972) identified/discovered 6 fundamental emotions that were

consistent across cultures. This includes (FASSHD):  Fear Anger Surprise Sadness Happiness  Disgust 

o These primary set of emotions are viewed as universal that is, they are expressed facially in the same way, and are recognised, by all members of diverse cultures 

Suggests that emotion is genetic (biological) rather than cognitive. 

Explain the interaction of how emotions can be a result of cognitive and or biological factors 

o Emotions are sometimes dependent or are initiated through physiological and or cognitive factors. 

Define cognition o Cognition can be defined as the mental processes of acquiring and processing

knowledge and understanding through though, experiences and the senses occurring within the mind

o The mind cannot exist nor function independently without these processes. 

Define physiology o Whereas physiology is the internal, biological mechanisms (hormones,

neurotransmitters, localization of brain function) of living organisms – which is the way the organism functions. 

State purpose of your essay o As such, this essay response will aim to consider the argument or concept of how

both cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion and influence how humans experience emotion. A conclusion will then be made regarding the extent in which these factors influence emotion. 

State theories of emotion o Le Doux Theoryo James-Lange Theoryo Cannon-Bard Theoryo Schachter & Singer's cognitive labelling theory (Two-Factor Theory) o Darwin's evolutionary theory o Lazarus' appraisal theory of emotion 

State which theories which will be discussed o In order to determine to what extent emotion is influenced by biological or

cognitive factors, a set of theories, which have supported the notion that both factors influence how humans experience emotion include:  

Biological Focus LeDoux Theory

 Cognition Focus TwFactor Theory Lazarus Appraisal Theory

These theories clearly state that both factors influence an emotional thus interacting with emotion.

Body: Introduce BIOLOGICAL factors of emotion

o Biological psychologists view emotion as a primarily somatic (bodily) process. o These somatic processes may be:

body arousal  hormones  facial expressions, associated to be with pleasant or unpleasant mental

states of mind  physiological changes, such as the arousal of the autonomic nervous

system and the endocrine system  brain activity  neurochemical processes 

Outline COGNITIVE factors in emotiono Cognitive psychologists assume that conscious and unconscious mental processes

can influence emotions.o Focus more on mental aspects of emotions and how unconscious and conscious

mental processes influence emotional experiences and actions.o This guides cognitive and rational emotive therapies, which assume that

cognitions and emotions are interrelated, and that negative cognitions will lead to negative emotions.

Those negative emotions may come out of people’s faulty interpretations of experiences, and that is by raising awareness of, challenging and changing those beliefs that may alter our mood.

Explain the interaction between cognitive and biological factors in emotion o Emotions can be initiated through physiological and cognitive factors. o It is assumed that emotions consist of three components: 

Physiological changes (biological reactions) Subjective feeling of the emotion (cognitions) ...which then leads to an associated behaviour and thus emotion is

expressed. o Thus, cognitive and biological factors interact to produce an emotional response

to an event.  Therefore a bidirectional relationship exists between cognitive and

biological factors in emotion 

Introduce first theory – Le Doux o One example of a researcher, which demonstrates a biological and cognitive

interaction in emotion, is Le Doux.o Le Doux based his research on animals, and investigated the brain’s emotional

circuit. 

Theory 1: Le Doux’s Model of Emotion 

Explain theory:o Le Doux discovered that for fear responses, there are two neurological pathways:

The short route: that goes from the sensory store in the thalamus to the amygdala 

The long route: traverses the neo-cortex and the hippocampus before it results in a fear response.

o Le Doux argues that there is an evolutionary advantage of having two separate pathways for fear responses.

o During times of danger:  The short route is effective, as it will lead to a quick, but often inaccurate

response.  The long route however, is slower, but will allow for a more thorough

evaluation of a situation, and a more appropriate response. o Therefore, the amygdala receives input from the sensory processing areas in the

neo-cortex and thalamus and projects to areas in the brainstem controlling the fight or flight response. Diagram:

Key Experiment 1: Le Doux Rat Experiment

Introduce studylink to question:

A further study conducted by Le Doux to find out where the brain stores emotional memory, which pairs the tone and shock in memory demonstrating his theory...

