Comparative bioactivity of different solvent extracts of the root … tailor ants, and also to compare the effectiveness of organic and inorganic pesticides in the control of these

FUTO Journal Series (FUTOJNLS), 2015, VOL. 1, Issue 2

Ojiako, Comparative bioactivity of different solvent...et al.,

1.0 IntroductionTailor ants (Oecophylla longinoda Latreille

1802) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) range throughout tropical Africa. Its sole congener, Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius 1775 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), is dominant ants in open forests from India, Australia, China and Southeast Asia (Schluns et al., 2009). The ants are well known vicious 'tree ants' which make peculiar globular or elliptic nests of leaves on living trees and can build many small nests ranging from 24 percent of the total foliage of a tree by binding adjacent leaves together with a silk- like material. The silk- like material is produced by the young larvae. These larvae are held in place by the workers who weave them backward and forward against the edges of the leaves to be joined (Holldobler and Wilson, 1977; Schluns et al., 2009). This habit earned the ant the name tailor or weaver ants.

Tailor ants have been useful to man and his environment in some ways, including inspiring new approaches in scientific fields such as robotics, engineering and computer science through the knowledge of self-organizing properties and emergent behavior of ants (Kube & Zang, 1993). Because weaver ant workers hunt and kill insects that are potentially harmful plant pests, trees harboring weaver ants benefit from having decreased harbivory (Huang & Yang, 1987). Pheromone landmarks deposited by Oecophylla affect competing ant colonies, facilitate mutualistic and parasitic activities, and deter herbivorous insects [Offenberg et al., 2004). The use of weaver ants as biological control agents has especially been effective for fruit agriculture, particularly in Australia, southeast Africa (Huang & Yang, 1987) and Southeast Asia (Offenberg et al., 2013). Van Mele et al. (2007) have reported that Oecophylla

124

Comparative bioactivity of different solvent extracts of the root and seeds of Jatropha curcas L. and Chlorpyrifos against tailor ants

(Oecophylla longinoda Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Ojiako, F. O.*, Ihejirika, G. O. and Aguwa, U. O. Department of Crop Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria

*E-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract

A laboratory study on the comparative contact, fumigant and repellent action of different solvent extracts of the seeds and root of Jatropha curcas Linnaeus 1753 against Oecophylla longinoda Latreille 1802 (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) (tailor ants) was laid out in a 7 x 4 factorial arrangement fitted in Completely Randomized Design. Factor A consisted of the treatment materials (ethanolic, acetonolic and water extracts of J. curcas seeds and roots, respectively and Chlorpyrifos, a synthetic insecticide as standard). Factor B represented the concentrations (0.00 %, 1.00 %, 2.00 % and 3.00 %). These twenty eight treatments were replicated three times to give eighty four treatment combinations. Water alone (0.00 %) served as the control. The aqueous root extract (JRWT) exerted near commensurate contact toxicity on O. longinoda as chlorpyrifos (70.92 and 75.00 %, respectively) which was significantly higher than the aqueous seed extract (JSWT) and others. The acetonolic root extract (JRAC) effected the highest fumigant action on the insects, comparable to the effect of chlorpyrifos (75.00 %, respectively). JSWT produced the least fumigant action (41.67 %). Clearly the root extracts had better contact and fumigant action, irrespective of solvent type, than the seed extracts. The acetonolic seed extract (JSAC) gave the highest (72.83 %) repellency effect while JRWT had no repellency action at all (0.00 %). Chlorpyrifos displayed a high level of attractancy or negative repellency (-171.75 %) while the seed extracts, irrespective of the solvent used, had better repellency action than the root extracts. The effect of extract concentration was dose related as higher rates produced better performance. Perhaps, extraction with a solvent mixture, incorporating the three solvents and a mixture of J. curcas root and seed parts, baring other antiphlogistic effects, could have a more holistic biotic action. The acetonolic, ethanolic and water extracts of the root and seeds of J. curcas exhibited satisfactory insecticidal bioactivity and can successfully substitute chlorpyrifos in the control of O. longinoda.

Keywords: Jatropha curcas. Oecophylla longinoda. Attractancy. Repellency. Chlorpyrifos.

p-ISSN: 2467-8325; e-ISSN: 2476-8456

significantly reduced fruit fly; Ceratitis cosyra Walker (Diptera: Tephritidae) and Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta and White (Diptera: Tephritidae) infestation in Parakou, northern Benin Republic. In field experiments on ant-plant mutualism and observations of myrmecophytic associations in various ant species, Anikwe et al. (2007) found O. longinoda the most pugnacious ant species encountered in the field and which gave 100 % predation of its prey in the laboratory. In Tanzania, the ants have also been an effective biocontrol agent of hemipteran pests in coconuts (Cocos nucifera Linnaeus (Arecales: Arecaceae), Helopeltis spp. Signoret (Hemiptera: Miridae) and Pseudotheraptus wayi Brown (Hemiptera: Coreidae) in Cashew Anacardium occidentale L. (Sapindales: Anacardiaceae) (Olotu et al., 2013).

