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Feature-Integration Theory
Treisman – people must focus attention on a stimulus in order to synthesize its features into a pattern. Feature integration takes much longer than
simply recognizing a feature, especially with larger display sizes.
Single features can be identified without fixating upon them.
Illusory conjunctions occur when attention is not possible.
Visual Selection in Art
American Gothic – Grant Wood Gestalt reversible figures:
Vase & faces Jack & Jacques (Canadian flag) Gossip & Satan Old & young woman
Escher drawings Hidden images
Visual Search
Treisman argued that search occurs based on a single feature. When that feature is located, then the
second feature is analyzed in that location. Wolfe argued that two features can be
searched for in conjunction (together). Conjunction searches are noisier and less
accurate than single searches. Wolfe’s model requires direct attention too.
Visual Neglect
Visual neglect may occur due to damage to the posterior parietal lobe of brain. People with such injuries have difficulty
shifting attention from one side of visual field in order to look at the other side.
Cued attention tasks show one-sided deficit. Visual extinction – when a competing
object is present, the other disappears. Unilateral neglect – one side ignored.
Object-Based Attention
Attention can be focused on particular objects, not just regions of space. Sometimes it is easier to attend to an
object (bumps on stimuli). Inhibition of return – if we have already
looked at a location it is harder to return to it. Flickering squares take longer to identify
because already viewed, even when rotated.
Object-Based Neglect
Just as objects can be attended to independent of their location, neglect can apply to objects, not just locations.
Some patients neglect one side of objects regardless of which visual field they occur in.
A Central Bottleneck
We can only process one thing at a time within a single modality (vision, hearing).
What happens when we combine modalities? Dual-task studies How does stimulus onset asynchrony
(SOA) affect performance of the second task?
If the two tasks can be done in parallel there should be no effect of SOA.
Dual-Task Performance
The first task must be completed before the second task can be done.
There is some time gained by overlapping the tasks. The stimulus is encoded while doing the
other task – two modalities can be processed at once.
The bottleneck occurs at the thinking – the subject cannot think about both tasks at once.
Automaticity
Practice reduces the demand on cognition by making a task automatic.
Spelke’s two tasks: Read text for comprehension Write down words read by an experimenter After 6 weeks subjects could read at
normal speed and answer questions.
Stroop Effect
Color words were presented printed in different ink colors. Control stimuli were non-color words in
different inks or color bars (not words) Subjects were asked to name the ink
color as quickly as possible. Demo
Why it Happens
Automatic processes are difficult to stop. It is nearly impossible to look at a word
without reading it. Neutral words name non-colors so ink
can be named without interference. Color words that conflict with ink color
take longer because reading the word cannot be inhibited.
Practice With Stroop Tasks
What happens if you compare tasks that are not well-practiced?
MacCleod & Dunbar asked subjects to associate color names with shapes.
MacCleod & Dunbar’s Conditions
Congruent – random shape was in the same ink color as its name.
Control – white shapes were presented and subjects
said the name of the color for that shape colored shapes were presented and
subjects named the ink color of the shape Conflict – the random shape was in a
different ink color than its name.
Results
At first, color naming was more automatic than shape naming and was unaffected by congruence with shape.
After 20 days practice, shape naming was affected by congruence with ink color
Practice reversed the Stroop effect and made shape naming like color naming.
Current Views of Attention
Theorists no longer associate attention with consciousness. Many attentional phenomena (such as
moving one’s eyes) are unconscious. Each modality has its own attentive
processes and a bottleneck when it must process a single thing.
Interference occurs with competing demands on a single system.