COM215 800

Taejin Jung, Ph.D.

Week 8: Theory & Public Week 8: Theory & Public OpinionsOpinions

The Movement toward Theory A significant advancement in PR

- “Wisdom” or “Seat-of-the-pants” thinking → Reasoned action guided by “Theory”- Moved from “hunches” to “reasoned action”

Theory- A systematic interpretation of a phenomenon that specifies the relationship between variables.

Three objectives of theory- Organization/Explanation: why things occur regularly- Prediction: Anticipate what outcomes and effects will occur- Control: Which action will be most effective or appropriate/Theory suggest guidelines for behavior

Language of Theory A phenomenon

- The event of thing you are trying to explain- Newton wanted to explain why things always fall down and not up

Concepts or variables- Process that would be hard to discuss if we do not give them a name- A form of short hand: “A force that draws things down” → “gravity”

Propositions- Relationships between variables and establish the assumption- Postulates or axioms- “Hypotheses” is the tested form of propositions

Hypotheses- Conjectural or speculative relationships between two or more variables that can be tested empirically

Theory building- Asking → Observing → Theorizing → Checking

Ecological Approach Ecology & Interdependence

- Public Relations is to help organizations adjust and adapt to their environment- Proactive > Reactive

System (Organization) Perspective- Goals- Interacting units (Organization & Publics)- Enduring time→ The ultimate goal of systems is “survival”

Definition (Target or Boundary) of the Public- Those with whom the organization mush establish and maintain enduring and mutually beneficially relationship (e.g., student recruiting, capital campaign for computer center)

Open vs. Closed Systems

Social systems are relatively open or relatively closed. Extent of closeness = Degree of insensitivity to their environment Open systems are adroit at continually responding to change of any sort in

their environment

“Structure” and “Process”

(Morphogenesis)

Goal States(Homeostasis)

Variation in the Environment

(Input)

Excellence Theory Evolved from the work of James E. Grunig

“What are the characteristics of an excellent communication department?”

Public relations can be a part of planning and decision making (dominant coalition)

Excellence theory is the search for factors that make public relations “excellent”

Studied 327 organizations and refined a list of principles or factors of excellence

Characteristics of Excellent PR ProgramsI. Program Level

1. Managed strategically

II. Department Level2. A single or integrated PR department3. Separate function of marketing4. Direct reporting relationship to senior management5. Two-way symmetrical model6. Senior PR person in the managerial role7. Academic training in PR & professionalism8. Equal opportunity for men and women

III. Organizational Level 9. Participative rather than authoritarian culture

10. Symmetrical system of internal communication11. Organic rather than mechanical organizational structure

IV. Effects of Excellent Public Relations12. Programs meet communication objectives13. Reduces costs of regulation, pressure, and litigation14. Job satisfaction is high among employees.

Contingency Theory Evolved from the work of Glen T. Cameron

Focus on managing the conflict between an organization and its publics

Pure Advocacy-----------------Pure Accommodation- Advocacy: each group pursues its own self-interests- Accommodation: each party considers the other party’s interests- The response of conflict is some mix of advocacy and accommodation

Contingencies are the contributing factors for the selection of strategies

Cameron identified 86 contingent variables and 12 factors

Contingency Theory(Shin, Carmeron, & Cropp, 2006)

◙ External Factors

1. External threats2. Industry environments3. Political/social/cultural

environment4. Public power5. Public relationships

◙ Internal Factors

1. Organization’s development

2. Organization’s structure3. PR department

independence4. PR department

government5. Top management

characteristic6. Individual characteristics7. Individual capabilities

Basics of Communication S – M – C – R – (E) Sender

- Writer must know the organization’s objective Message

- Research on receiver’s current attitude - Must be applicable, realistic, convincing

Media- Select one or more fit into the audience

Receiver- Think of “publics” or “stakeholder”- The more you segment, the better you understand

Two-Step Flow Theory The People’s Choice Study

Introduced by Paul Lazarsfeld in The People’s Choice Study (1944) focused on the process of decision-making during the presidential election.

FindingsDirect influence of mass media on voting intentions informal, personal contact were more influential

Assumptionsa. Individuals (opinion leaders) who pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the informationb. Opinion leaders are quite influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors.

Mass Media

O/L O/L O/L

Uses & Gratifications Approach

Riley & Riley (1951): Children in groups of peers used adventure stories from the media for group game.

Replacing question“What do media to do people?” “what do people do with the media?”

Basic assumptions- The audience is active, and mass media use is goal oriented.- Audience determine their need and specific media choice.- The media compete with other sources of possible need satisfication.

Individual needs categories (McQuail, Blumler & Brown, 1972)- Diversion (emotional release)- Personal relationships (social utility of information conversations)- Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding)- Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks)

Agenda-Setting Theory- Media set agenda in terms of “what people think about”

Amount of Coverage Given by National News Magazines to Various Issues during the 1960s & Rank Scores o f the Issues as “Most Important Problem Facing America” During that Period

Issue Number of Articles

Coverage Rank Important Rank

Vietnam War

Race Relations

Campus Unrest

Inflation

Mass Media

Crime

Drugs

Environment and Pollution

Smoking

Poverty

Sex (Declining Morality)

Women’s Rights

Science and Society

Population

861

687

267

234

218

203

173

109

99

74

62

47

37

36

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1

2

4

5

12

3

9

6

12

7

8

12

12

12

Framing Theory What to say (Agenda-setting) vs.

How to say (Media Framing)

Four functions of media framing (R. Entman)

- Frames define problems

- Frames diagnose causes

- Frames make moral judgments

- Frames suggest remedies

◙ Coverage of Terrorism

Contextual coverage- Analyzing terrorism as a general political problem influenced by economical and political oppression, global politics, and local political turmoil.- Assigning responsibility to factors in society as a whole

Eventual coverage- Focus on scenes of aircraft hijackings, hostage situations, and bombings.-Assign causal responsibility for terrorism to particular individuals and groups.

Cultivation Theory By George Gerbner

“Cultivation” means the teaching of a common worldview, common roles, and common values.

Tries to determine if watching television influences viewers ideas of what their world is like.

The heavy television viewers often give answers that are closer to the way the world is portrayed on television.

Heavy television watching makes people feel that the world is an unsafe place ( Fearful people might welcome repression if it helps to reduce their anxieties, e.g., Dept. of Homeland Security)

What percentage of the world’s population lives in the US?