Though O. longinoda are among insects of economic importance, the insects have caused a lot of damages to farmers because their leaf-weaving characteristic reduces the surface area of leaves that manufacture food through photosynthesis (Van Mele et. al., 2008). By inflicting painful bite on man, tailor ants hinder successful harvesting of fruits, which results to huge economic loss (Bradshaw et al., 1979; Thomas, 1988). The ants use larval silk in the construction of shelters for homopterans and caterpillars which defoliate the leaves and deposit wastes on mature fruits, which reduces the market appeal or cosmetic quality of the product [Van Mele et al., 2009). By attempting to feed on fruits, they cause mechanical damage, which further exposes them to attack by micro-organisms. Studies indicate that the presence of Oecophylla colonies may also have negative effects on the performance of host plants by reducing fruit removal by mammals and birds and therefore reducing seed dispersal and lowering the flower-visiting rate of flying insects including pollinators (Thomas, 1988). The ants also have an adverse effect on tree productivity by protecting sap feeding insects such as scale insects and leafhoppers from which they collect honeydew. By protecting these insects from predators, the former increase their population and the damage they cause to trees (Peng & Christian, 2008).

Chemical pesticides that have been used to control tailor ants include; chlorpyrifos, malathion, cype rme th r in , d i ch lo rvos , pe rme th r in , lamdacyhalothrin and other contact insecticides. They are most effective if sprayed around the base of the trees late evening or very early in the morning since adult workers usually descend the trees in the evening and pass the night on the ground around the

base of the trees (Amatobi, 2007). C h l o r p y r i f o s i s a n o n - s y s t e m i c

organophosphate insecticide, acting as a cholinesterase inhibitor with contact, stomach, and respiratory action (WHO, 2009). It is one of the most widely used pesticides in the world (Watts, 2013) and is employed as an insecticide, acaricide, and nematicide to control diverse pests in the soil, on foliage, on animals, forestry, nurseries, greenhouses, food processing plants, industrial plants, warehouses, ships; for disease vector control (mosquito larvicide and adulticide), etc. (WHO, 2009). These synthetics, however, have been associated with problems such as phytotoxicity, pest r e surgence and res i s t ance , widespread environmental hazards, human and animal poisoning, high costs and adulteration` (Lale, 2001; Bloch, 2012; Grzywacz and Leavett, 2012).

In order to expand agricultural production and pest control capacities to meet food demand, there is a compelling need to introduce natural techniques that will use available resources to substitute for these agrochemicals (Ashigidi & Okpara, 2003).

J a t ro p h a c u rc a s L i n n a e u s 1 7 5 3 (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae) has biologically active compounds. It belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae and is said to have originated from Mexico and South Africa (Tint & Mya, 2009). Its pesticidal importance cannot be overestimated. Agaceta et al. (1981) reported that organic solvent extracts of seeds, oil, leaves, and rhizomes from Jatropha species may be used as molluscicidal agents in agriculture, as well as in controlling the vector snails of schistosomiasis. Agu, et al. (2013) noted that ground J. curcas seeds and leaves applied separately at 0.0, 20.0, 40.0 and 60.0 g/plant decreased Meloidogyne incognita Kofoid and White; Chitwood (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae) infestation in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Linnaeus (Moench) by decreasing root- galls as application rate increased. J. curcas seed oil has also been used to reduce field insect pests [Aphids crassivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Maruca testulalis F. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and Megalurothrips sjostedti Trybom (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)] in cowpea (Ahuchaogu, et al., 2014). List and Horhammer (1969) had earlier recommended its medicinal importance in South Sudan where the seeds as well as the fruits are used as contraceptive.

The aim of this study was to screen different solvent extracts of J. curcas seed and root parts for toxicity, repellency and fumigant activities against


FUTO Journal Series (FUTOJNLS), 2015, VOL. 1, Issue 2 125p-ISSN: 2467-8325; e-ISSN: 2476-8456

tailor ants, and also to compare the effectiveness of organic and inorganic pesticides in the control of these ants, especially near homesteads where large numbers of these ants could be disadvantageous. If proven effective, extracts from J. curcas, which are available, affordable, easy to process and ecologically friendly could provide safer pest control methods for O. longinoda, especially against the established use of (often toxic) synthetic insecticides.

2.0 Materials And Methods2.1 LocationThe experiment was conducted in the Department of Crop Science and Technology Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Owerri which lies

0 0between latitude 5 31'58” N and longitude 7 0'43” E in the Southeastern agro ecological zone of Nigeria. The environmental condition is characterized by

0 temperature usually above 27 C, average annual rainfall of 2500 mm and relative humidity of 78 % during the rainy season (NIMET, 2010).