Aim: 

To investigate the brain’s emotional circuit – effects of lesions on fear conditioning

Method:

Made lesions in specific neural pathways in rats to determine the functions of the damaged pathways and disrupt the conditioning response. 

The lesions were first made in the auditory context where the brain processes sound.  And the auditory thalamus – which provides most auditory inputs to the cortex. 

Findings: 

Found that the brain structures of the thalamus and the amygdala play different roles in the generation of emotion. 

o Lesion in the auditory cortex rats still learned to fear tone.o Lesion in the auditory thalamus eliminated the rats’ susceptibility (vulnerability)

to fear conditioning. Most of the cells in the thalamus transmit to the cortex 

o BUT some also transmit to the amygdala, a region of the brain already implicated in various emotional behaviours. 

Thus indicating that the pathways with lesions led to the thalamus or amygdala, affected emotional responses. 

Conclusion: 

It can be concluded that the biological factor of brain damage to either of these areas would result in issues in generating emotions. 

Connection of study to question 

This supports that biological factors DO interact in emotion to a great extent. 

Supporting Study 1: Gazzaniga et al. (2000)

Introduce study --> link to question: 

Another study supporting Le Doux’s Biological Model/Theory of Emotion is by Gazzaniga et al. (2000) 

Aim/Method: 

To investigate the effect on emotional responses as a result of brain damage (in the pre-frontal lobe and amygdala) in autistic children. 

Findings: 

Found that autistic children had trouble naming emotions from a set of facial expressions. 

Conclusion: 

It demonstrates that brain damage impaired the children’s ability to recognise the emotions expressed on faces. 

... and furthermore that certain areas in the brain, such as the pre-frontal lobe and the amygdala are related to emotional processing. 

Connection of study to question 

Indicates that biological factors DO interact in emotion, supporting Le Doux’s Biological Model. 

Further Studies that support this theory include

Branchard and Branchard (1972)o Rats lost their fears of cats as the amygdale was lesion

Philips (1964)o Birds lost fear of humans after there was a lesion in amygdala

EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH on EMOTION; and Le Doux’s Theory (optional):

However, one should be cautious in drawing too far reaching conclusions, as the research conductedn these biological processes suffers from methodological weaknesses. This includes the fact that...:

Explain how Le Doux’s theory supports interaction between biological and cognitive factors in emotion

o This suggests that the amygdala plays a central part/role in determining and controlling emotional responses in the brain.

o Thus the connections between these structures allow the amygdala to transform sensory information into emotional signals and therefore control emotional responses.

o Le Doux’s theory (of emotional circuits in the brain) supports biological factors in emotion as it identifies that the amygdala and surrounding brain processes play a central role in determining and controlling emotional responses in the brain.

o The theory also supports cognitive factors in emotion because the situation is appraised though the long route.

o Thus it cannot be said that biological factors alone interact with emotion, but cognition also plays a role in creating and controlling these emotional responses.

Theory 2: Schacter and Singer’s Two-factor Theory (1962) 

Explain theory:

o Two factors interact to determine specific emotions Physiological arousal Emotion interpretation and labelling of the physiological arousal

o Strength of the physiological arousal determines the intensity of emotiono Interpretation of physiological arousal determines which particular emotion is

experienced

Explain how the two-factor theory supports interaction between biological and cognitive factors in emotion

o Perception of stimulus may lead to bodily physiological arousalo Physiological arousal is necessary for emotional experience, but needs to be

labelled or interpreted by cognitive appraisal of the situationo If a state of unexplained bodily arousal is induced, people will look around and

try to explain the arousal in terms of their environmento This cognitive appraisal results in labelling of the arousal as an emotional

experience.

