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Cohort Cohort StudiesStudies
brahimmahmoodzadehbrahimmahmoodzadehhttp://2580414.blogfa.com
Cohort
Latin: cohors
– Enclosed yard or company of soldiers
Concept:
• A group of individuals that are all similar in some trait and move forward together as a unit
Cohort
A group of persons who
share a common characteristic
such as age ,occupation
Cohort
An epidemiologic design in which the incidence of a disease (or condition) is compared among exposed and unexposed individuals
PAR = Population at Risk
S = Sampling design
T = Elapsed time
PAR SStudy Group
Exposed
Unexposed
Outcome
NoOutcome
T
Outcome
Cohort Study Design
exampleMortality in relation to smoking:
10 years observation of British docs• Cohort: British doctors responding to a survey in
1950– 65% response rate• Exposed: smokers ( and quantified amount)• Unexposed: non-smokers• Outcome:Lung Ca and death• Results: Increased risk with any smoking & a dose
response relationship
exampleLatency of asbestos among insulation
workers in the US and Canada• Exposed: 17,800 males in Asbestos
Insulation Workers union in North America• Unexposed: General population of males
matched by age• Outcome: lung cancer rates through 1975• Results: Positive assoc. between asbestos&
lung CA
ExampleOxford Family Planning Association Study in
the United Kingdom
Aim: a view of the beneficial and harmful effects of different methods of contraception
17,000 women between 1969 and 1974 in 17 of the largest and best clinics run by the Family Planning Association in England and Scotland
Oxford Family Planning Association Study in the United Kingdom
– met specific eligibility criteria – visits on an annual basis – All events of ill health were recorded, – death and diagnosis of cancer – 10 yr follow-up and +
– Aniline-dye occupational cohort, 1954
Example
• A study of the outcome of delivery subsequent to induced abortion
• historical cohort study
historical cohort study• study of the outcome of delivery subsequent
to induced abortion
• Aim: if an induced abortion increases the risk of pre-term birth or low birthweight in pregnancies following the abortion
• induced abortion in one hospital in Sweden
5,292 induced abortions
cont
• A control group :from the Medical Birth Registry.
• The abortion history of women in the control group was checked from their antenatal care records.
• abortions (exposure):1970-1975
• deliveries (outcomes):1970-1978
• data collection :1978- 1981
Both are longitudinal! Direction of study moves
forward with time.
Cohort created at time Cohort created at time of study initiationof study initiation but but exposure in the exposure in the pastpast and outcomesand outcomes both both past and futurepast and future
exampleMilitary looks toward 1985 in ongoing defoliant study
• Question: Are there deleterious effects of exposure to agent orange in servicemen?
• Exposed: 1264 exposed to defoliant spraying in Vietnam• Unexposed: 1264 who flew cargo missions at same time• Outcomes(retro): Medical problems during exposure time– e.g. dermatologic conditions, birth defects, liver problems• Outcomes (prospective): cancer rates up to 25 years later
Cohort Study DesignTypes of Cohorts
• Fixed Cohort – A group of individuals recruited and enrolled at a
uniform point in the natural history of a disease or by some defining event
– Cohort does not take on new members after it is assembled
– Examples• Patients admitted to the ER with acute MI
• Survivors of Hiroshima bombings
• Children born to HIV-infected mothers
Cohort Study DesignType of Cohorts
• Open cohort– A group of individuals recruited and enrolled
through a mechanism that allows for in and out migration of people
– Defined by characteristic other than disease, e.g., geographic location, administrative unit
– Dynamic population
Deaths
Loss to follow-upFixed Cohort
Time
Open Cohort
In - Migrations
MigrationsOut -
Cohort Study DesignDirectionality
1990 2000 2010
ProspectiveRetrospective
Retrospective Cohort Study
Prospective Cohort Study
Longitudinal
Study Population
• Define Population at Risk using inclusion criteria
• Individuals with outcome of interest at time of screening and enrollment are not eligible for study
• Sub-clinical presentation of diseases may be present challenges in defining the cohort
Study PopulationsExamples
• Framingham study of cardiovascular disease– Individuals 30 – 62 years old in community at
risk for disease– 1948 to present
Study Populations• Multi-Centered AIDS Cohort Study
– Goal to elucidate the natural history of HIV/AIDS
– 5000 gay men, volunteers– 5 cities in US– 1984 – 1999
Measuring Exposure• Exposure measurement must be
comparable for all members of the cohort
• Carefully defined in advance of study
• Specific attention should be given to the accuracy
• Pilot studies often needed
Measuring ExposureMeasurements
– Chart review– Interview– Blood tests or other specimens
• Biomarkers
– Other laboratory tests– Sample storage
Outcome Definition• Primary outcome - the main event that will
be related to the exposure
• Death
• Disease occurrence
• Secondary outcomes - other events that are of interest and may corroborate the findings of the main outcome
Follow-up• Completeness and non-participation
– 90% rule of thumb
• All subjects must have an equal likelihood for detecting the outcome
• Disease ascertainment must be comparable between the exposed and unexposed subjects– Number of visits– Reasons for additional evaluations
Follow-up
• Follow-up mechanisms– Active– Passive
• Passive Surveillance– Hospitals– Disease Registries– Clinics or physician offices– Surveillance systems, e.g., National Death
Index, CDC reportable conditions
Follow-up
• Active surveillance– Systematic evaluations for outcome of interest– Regular time intervals – In all study subjects
Regardless of active or passive surveillance, the persons evaluating subjects must be blinded to exposure status
Cohort Study DesignPotential Biases
• Detection bias – Subjects with exposure are more (or less)
closely evaluated for outcome
• Information bias– The quality of information is different
between exposed and unexposed subjects
• Non-response and loss to follow-up– Selective loss of exposed (or unexposed)
persons
Importance of the comparison group
• cohort studies do not have randomizationdo not have randomization of study subjects
• vulnerable to selection biasselection bias
• Increasing the sizeIncreasing the size of the study can only partially help address the issue
Strengths• Useful for rare exposures• Multiple effects of single
exposure• Temporal relationship between
exposure and outcome• Ascertainment bias minimized• Direct measurement of
incidence
Weaknesses• Inefficient for rare diseases•Expensive•Requires excellent follow-up•Losses to follow-up can
invalidate the study
و • سالم گروه دو در حاملگي عوارض مقايسه : كوهورت مطالعه حاملگي ديابت به مبتال
و • سینه خس خس با همراه بیماریهای رابطهکوچک کودکان در سرفه سیاه واکسیناسیون
نگر لعهمطا: آینده کوهورت
4251
0011 0010 1010 1101 0001 0100 1011
تعيين عوامل خطر سرطان مری در استان •گلستان
سال 10 نفر به مدت بيش از 65000•پيگيری خواهند شد ) ملک زاده و
(1382همکاران،مطالعه • شده 14کل گرفته نظر در سال
است.