2.2 Preparation of Plant Extracts Seeds and roots of J. curcas were used in obtaining plant extracts. The mature dried fruits were dehisced and the seeds cracked to remove the kernel. The roots were harvested fresh, chopped into smaller pieces with a machete and air-dried under shed for 14 days at room temperature (±31 °C). The kernel and root so obtained were ground to powder using an electric grinding machine, respectively.

Twenty five percent (25.00 %) solutions of the ground plant parts were made by separately mixing 50.00 g samples of the parts with 200 mL of water, ethanol or acetone solvents, as the case may be, in 300 mL glass beakers. The solutions were allowed to stand for 3 hours before they were filtered through muslin clothing into another beaker to obtain a fine filtrate.

2.3 Extraction ProcessFiltrates from acetone and ethanol solutions

were separately introduced into a Soxhlet extractor where the solvents and the extracts were separated and recovered at 40 °C after 3 hrs. The plant extracts were recovered into conical flasks and covered with aluminum foil, while the solvents recovered into other conical flasks were covered with a rubber stopper. Filtrates obtained from water solution did not undergo extraction process since active ingredients in them will be denatured at boiling point of water (100 °C).

2.4 Dilution of Plant ExtractsDilutions were made according to Baker et al. (1975):

R x V = Volume of original solution (plant O extract) to be diluted with water to get the final volume required (5 ml)

Where:R = Required concentration (1.00 %, 2.00 % or 3.00

%). V = Total volume of solution required (5 ml). O = Original concentration (25.00 %).

From the above equation, volume of original solution (plant extract) that must be mixed with water to get 1.00 %, 2.00 % or 3.00 % solutions required in the experiment is calculated thus : For 1.00 % solution = 1x5 = 5 = 1 = 0.20 ml, 25 25 5

2.5 Collection of O. longinoda Oecophylla longinoda was collected with

the aid of a sweep net from an orange tree in the premises of the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria. Matured insects of the same size were selected and stored in a white plastic bucket covered with a net to prevent escape before chilling in a refrigerator. The procedure was repeated daily.

2.6 Contact Toxicity TestsContact toxicity tests with O. longinoda

were done in a completely randomized design following the method of Talukder & Howse (1993). Insects were chilled in a refrigerator for a period of 10 minutes to reduce motility. The immobilized insects were individually picked up with a tea spoon and 5µL solutions of different concentration (0.00, 1.00, 2.00 and 3.00 %) of each extract was applied to the dorsal surface of the thorax of each insect with the aid of a micro capillary tube. Ten insects in each treatment were replicated thrice. The insects were then transferred into a 9 cm petri dish. Insect mortality rate was recorded after 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90 minutes after treatment. The results were analyzed with a Genstat software package and the means were compared using FLSD (Fisher's Least Significant Difference).

2.7 Fumigant Toxicity TestsFumigant toxicity tests with O. longinoda

were carried out in a completely randomized design following the method of Liu and Ho (1999). Filter papers (diameter 2.00 cm) were impregnated with



25 µL of solvent extracts of concentrations of 0.00 %, 1.00 %, 2.00 % and 3.00 % respectively. The filter papers were attached under the screw cap of a glass vial (diameter 2.50 cm, height 5.50 cm). Ten adult insects were placed in the glass vial and the caps with the impregnated filter papers were screwed tightly. Each treatment was replicated thrice in a completely randomized design. The number of dead insects was determined cumulatively at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 24 hours after exposure. Insects were considered dead when no leg or antennal movements were observed. The results were analyzed with a Genstat software package and the means compared using FLSD (Fisher's Least Significant Difference).

2.8 Repellency TestsThe repellency tests were done in a

completely randomized design with three replications following the method of Talukder and Howse (1993) as modified by Amin et.al. (2000). The extracts were diluted in water to make solutions of different concentrations (1.00 %, 2.00 % and 3.00 %) as used by Baker et.al. (1975).

9 cm diameter filter papers (Whatman No. 40) were divided into 2 equal parts. One milliliter of each plant extract solution was applied to one half of the filter paper (treated half) and the other half, one milliliter of distilled water (controlled half). An artist brush was used to spread the solution of plant extract evenly on the treated half of the filter papers. Another brush was used to spread the distilled water on the other half. Different colours of artist brushes were used in the exercise so as to avoid contamination of the solutions. The treated paper discs were air-dried for 20 minutes and placed in a 9 cm diameter petri dish after both halves

have been joined together with a paper tape without contact with each other. Ten (10) insects were placed on the paper tape joining the treated and untreated filter papers. Number of insects on each side was counted at 30 minutes interval for up to 2 hours after treatment.The Percentage repellency was calculated using the formula (Abbott 1925);

Percentage Repellency = A – B x 100 A 1 where:

A = Average number of insects present on untreated portion B = Average number of insects present on treated portion.

2.9 Result AnalysisThe results were analyzed with a Genstat software package and the means were compared using FLSD ( Fisher's Least Significant Difference).