Key Study 2: Schacter and Singer (1962)

Aims:

To test the two factor theory of emotion (that emotion arises from a combination of cognition and arousal), using the hormone, adrenaline

Methods:

184 college males  Divided into 4 groups

o All groups were told that they were going to be given an injection of Suproxin in order to test its effects on vision

o Even though men were really receiving adrenaline and: Informed of the correct effects of adrenaline (under the impression that it

was suproxin)  Given no information on effects  Given false effects 

o Last group was given a placebo  4 Groups divided into 2 subgroups  

o Condition 1 euphoria Confederate encouraged participant to play with games inside the waiting

room (withffice equipment) o Condition 2 anger

Confederate completed a questionnaire at the same pace as the participant but became more and more angry as the questions became more personal

Participants were observed for changes in emotion Participants were then asked to fill out a questionnaire detailing their state of emotion

Results:

Showed that participants that were given information on the effects of adrenaline showed minimal changes in emotion because they had an accurate explanation of their emotion

But those who had been told no effect showed much higher changes in emotion because they had no explanation for their state of arousal, so they used cues of the confederate's behaviour and labelled their emotions

o These participants changed their behaviour according to cognitive appraisal of their emotions, rather than specific physiological arousal, indicating that only general arousal is required.

Conclusions:

Researchers concluded that emotion occurs by a process of cognitive labelling: the interpretation of physiological cues is combined with contextual cues to construct a person's subjective experience of emotion

Connection of study to question

This study supports that a combination of physiological change (adrenaline) and cognitive labelling (appraisal of the situation) can contribute to changes in emotion

Introduce importance of first theory – Lazarus’ Theory of Appraisal:o Cognitive researchers on emotion usually emphasize the importance of cognitive

appraisal.

Theory 3: Lazarus’ Theory of Appraisal (1982; 1991)

Explain theory: o The appraisal theory of emotion is based on the evaluation of situations according

to the significance they have for us, therefore it has more of a cognitive basis  Suggests that cognition is essential.

o This theory states that emotion is experienced when, in our interaction with the environment, we assess our surroundings as to whether it is beneficial or harmful for our well-being. 

Appraisals are interpretations of situations and how they will affect one’s well-being.

Appraisals are both conscious and unconscious; contribute to the quality and intensity of an emotion.

o The appraisal theory is based on two concepts:  Primary appraisal – where the organism assesses the significance or

meaning of the event. Three components:  Motivational relevance – relevance to goals? (If positive, then

there is emotion)  Motivational congruence – favourable to goals? (Positive emotion

when yes, negative emotion when no) 

Accountability – who is responsible for what is happening?  Secondary appraisal – when the organism appraises the consequence of

the event and decides on how to act. It also has three components:  Problem-focused coping – cope with a situation by changing it to

make it less threatening for an individual to cope  Emotion-focused coping – change the situation by how I feel about

it (e.g. reinterpreting).  Future expectancy – To what extent can I expect the situation will

change? 

Supporting Experiment 2: Speisman et al. (1964) 

Introduce study --> link to question: 

A supporting experiment which demonstrates how cognitive appraisals are affected by bodily responses (emotions) to stressful situations, which is illustrated by Speisman et al. (1964). 

Aim: 

To demonstrate the influence of appraisal on emotional experiences. 

Method: 

Participants were shown a ‘stressful’ film about ‘unpleasant’ genital surgery depicting Aboriginal boys have circumcision in the context of puberty. 

Accompanied by soundtrack, in which investigators manipulated the ‘appraisal’ of the surgery by showing the film with 3 conditions + 1 control: 

 Trauma condition – pain experienced by boys and use of knife were emphasized 

 Denial – boys anticipation of entering manhood pointed out thus de-emphasizing the pain  (presented the p’s as happy and deliberate) 

 Intellectualization – soundtrack ignored emotional aspects of situation and emphasized traditions of aboriginal culture 

 Silent – nothing  Arousal state measured by galvanic skin response (GSR) measure of electrical

conductivity of skin and indicator of autonomic arousal and heart rate.

