Cognitive Level of Analysis

CLA

Studies cognition• All mental processes

involved in attention, perception, memory decision making, problem solving and language.

• All the crap that goes on in your mind!!!

What is the Mind?

• They tend to look at the mind and an information-processing unit.

Like a computer• The brain is the

hardware.• The mind is the

software.

The CLA is popular…• About 70% of all

therapists today draw from the cognitive school.

• I am going to make the argument that you are all cognitive therapists!!!

But it was not always so popular…• A movement started in the

early 1900s that stressed that the “mind” and “thinking” was not something you can measure.

• They believed that you must be able to measure something for it to be considered a “real” science.

• They became known as….

Behaviorists• They thought since you

could observe and record behaviors (not feelings and thoughts in the mind), then that was all that really mattered.

• They focused on altering behaviors (to heck with feelings)

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov• Studied Digestion of

Dogs.• Dogs would salivate

before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc…)

• Dogs must have LEARNED to salivate.

Click above to see about Pavlov

Classical Conditioning• This is passive learning

(automatic…learner does NOT have to think).

• First thing you need is a unconditional relationship.

• Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)- something that elicits a natural, reflexive response.

• Unconditional Response (UCR)- response to the UCS.

Classical Conditioning• Next you find a neutral stimulus

(something that by itself elicits no response).

• You present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.

Classical Conditioning• After a while, the

body begins to link together the neutral stimulus with the UCS.

• Acquisition

Classical Conditioning• We know learning takes

places when the previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.

• At this point the neutral stimulus is called the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditional response becomes the conditioned response (CR).

Classical Conditioning• TRICKY FACT: We know

learning exists because the CS is linked to the UCS.

• This is called ACQUISITION.

• Acquisition does not last forever.

• The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.

Spontaneous Recovery• Sometimes, after

extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented.

Generalization and DiscriminationGeneralization

• Something is so similar to the CS that you get a CR.

Discrimination• Something so different

to the CS so you do not get a CR.

Popular Classical Conditioning Examples

A modified version of Clockwork Orange scene. Warning…it is still graphic!!!

Classical Conditioning as portrayed in The Office.

See if you can identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR.

Classical Conditioning and Humans• John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to

psychology with his Baby Albert experiment.

Click to see Baby Albert to some nice jazz.

This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.

Learned Taste Aversions• When it comes to

food being paired with sickness, the conditioning is incredible strong.

• Even when food and sickness are hours apart.

• Food must be salient (noticeable.)

Garcia and Koelling Study• Studied rats and

how they make associations.

• Some associations seem to be adaptive.

CS UCS Learned ResponseLoud Noise Shock Fear

Loud Noise Radiation (nausea) Nothing

Sweet Water Shock Nothing

Sweet Water Radiation (nausea) Avoid Water

Operant Conditioning

The Learner is NOT passive.Learning based on consequence!!!

The Law of Effect• Edward Thorndike• Locked cats in a cage• Behavior changes because

of its consequences.• Rewards strengthen

behavior.• If consequences are

unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.

• Called the whole process instrumental learning.

Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

B.F. Skinner• The Mac Daddy of

Operant Conditioning.

• Nurture guy through and through.

• Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts.

Skinner Box

Reinforces• A reinforcer is anything

the INCREASES a behavior.Positive Reinforcement:• The addition of something

pleasant.Negative Reinforcement:• The removal of something

unpleasant.• Two types of NR• Escape Learning• Avoidance Learning(Getting kicked out of class

versus cutting class)

Positive or Negative?

Putting your seatbelt on. Studying for a test.Having a headache and taking an aspirin.

Faking sick to avoid AP Psych class.

Breaking out of jail.

Getting a kiss for doing the dishes.

PunishmentMeant to decrease a

behavior.Positive Punishment• Addition of something

unpleasant.Negative Punishment

(Omission Training)• Removal of something

pleasant.Punishment works best

when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh!

How do we actually use Operant Conditioning?

Do we wait for the subject to deliver the desired behavior?

Sometimes, we use a process called shaping.

Shaping is reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior.

To train a dog to get your slippers, you would have to reinforce him in small steps. First, to find the slippers. Then to put them in his mouth. Then to bring them to you and so on…this is shaping behavior.

To get Barry to become a better student, you need to do more than give him a massage when he gets good grades. You have to give him massages when he studies for ten minutes, or for when he completes his homework. Small steps to get to the desired behavior.

Chaining Behaviors• Subjects are taught

a number of responses successively in order to get a reward.

Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors.

Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.

Same Terminology as Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition• Extinction• Spontaneous

Recovery• Generalization• Discrimination

If I wanted to reinforce my son’s dancing by giving him lollipops when he dances. Identify the following….

Primary v. Secondary ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcer

• Things that are in themselves rewarding.

Secondary Reinforcer

• Things we have learned to value.

• Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)

Token Economy

• Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given.

• They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)

• Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.

Premack Principle

• You have to take into consideration the reinforcers used.

• Is the reinforcer wanted….or at least is it more preferable than the targeted behavior.

Pat’s Hubbas might be a great positive reinforcer for me, but it would not work well on a vegetarian.

Reinforcement SchedulesHow often to you

give the reinforcer?• Every time or just

sometimes you see the behavior.

Continuous v. Partial ReinforcementContinuous

• Reinforce the behavior EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited.

• Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association.

• Acquisition comes really fast.

• But so does extinction.

Partial• Reinforce the behavior

only SOME of the times it is exhibited.

• Acquisition comes more slowly.

• But is more resistant to extinction.

• FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules.

Ratio SchedulesFixed Ratio

• Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses.

Variable Ratio• Provides a

reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses.

• Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.

Fixed Ration- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses.

Interval SchedulesFixed Interval

• Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.

Variable Interval• Requires a RANDOM

amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.

• Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.

Fixed Interval: She gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet.

Observational Learning• Albert Bandura and his

BoBo Doll• We learn through

modeling behavior from others.

• Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory

Click pic to see some observational learning.