3.0 Results and DiscussionResults of the effects of J. curcas root and

seed extracts on percentage contact and fumigant activities on O. longinoda are shown in Table 1. The aqueous root extract (JRWT) exerted near commensurate contact toxicity on O. longinoda as chlorpyrifos (70.92 and 75.00 %, respectively). The effect was significantly higher than the aqueous seed extract (JSWT), which, however, performed better than other extracts. The acetonolic root extract (JRAC) was next (61.92 %) and also bettered the seed extract (JSAC) (32.08 %) and the other extracts. The ethanolic seed and root extracts (55.92 % and 52.58 %, respectively) had the least contact toxicity.

Table 1: Main Effect of Different Treatment Materials on Contact and Fumigant Toxicities of Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Treatment Materials Contact Toxicity Fumigant Toxicity CHLR 75.00 75.00 JRAC 61.92 75.00 JRET 52.58 73.92 JRWT 70.92 71.92 JSAC 32.08 53.08 JSET 55.92 68.08 JSWT 65.42 41.67 S.E.D 1.27 1.17 LSD 0.05 2.54 2.35 Table 1 Key: CHLR = Chlorpyrifos (Synthetic insecticide); JRAC = Acetone extract of J. curcas root JRET = Ethanolic extract of J. curcas root; JRWT = Water extract of J. curcas root JSAC = Acetone extract of J. curcas seed; JSET = Ethanolic extract of J. curcas seed JSWT = Water extract of J. curcas seed



The acetonolic root extract (JRAC) effected the highest fumigant action on O. longinoda, comparable to the effect of chlorpyrifos (75 %, respectively). JRAC had better action than the seed extract (JSAC) (53.08 %). The ethanolic root extract (JRET) came next (73.92 %) and was also better than the seed extract (JSET) (68.08 %). JRWT and JSWT came third (71.92 and 41.67 %, respectively). Clearly the root extracts had better contact and fumigant action, irrespective of solvent type, than the seed extracts. The aqueous root extract (JSWT), interestingly, produced the least fumigant activity (0.00 %).

Ace tono l i c seed ex t rac t ( JSAC)

surprisingly gave the highest (72.83 %) repellency effect followed by the ethanolic extracts of both the root and seed (63.75 and 63.17 %, respectively) (Fig. 1). The repellency effect of aqueous seed extract (JSWT) was comparatively low (51.75 %) but better than that of the root extract which had no repellency action at all (0.00 %). Chlorpyrifos, conversely, displayed a high level of attraction or negative repellency (-171.75 %). Water (control) showed no repellency effect. The seed extracts, irrespective of the solvent used, had better repellency action than the root extracts.

Fig. 1 Main Effect of Treatment Materials on Repellency of Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Fig. 1 Legend: CHLR = Chlorpyrifos (Synthetic insecticide); JRAC = Acetone extract of J. curcas root JRET = Ethanolic extract of J. curcas root; JRWT = Water extract of J. curcas root JSAC = Acetone extract of J. curcas seed; JSET = Ethanolic extract of J. curcas seed JSWT = Water extract of J. curcas seed

The effect of different concentrations of J. curcas root and seed extracts (Table 2) indicated that the 3.00 % concentration produced the highest percentage contact and fumigant toxicity. This differed significantly from the lower concentrations. The 2.00 % concentration, however, effected the highest repellency (27.38 %) (Fig. 2). All the

concentrations repelled the insects. Generally, the effect of extract concentration was dose related as higher rates produced better performance. The control (C ) had neither contact, fumigant nor o

repellency action.



Table 2: Main Effect of Treatment Materials Concentrations on Contact and Fumigant Toxicities of Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Concentration Contact Toxicity Fumigant Toxicity

C0 0.00 0.00 C1 72.90 82.52 C2 79.43 88.24 C3 84.14 91.33 S.E.D 0.96 0.89 LSD 0.05 1.92 1.77

Table 2 Key: C0 = 0 % concentration; C1 = 1 % concentration; C2 = 2 % concentration; C3 = 3 % concentration

Fig. 2 Main Effect of Concentrations of Treatment Materials on Repellency of Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Fig. 2 Legend: C0 = 0 % concentration; C1 = 1 % concentration; C2 = 2 % concentration; C3 = 3 % concentration

3.1 DiscussionThe interaction effect of the different

treatment materials with concentration on contact and fumigant action is presented in Table 3. All the concentrations of chlorpyrifos elicited 100 % contact and fumigant action. The synthetic also had attraction to O. longinoda on all concentrations tested. The highest concentration (C ) gave the 3

highest repellency (- 268.00 %).Aqueous extracts of both the root and seed

had better interactive contact and concentration

action on the insects than all other solvents. The highest aqueous concentrations (root and seed) were comparable with the contact action of Chlorpyrifos (100.00 %). JRWT extract had better action at the lower concentrations (90.00 and 93.67 %) than the seed extracts (79.67 and 82.00 %). The acetonolic root extract/concentration interacted better than the seed extract and also bettered the ethanolic extracts/concentration interaction. JSET extract (69.67, 72.33 and 81.67 %), surprisingly, performed better than the JRET



extract/concentration interactions (64.67, 71.33 and 74.33 %).