Findings:

Observations and self-reports showed that participants reacted more ‘emotionally’ to the soundtrack that was more traumatic. 

Lowest in intellectualization and silent conditions.  The way participants appraised (act of assessing someone or something) what they were

seeing in the film affected their physiological experience in terms of emotion. 

Evaluation: 

Limitations: 

Methodological problems – It is possible that the participants’ reactions were primarily affected by the music, not that the music affected the appraisal of the situation. 

Conclusion: 

Thus, according to appraisal theory, it can be concluded that the music affected the appraisal of the situation, which in turn affected the emotional reaction to it. 

...the cognitive factor of how we appraise certain situations influences our emotional responses

Connection of study to question 

This supports that cognitive factors DO interact in emotion to a great extent. 

State connection to cognitive interactions within emotion: o Thus, Lazarus’ theory of appraisal states that ‘we experience emotions when

interacting with our environment and appraise good and bad to our well-being.o Lazarus suggests that the specific emotions experienced are determined by the

pattern of answers the individual gives throughout the components of the primary and second appraisal. 

Conclusion  The theories discussed above suggest that cognitive and biological factors contribute and

interact in emotion.  According to the information processing view of the brain (supported by Le Doux),

emotion is produced as cognitive and perceptual processing occurs in brain regions such as the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and the pre-frontal lobe (biological factors) 

According to the TFT, emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labelling 

According tLazarus’ theory of appraisal, evaluation of situations (cognition) determines emotion 

These theories have been supported through much research, and although there were a few limitations within the studies, there have been no other theories or research that opposes the idea that biological and cognitive factors influence emotion. 

o Therefore, all of these theories suggest that both cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion to a LARGE exten

Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process.

Introduction Introduce topic by explaining it in terms of the cognitive level of analysis and emotion 

o The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner processes of the mind and how cognitive processes guide behaviour.

o As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been investigated in terms of its cognitive influences. 

Introduce theory of emotion o One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive process of memory is

Flashbulb Memory (FBM) suggested by Brown & Kulik (1977).  Theory of FBM involves how emotion affects memory by enhancing it.  According tLe Doux, the arousal of emotion can facilitate the memory of

events that occur during the aroused state; however, even though these emotional memories are emotions evoked by a particular event, the memories may not always be correct. (MOVE TO EVALUATION) 

Define Flashbulb Memory (FBM) o Flashbulb Memories is a special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid

and detailed (photographic-like) memories of highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with the help of a ‘camera’s flash.’ 

Explain the FBM o Brown & Kulik (1977) also argued that the special biological memory mechanism

of FBM is triggered when an individual usually encounters significant, often unexpected and emotional events or experiences (that has had exceeded levels of surprise and emotion) therefore creating a FBM of the immediate experiences surrounding the highly emotional (happy) experience or traumatic event. (*) 

o FBM theory also have unique features distinguishing/that differ them from other memories in that they are more vivid, detailed, accurate, long-lasting, consistent and easily to remember. This is in contrast to normal memories, which most researchers are believed to be selective, unreliable and malleable (easily changed or distorted). 

*Give an example o Some events stand out in the memory much more than others.

When the event happens, the person experiences a highly emotional state, extreme happiness, extreme sadness, etc. The result is that this event is imprinted on the memory. 

o It can be personal or something that provokes worldwide interest, such as the assassination of President Kennedy in 1963 or the death of Prince Diana in 1997. 

Main Study: Brown and Kulik (1977) Introduction of study  link to question: 

FBM was firstly demonstrated by Brown and Kulik in their main study occurring in 1977. 

Aims: 

To investigate FBM and how it works (to support their theory). 

