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Cognitive Learning
• Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable
• Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
• Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior
• A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image
Insight and Learning Sets
• Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together
• Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn”
Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)
indicated that individuals (children)
learn through imitating others who receive rewards and
punishments.
Cou
rtes
y of
Alb
ert B
andu
ra, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity
Social Cognitive Theory• Learning a behavior and performing it are not the same thing• Tenet 1: Response consequences (such as rewards or
punishments) influence the likelihood that a person will perform a particular behavior again in a given situation. Note that this principle is also shared by classical behaviorists.
• Tenet 2: Humans can learn by observing others, in addition to learning by participating in an act personally. Learning by observing others is called vicarious learning. The concept of vicarious learning is not one that would be subscribed to by classical behaviorists.
• Tenet 3: Individuals are most likely to model behavior observed by others they identify with. Identification with others is a function of the degree to which a person is perceived to be similar to one's self, in addition to the degree of emotional attachment that is felt toward an individual.
Learning by Observing
• The likelihood of acting on vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior
• Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others
• The person being watched is the model. Hence modeling. (Live models and symbolic models)
Mirror Neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.
Rep
rint
ed w
ith p
erm
issi
on f
rom
the
Am
eric
an
Ass
ocia
tion
for
the
Adv
ance
men
t of
Scie
nce,
Sub
iaul
et a
l., S
cien
ce 3
05: 4
07-4
10 (
2004
) ©
200
4 A
AA
S.
Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies
show that antisocial models (family,
neighborhood or TV) may have
antisocial effects.
Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
Bob
Dae
mm
rich
/ The
Im
age
Wor
ks
Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life. This
14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
Mel
tzof
f, A
.N. (
1998
). I
mita
tion
of te
levi
sed
mod
els
by in
fant
s. C
hild
Dev
elop
men
t, 59
122
1-12
29. P
hoto
s C
ourt
esy
of A
.N. M
eltz
off
and
M. H
anuk
.
Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans
• Nonhumans are capable of classical and operant conditioning
• Nonhumans are also capable of latent learning
• Research has also demonstrated that animals are capable of observational learning
Learning by Observation
It is not justhumans, that learn through
observing and imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the
monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to
obtain a reward.
© H
erb Terrace
©H
erb Terrace