For fumigant action, the JRAC extract (100.00 % in

all concentrations) was as good as chlorpyrifos.

JRAC extract/concentration interaction was also

better than that of its seed extract. The ethanolic

extract interacted well also. The second and third

concentrations of JRET extract and the highest

concentration of the seed extract (JSET) performed

as well as the synthetic insecticide. The higher

concentrations of JRWT extract also interacted as

well as chlorpyrifos. The aqueous seed extract

(JSWT), at all concentrations, had the least fumigant

action (44.67 – 62.33 %).

Table 3: Interaction Effect of Treatment Materials and Concentration on Contact and Fumigant Toxicities of Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Treatment Materials Concentration Contact Toxicity Fumigant Toxicity

CHLR C0 0.00 0.00 C1 100.00 100.00 C2 100.00 100.00 C3 100.00 100.00

JRAC C0 0.00 0.00 C1 76.33 100.00 C2 88.67 100.00 C3 82.67 100.00

JRET C0 0.00 0.00

C1 64.67 95.67 C2 71.33 100.00 C3 74.33 100.00

JRWT C0 0.00 0.00 C1 90.00 91.00 C2 93.67 100.00 C3 100.00 96.67

JSAC C0 0.00 0.00

C1 30.00 64.00 C2 48.00 68.00 C3 50.33 80.33

JSET C0 0.00 0.00 C1 69.67 82.33 C2 72.33 90.00 C3 81.67 100.00

JSWT C0 0.00 0.00

C1 79.67 44.67 C2 82.00 59.67 C3 100.00 62.33

S.E.D 0.23 2.54 2.34 LSD 0.05 0.46 5.09 4.67

Table 3 Key:

CHLR = Chlorpyrifos (A synthetic insecticide); JRAC = Acetone extract of J. curcas rootJRET = Ethanolic extract of J. curcas root; JRWT = Water extract of J. curcas root JSAC = Acetone extract of J. curcas seed; JSET = Ethanolic extract of J. curcas seed JSWT = Water extract of J. curcas seed; C = 0 % concentration; C = 1 % concentration; C = 2 % concentration; C = 3 % concentration0 1 2 3



The interaction effect of treatment materials with concentration on repellency of O. longinoda is presented in Fig. 3. JSAC had the best repellency action followed by JSET, JRET, JSWT and JRAC in that order. All concentrations of JRWT showed no repellency action at all.In the interaction analysis, generally both the seed and root extract/concentrations performed well with

the seed extract performing marginally better than the root extract. There were no marked differences between the performance of acetone and ethanol. Water did not perform satisfactorily. The action was dose related with higher doses performing better than lower concentrations. Water alone (control), understandably, had no interactive effect whatsoever. All concentrations of chlorpyrifos showed negative repellency or attractancy.

Fig. 3 Interaction Effect of Treatment Materials with Concentration on Repellency

of Oecophylla longinoda Latreille (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Fig. 3 Legend: C0 C1

C2 C3 C0 = 0 % concentration; C1 = 1 % concentration; C2 = 2 % concentra tion; C3 = 3 % concentration

4.0 DiscussionThe root and seed extracts of J. curcas plant parts showed high contact, fumigant and repellency action on O. longinoda relative to the synthetic insecticide, chlorpyrifos. Previous works have reported the insecticidal activities of J. curcas plant parts against mosquitoes, Anopheles arabiensis Patton (Diptera: Culicidae) (Zewdneh et al., 2011), Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (Ojiako et al., 2014), mites, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus Say (Ixodida: Ixodidae) (Juliet et al., 2012), cockroaches,

Periplaneta americana Linnaeus (Blattodea: Blattidae) (Lateef et al., 2014), Desert locusts, Schistocerca gregaria Forskal (Orthoptera: Acrididae) (Bashir & Shafie, 2013), Busseola fusca Fuller (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Makkar et al., 2007), Helicoverpa zea Boddie (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) (Olapeju et al., 2008), termites; Coptotermes Vastator Light (Blattodea: Rhinotermitidae) and Odontotermes obesus Rambur (Blattodea: Termitidae) (Acda, 2009a, 2009b; Verma et al., 2011), Jatropha seed oil have



also been shown to effect oviposition deterrence and inhibited egg hatching in potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) (Shelke et al., 1987), inhibited growth of tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) larvae (Sauerwein et al., 1993), had anti-ovipositional activity and long-term protective ability of treated cowpeas against the seed beetle Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) (Adebowale & Adedire, 2006) and meaningfully reduced the number of tested insect pests (Aphids crassivora, Maruca testulalis and Megalurothrips sjostedti) in a field trial to control field pests of cowpea (Ahuchaogu et al., 2013).