Methods: 

Interviewed 80 Americans o 40 African Americans o 40 Caucasian Americans 

Had to answer questions about 10 events o 9 of these events were mostly on assassinations or attempted assassinations of

well-known American personalitieso The last event was self-selected of personal events that included self-shock 

They were asked how much they rehearsed these events (overtly or covertly) o Overly: rehearsal by discussing with other people o Covertly: private rehearsing or ruminating 

Results: 

They found that J.F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963 led to the most flashbulb memories of all participants (90% of participants recalled this in context and with vivid detail) 

African Americans recalled more FBM's of civil right leaders; e.g. the assassination of Martin Luther King more than the Caucasians recalled it (as a FBM) 

For the tenth event (which was self-selected) most participants recalled shocking events like the death of a parent 

Conclusions 

This study carried out by Brown and Kulik (1977) supported the theories of flashbulb memories whereby they were: 

o Form in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information 

o Are maintained by means of overt rehearsal (discussion with others) and covert rehearsal 

o (private) o Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more

consistent and accurate o Require for their creation the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism

which stores information permanently in a unique memory system 

Evaluation:

State explanation of FBM in terms of how emotion can affect memoryo FBM can be explained in how emotion can affect/influence memory by either

enhancing it or impairing it.  Enhanced memory leads to more vivid memories of the event (FBM)

Impairing memory leads to  Repression due to traumatic events

Repression is used to describe a certain type of memory, usually of a traumatic type, when information cannot be retrieved as a result of being locked out of our consciousness.

Mood dependent memory and depressive state 

Thus, outline --> state the purpose of your essay o As such, this essay response will aim to evaluate FBM, with the use of supporting

or studies or studies which oppose certain components of the FBM in order to uncover the validity of the theory.  

Body State FBM theory component 1 

o According tBrown and Kulik (1977), the event must be surprising and have real consequences for the person’s life. 

Outline evidence for this theoretical component of FBM o Some studies have indicated that childhood memories with high emotional

context, such as high school graduation can be as vivid and clear as flashbulb memories of less personal importance, such as national events, e.g. Rubin & Kuzin (1984). 

State FBM theory component 2 o Brown and Kulik also suggested that there may be a special neural mechanism

which triggers an emotional arousal because the emotional event is unexpected or extremely important. 

Outline supporting evidence for this theoretical component of FBM o At the time, it was only a hypothesis, but it is supported by modern neuroscience:

in that emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events – perhaps because of the critical role of the amygdala. 

Outline arguing evidence for this theoretical component of FBM that the creation of FBM requires the involvement of a specialized neural mechanism which stores information permanently in a unique memory system 

o Hard to identify (hasn't been identified)o How do we know about this (any evidence)o Further research and testings required to prove /support this theory 

State FBM theory component 3 o They also believed that this is a special type of memory because of the detail and

accuracy with which the event is remembered and the fact that the structural form of the memory is always so similar. 

Evidence supporting Flashbulb Memory 

Supporting Study 1: Conway et al (1994) “UK and non-UK on Flashbulb Memory” 

Introduce study --> link to question 

There has been some research untFBM such as by Conway et al. (1994).

Aim:

To test the theory of Flashbulb Memory

Methods:

Participants were either UK or non-UK undergraduates  Was based on the resignation of Margaret Thatcher (British Prime Minister,1990)  Participants were asked and interviewed about the event a few days after the event  They were asked again 11 months after the event 

Results: 

They found that 86% of UK participants still had FBM of the resignation of Margaret Thatcher 

While there were fewer non-UK participants (29%) had flashbulb memories of the event 

Conclusions:

Thus, Conway claimed that this event met the criteria for FBM for British people as it was an unexpected and highly significant event pertaining to their culture, therefore arousing deep emotions, influencing the special neural mechanisms and therefore creating FBM of the event.

Evaluation:

Strengths :o Ecologically Valid: real event o Interview: in depth qualitative data

Not focussed (don't have specific questions Questionnaire) o Limitations

o Distress in having to remember a tragic event o Some methodology was not controlled

Connection of study to question

Suggests that flashbulb memories exist and are different from normal memories  However, they may only exist for events with personal significance 

Evidence arguing against Flashbulb Memory 

Arguing Study 1: Neisser and Harsch (1992) 

Introduce study --> link to question 

One of the most significant research arguing the validity and accuracy of FBM is by Neisser (1982), and later on by Neisser and Harsch (1992). 

