Cognitive maps

What is a cognitive map?Example: rat in a maze

Cognitive maps manage knowledge of, and behavior in, space manipulable vs. non-manipulable

space small vs. large spaces

Why study cognitive maps?

Predicting spatial behavior stay or go, where to go, which route to

take, choice of transport, ...

Learn effective strategies people use for learning about the environments for integrating environmental

information with map-based information educate other people, design better

tools

Models of cognitive mapping

Perceptual schemata of spatial behavior

Gibson 1979Environmental features are perceived directly with little intervention of cognitive processesPerson moving through a landscape has a vista vista changes gradually or abrubtly at

transition points

Models of cognitive mapping I

Cognitive mapping as information processing

Kirk 1963, Downs 1970, ...Separation of environment .. world of physical facts and behavior

... and individual with a value system and decision making

capability

Individual receives information from the environment through ”filters”, the information then goes through value system and constraints, updates ”an image”, and is a basis for decisions

Models of cognitive mapping II

Cognitive mapping as transactions

Neisser 1976Individuals searches, samples and interprets actual world for relevant information relevant = contributes to the individual’s

plans for action searching, sampling and interpretation is

based on anticipatory schema individuals may have several concurrent

anticipatory schemas

Models of cognitive mapping III

Computational Process Models

Early example: Kuipers’ TOUR 1978Computer simulation models spatial map (preprogrammed/perceived,

static/dynamic) route planner (routes/subroutes are

learnt/inferred) executor

Some features of CPMs or whole CPMs have reflected beliefs about human cognitive maps There have been attempts to compare CPM

performance and human performance

Models of cognitive mapping IV

Connectionist Schema of Spatial Behavior

From the late 1980sNon-symbolic information processing (ANNs)Connectionist models link (through hidden layer) discrete/fuzzy values of variables for example ”tall buildings” could be

linked to ”lot of traffic” and to ”lot of noise”

Models of cognitive mapping V

Inter-Representational Networks

Haken and Portugali 1996Related to transactional modelConcentrates on the development of a cognitive map and how certain patterns become dominant

Models of cognitive mapping VI

Learning and acquisition of cognitive maps

compare to models of CMs:stimulus centeredsubject (individual) centeredinteraction centered

Learning of CMs

Primary (direct) learning from experience / interaction with an

environment

Secondary (indirect) learning from maps, books, stories, etc

Factors affecting learning

Primary learning

What are the important features of spatial environment? Places, landmarks Paths

Vista

What are the important forms of spatial behavior? Being at a place Moving from one

place to another (navigation)

Looking around(?)Spatial database

Series of vistas

Siegel and White 1975, Siegel 1977:

1. Landmarks are learnt2. Actions are attached to landmarks3. Patterns of landmarks + actions are

encoded as routes4. Clusters of landmarks and routes form

”minimaps”5. Minimaps are related together and a

configurational representation of the environment is achieved

However, sometimes (adult) persons have been observedto learn configurational representation very rapidly.

Primary learning

Anchor-point theory (Golledge 1978): individuals form a hierarchical

structure of places

Gärling et al 1981: routes are learnt first, landmarks are

learnt as a sequence which forms the route

Primary learning

Any feature of a place can be a landmark length of a street, ...

Primary learning

Distortions

”Tectonic plates” an anchor point and features

associated with it are displaced as a whole

”Magnifying glass” well-known areas are ”stretched out”

”Magnet” the opposite of magnifying glass

Primary learning

Environmental characteristics

Barrier effectImpression of the environment to walkers, bicyclists, car drivers, ...

Complexity paradox: greater complexity makes

environment feel larger because of detail but smaller because time passes faster

more complex more prone to distortions cultural factors

Primary learning

What makes a landmark a landmark? (Evans et al 1984)

Number of persons moving in or aroundClarity of contourVertical heightComplexity of the shapeExtent of its useUniqueness of its functionExtent of its cultural importanceAmount of physical maintenance

Texture an colorNaturalness of the landscapingAccessDistinctiveness

Primary learning

Legibility of urban space (Greene 1992)

UsabilityUnderstandabilityDistinctivenessAppeal

Primary learning

Secondary Learning

Useful supplement to direct experienceOnly source of information for environments which cannot be experienced directly because of scale because of inaccesibility

Lots of sources: formal education, self-study media, talking to others, games

Formal vs. informal

Maps Use of maps is a skill Maps give (more accurate)

configurational knowledge directly

Secondary learning

Factors influencing learning and use of information

AgeIndividual differences Personality Social and cultural background Education

Gender differencesVisual impairmentFamiliarity and experienceEffort effects (e.g. travel time)

Structure and form of CMs

Mapping of physical elements to cognitive elements

Golledge (1993): all elements of physical space have cognitive counterparts

1. individual occurrences of elements2. grouping, connectivity and

sequence of elements3. classification of elements

Structure and form of CMs

Spatial decision making and behavior

Three levels of knowledge:1. Declarative

– ”database of spatial features”

2. Procedural– rules for action, based on declarative knowledge

3. Configurational– adds orientation to procedural knowledge

– spatial learning is not necessarily in the order: 1,2,3!

Structure and form of CMs

Reference systems

Piaget et al (1956,1960): how do children learn spatial knowledge? in the order: topological, projective,

Euclidean

Egocentric frame of referenceFixed (landmark-based) frame of referenceGlobal frame of reference

Structure and form of CMs

Metrics

time – distance instead of just distancedistance from A to B is not necessarily the same as distance from B to A

Structure and form of CMs

Structure of CMs

Non-hierarchical (holistic) theories networks, each place may be stored more than

once images

Hierarchical theories strict spatial relations are not explicitly encoded partial hierarchical structures have spatial

relations much experimental evidence

Schemas people have abstract templates of generic cities,

buildings, traffic systems etc

Structure and form of CMs

Form of CMs

verbal form non-hierarchically or hierarchically

structured, or propositions

image form

people can construct images in mind

people use many different strategies in completing tasks requiring CMs

Structure and form of CMs

Expression of spatial knowledge

image(map) formverbal form more similar to direct experience uses often fuzzy concepts three elements: object to be located,

reference object, relationship

Structure and form of CMs

Accessing and using spatial knowledge

Information is recalled from long-term memory into working memorySmith et al (1982): working memory uses task-dependent frames whose slots access different knowledge bases in long-term memory (or are left empty)Spatial mental model is another name for a frame, which has knowledge in its slots and is in the working memory

Structure and form of CMs

Spatial mental models

The type of model constructed will depend on existing knowledge scale of the environment specfic task required detail

People can switch between different model types

Structure and form of CMs

Direction giving and spatial mental models (Couclelis 1996)

1. Initiationshared understanding of the request

2. Representationshared frame of reference, shared understanding of the route

3. Transformationshared model is transformed by direction giver to some concrete form

4. Symbolizationcommunication and reinforcement

5. Termination

Structure and form of CMs