This high bioactivity may be related to the presence of phorbol esters in the kernels, stem, flowers, buds, roots, bark (outer brown and inner green) skins and wood, but not in latex of J. curcas (Makkar et al., 1998). Jatropha species have also been confirmed as a rich source of terpenoid compounds, among which are diterpenoid compounds with about 68 diterpenes (Devappa et al., 2010a). Majority of these diterpenes are known to exhibit cytotoxic, antitumor and antimicrobial activities while the phorbol esters (Jatropha factor C1–C6), lignans, cyclic peptides, terpenes and Jatropherol display insect deterrent and a broad range of biological activities (Devappa et al., 2010b). Further phytochemical analysis of the root, stem and petiole of the plant showed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, glycosides, phenols and flavonoids (Sharma et al., 2012) which are known to have bactericidal, fungicidal and antimicrobial properties (Rachana et al., 2012; Narayani et al., 2012; Egharevba & Kunle, 2013). The seed is reputed to have a generous amount of curcin toxalbumin (Stirpe et. al., 1976) which is known to hinder protein synthesis in-vitro. The modification of amino acids (arginine, lysine, and tryptophan) in the active site results in loss of the inhibitor activity (Weike et. al., 2006) which may be fatal to insects.

The very high contact toxicity exerted by the aqueous root (JRWT) and seed (JSWT) extracts on O. longinoda, which was comparable to the action of chlorpyrifos, could be as a result of its better extraction yield of specific toxic phytochemicals over acetone and ethanol. The properties of extracting solvents have been known to significantly affect the measured total caustic, crystalline compounds (±25 % variation) and antioxidant capacity (up to 30 % variation) in fruits and vegetables (Michiels et al., 2012; Tomsone et

al., 2012). Bandar et al. (2013) in an experiment to determine the best techniques for the extraction of bioactive compounds from Lebanese Urtica dioica Linnaeus (Rosales: Urticaceae) with water, ethanol, hexane, dichloromethane and acetone, had found water (the most polar solvent) the solvent with the highest extraction yield (461.8.0 mg) at 24h. It could be inferred, therefore, that in contact toxicity tests, water is the best solvent for both seed and root extraction.

Conversely, the very high fumigant action of acetonolic root extract (JRAC) , comparable to the effect of chlorpyrifos (75 %, respectively), followed closely by the ethanolic root extract (JRET) (73.92 %) and the very high repellency action against the insect by acetonolic and ethanolic seed extracts could be as a result of the solvents' lower boiling

o opoints, 79 C and 56 C respectively (as against water

owith 100 C), which could have conferred on them the ability to vapourize faster for quicker penetrative fumigant and repellency action.. It could also be due to the ability of acetone and ethanol to extract more phenols than water. The recovery of polyphenols from plant materials is influenced by the solubility of the phenolic compounds in the solvent used for the extraction process (Niciforovic et al., 2010). Though soluble in water, results have shown that acetone had highest extraction effects on the total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoids content (TFC) obtainable in Papaya, Carica papaya Linnaeus (Brassicales: Caricaceae) (Addai et al., 2013). Tatiya et al. (2011), while comparing the effect of different solvents; water, ethanol (50 %), methanol (50 %) and acetone (70 %) on the total polyphenol content, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of stem bark of Bridelia retusa Spreng Adrien-Henri de Jussieu (Malpighiales: Phyllanthaceae) reported that acetone extract had the highest polyphenol content, 4.7-7.6 mg, and also effected the highest antioxidant activity. Acetone has also been used to extract more condensed tannin, a phenolic compound, from grape Vitis. spp. skin than ethanol (Downey and Hanlin, 2010). Extraction with water for fumigant and repellency action may not be advisable.

From this experiment, it is apparent that the root extracts had better contact and fumigant action, irrespective of solvent type, than the seed extracts. This exceptional action could be as a result of an otherwise unknown aliphatic acid named japodic acid with a gem-dimethyl cyclopropane ring which was isolated from the roots of Jatropha (Olapeju et al., 2008). Other known compounds, erythrinasinate and fraxidin were also isolated which showed insecticidal and antibacterial activity against



Helicoverpa zea and Bacillus subtilis Ehrenberg; Cohn (Bacillales: Bacillaceae). It has also been stated that extraction efficiency of solvents could be strongly dependent on the food matrix or plant part used (Michiels et al., 2012). In order words, the phytochemical components of these plant parts and their molecular relationships or chemical bonds to each other could have effected their bioactivity.