Neisser questioned the idea of FBM’s, in which he suggested that the memories are so vivid because the event itself is rehearsed and reconsidered after the event. 

According tNeisser, FBM may simply be a narrative convention. He explained this idea by saying that flashbulb memories are governed by the conventions of a storytelling schema, following a specific structure. In other words, when we recount important events, we do by using conventional storytelling techniques. 

Neisser also argued that FBM’s are subject to the same types of inaccuracy and forgetting as any other memories. 

Aim: 

To investigate the accuracy of flashbulb memory

Methods:

Participants were asked to report on the circumstances of their learning about the challenger space disaster on 1986. 

Neisser and Harsch investigated people’s memory accuracy of the incident 24 hours after the accident and then again two years later. 

Results: 

1 day after the disaster, 215 of the participants reported that they heard about the disaster on television 

Those that recalled 2 and a half years later, 45% said they heard it on T.V  Clearly, their memories of how they learned the news about the challenger disaster

changed over time  Assuming that participants' memories were more accurate one day after the disaster, it

can be concluded that their memories about how they had heard about the news had deteriorated significantly during the subsequent two and a half years.  o

Conclusions:

Connection of study to questiono This thus suggests that FBM are not reliable (as influenced by post-event

information). o Neisser and Harsch claimed that such findings suggest that FBM's may just be

ordinary memories 

Arguing Study 2: Wright (1993) “Hillsborough Disaster and (5 months) recall 

Introduce study --> link to question: 

Another study investigating the accuracy of FBM was by Wright (1993)

Aim:

To investigate the accuracy of FBM

Methods:

Interviewed people about the Hillsborough disaster  After 5 month he asked participants to recall what had happened at this event/disaster 

Results: 

After five months, memories were vague, and subject to systematic biases.  Found that memories were a blend of their own real experiences, and information that

had come after the event. 

Conclusions: 

Thus concluding that flashbulb memory is no different to any other type of memory  Shows that the memory that is “flashbulb” can decay over time, unlike as assumed 

Connection of study to question 

This study shows that FBM is no different than any other type of memory.

Arguing Study 3: McCloskey et al (1988) “Challenger Disaster and (9months) recall”

Aim:

To test the accuracy of flashbulb memory

Methods:

Participants were interviewed and asked questions about the explosion of the challenger a few days after 9 months 

Also asked on personal memories 

Results: 

It was found that there were discrepancies over time between what was recalled shortly after the accident and what was remembered nine months later. 

There were inaccuracies in the memories. 

Conclusions: 

FBM can be forgotten and thus cannot be considered as a special memory, but are products of ordinary memory mechanisms.

Evaluation

Strengths:o The type of methodology used was interview thus questions asked in the

experiment were not focused thus could vary from participant to participant Weaknesses:

o Ethicso Not ecologically valid because the Challenger was deemed not

personal/emotional therefore not meeting the criterion of FBMs.

Connection of study to question

Does not support this theory of flashbulb memory o Differ from other memories in that they are more vivid, last longer and are more

consistent and accurate  This study showed that flashbulb memories are not different as they don't last as long as

assumed by Neisser. 

Conclusion  In conclusion, FBM (affected by emotion) can influence the recall of memories. 

o However, it is hard to test accuracy of memories as the evidence is very retrospective

Overall Strengths: The majority of research into flashbulb memories is naturalistic. It all involves people’s

reactions and memories formed from real life events. Therefore there is high in ecological validity.

Overall Weaknesses: However, the studies can lack reliability as they cannot really be replicated. Therefore, we cannot test to see how consistent the results are. Also, much of the research is retrospective, and there is the issue that we cannot reliably measure how accurate people’s initial memories are.