The seed extracts, irrespective of the solvent used, had better repellency action than the root extracts. This agrees with the findings of Acda (2009 b) which reported that J. curcas seed oil, when evaluated for its barrier and repellency activity against Philippine milk termite, Coptotermes vastator, exhibited repellent and anti-feedant effect, induced reduction in tunneling activity and increased mortality of the termite. Interestingly, the otherwise highly effective root extract had no repellency action at all (0.00 %). This goes therefore to show that the phytochemical(s) responsible for repellency in J. curcas may be located in the seed.

Chlorpyrifos exhibited a very high level of attractancy to the insect. We are not aware of other studies to this effect. It has been proven, however, that chlorpyrifos do not repel insects. In a study at the University of Florida to provide insight into both repellent and non-repellent termiticides, Winston-Salem (2000) observed that chlorpyrifos treated soil was completely penetrated by termites irrespective of the thickness of the treated soil, whereas other termiticides - permethrin or bifenthrin, repelled the termites and prevented penetration of the treated soil.

Interactions between the solvent extracts and concentration seem to have potentiated the different levels of repellency/ attractancy against O. longinoda. The interaction between 3.00 % acetone (seed) and 3.00 % ethanol (root) produced the highest level of repellent activity followed by the interaction between J. curcas seed and 2.00 % acetone which also produced very high repellent activity on the ant. Water was not good solvent for repellency test whereas acetone and ethanol performed well.

Perhaps, extraction with a solvent mixture, incorporating the three solvents, baring other antiphlogistic effects, could be a better option to getting a 'mega solvent' that could extract all the bioactive components that would have contact, fumigant and repellency activity. Periago et al. (2004) had noted a positive secondary synergistic interaction of hexane with ethanol and acetone in extracting lycopene from raw tomato, Solanum

lycopersicum Linnaeus (Solanales: Solanaceae). This, they observed, suggests that a mixture including all three solvents was essential for optimizing the extraction process. A mixture of J. curcas plant parts may also be desirable.

Conclusion and RecommendationsThe acetonolic, ethanolic and water extracts

of the root and seeds of Jatropha curcas were found to exhibit insecticidal bioactivity and can successfully substitute chlorpyrifos (synthetic insecticide) in the control of Oecophylla longinoda.

From this study, water appeared to be the best solvent for both seed and root extraction if direct contact sprays are needed. Acetone proved to be the best extraction solvent for fumigant and repellency activities. The root extracts where found to be better fumigants than the seed extracts, whereas the seed extracts gave high repellency effect. The root and seed extracts of J. curcas provided high contact toxicity. The use of solvent mixtures, barring any antiphlogistic effects, could engender synergistic interaction and therefore may be preferable over single solvents for extraction. It is, therefore, recommended that further studies be initiated with solvent mixtures (water, acetone and ethanol) and a mixture of the root and seed of J. curcas for possible maximization of the pesticidal effects.

Jatropha curcas plants are not common in South-eastern Nigeria. The disinterest in the cultivation of this very important plant may be due to poor awareness and lack of production packages for the plant. It is, therefore, recommended that various research institutes and ministries of agriculture in Nigeria, embark on proper orientation on the importance and need for the cultivation of the plant. By so doing, there will be a reduction in the use and consequences of synthetic agro-chemicals.

ReferencesAbbott, W. S. (1925). A method of computing the

effectiveness of an insecticide. Journal of Economic Entomology, 18, 265- 267.

Acda, M. N. (2009). Toxicity, tunnelling and feeding behavior of the termite, Coptotermes Vastator Light (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in sand treated with oil of the physic nut, Jatropha curcas. Journal of Insect Science 9,1–8.

Acda, M. N. (2009b). Evaluation of oil of the Physic nut, Jatropha curcas L.(Malpighiales: Euphorbiceae) against the Philippine milk termite, Coptotermes vastator Light



(Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Insect Science 9, 64.

Addai, Z. R., Abdullah A. & Abd Mutalib, S. (2013). Effect of extraction solvents on the phenolic content and antioxidant properties of two papaya cultivars. Medicinal Plant Research 7(47): 3354 – 3359.

Adebowale, K. O. & Adedire, C. O. (2006). Chemical composition and insecticidal properties of the underutilized Jatropha curcas seed oil.- African Journal of Biotechnology, 5 (10), 901- 906.

Agaceta, L. M., Dumang, P. U. & Batolos, J. A. (1981). Studies on the control of snail vectors of Fascioliasis: Molluscicidal activity of some indigenous plants. In: Bureau of Animal Industry. NSDB Technological Journal: Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture, 2, 30-34.

Agu, C. M., Nwogbaga, A. C., Uwandu, C. G., Peter-Onoh, C. A., Mbuka, C. O., Ojiako, F. O., Ndulue, N. K. & Ogwudire, V. I. (2013). Effect of Jatropha curcas on root-gall nematode disease and the consequent proximate composi t ion of Okra : Abelmonchus esculentus (L.) Moench. Bionature 33 (2): 59 – 62.

Ahuchaogu, C. E., Ojiako, F. O. & Kabeh, J. D. (2014). Evaluation of Jatropha curcas Lam. extracts in the control of some field insect pests of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 3 (3): 136 – 141.

Amatobi, C. I. (2007). Arthropod pests of crops in Nigeria: General biology, natural enemies and control. P.A. Ndahi Printing Press 46 – 48, Zaria, Nigeria:

Amin, M. R., Shahjahan, M., Eltaj, H. F., Igbal, T. M. T. & Alamgir, M. H. (2000). Methods of repellency tests. Bangladesh Journal of Entomology 10 (1& 2),1-13.

Anikwe, J. C., Omoloye, A. A. and Okelana, F. A. (2007). Studies of the Ant-plant Mutualism in the Nigerian Cocoa Agroecology. - Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 2 (2), 69 -72.

Ashigidi, A. C. & Okpara, J. O. (2003). Comparative studies on the pesticide properties of dried orange peels and Actellic on maize grains.- Proceeding of the 36th Annual Conference of the Agricultural Society of Nigeria.

Baker, F. J., Silverton, R. E. & Luckcook, E. D. (1975). Introduction to Medical Laboratory

Technology. Butherworth th

and Company Publishing Ltd 4 Edition Pp 461; London, Bio:

Bandar, H., Hijazi, A., Rammal, H., Hachem, A., Saad, Z. & Badran, B. (2013). Techniques for the extraction of bioactive compounds from Lebanese Urtica dioica. American Journal of Phyto Medicine and Clinical Therapeutics, 1(6),507-513.

Bashir E. M. & Shafie, H. A. F. (2013). Insecticidal and antifeedant efficacy of Jatropha oil extract against the desert locust, Sch i s toce rca g regar ia (Fo r ska l ) (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America, 4 (3), 260 -267.

Bloch, P. (2012). Pilot for protecting against counterfeit crop protection products. CLIPnet. Muscle Shoals/United States: Agricultural Research Development C o m m u n i t y ( A g 4 D e v ) ; http://clipnetblog.wordpress.com/2012/03/2 8 / p i l o t - f o r - p r o t e c t i n g - a g a i n s t counterfeit- crop-protection-products/

Bradshaw, J. W. S., Baker, R. & Howse, P. E. (1979). Chemical composition of the poison apparatus secretions of the African weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda, and their role in behavior: Physiological Entomology, 4(1): 3946 doi:10.1111/j.1365x

Devappa, R. K., Makkar, H. P. S. & Becker, K. (2010). Jatropha Diterpenes: A Review. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 88 (13), 301-322.

Devappa, R. K, Makkar. H. P. S. & Becker, K. (2010b) Jatropha Toxicity: A Review. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 13,476 –507.

Downey, M. O. & Hanlin, R. L. (2010). Comparison of ethanol and acetone mixtures for extraction of condensed tannin from grape skin. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture 31(2), 154 – 159.

Egharevba, H. O. & Kunle, O. F. (2013). Broad spectrum antimicrobial activity of extracts of Jatropha curcas. Journal of Applied Pharmacological Science, 3(04), 083 – 087.

Grzywacz, D. & Leavett, R. (2012). Biopesticides and their role in modern pest management in West Africa. Collaboration National Research Institute/University of Greenwich Greenwich, United Kingdom: http:// www. nri .org/news/ archive/ 2012/20120413-

United Kingdom



biopesticides. htm;Huang, H. T. & Yang, P. (1987). Ancient cultured

citrus ant used as biological control agent. Bioscience 37, 665 – 671.

Holldobler, B. & Wilson, E.O. (1977). Weaver ants. Scientific American 237, 146 -154.

Juliet, S., Ravindran, R., Ramankutty, S. A., Gopalan, A. K., Nair, S. N., Kavillimakkil, A. K., Bandyopadhyay, A., Rawat, A. K. S. & Ghosh, S. (2012). Jatropha curcas (Linn) leaf extract - A possible alternative for population control of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Diseases 2,225 – 229.

Kube, C. R. & Zang H (1993) Collective robotics from social insects to robots. Adaptive Behavior 2,189-219.

Lale, N. E. S. (2001). The impact of storage pests on post-harvest losses and their management in the Nigerian agricultural system. Nigerian Journal of Experimental Biology 2(2), 231-239;

Lateef, F. A., Daudu, S. O., Jere, P. & Yusuf D (2014). Insecticidal Effect of Jatropha curcas oil phorbol esters on the nymph, adult cockroaches and termites. International Journal of Applied Science and Engineering Research, 3(2), 495 – 503.

List, P. H. & Horhammer, L. (1969). Hager's Handbook Der Pharmazeutischen Praxis. Vols 2- 6. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Deutschland.

Liu, Z. L. & Ho SH (1999). Bioactivity of the essential oil extracted from Evodia rutaecarpa

Hook f. et Thomas against the grain storage insects, Sitophilus zeamais Motsch and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Journal of Stored Products Research 35: 319- 324.

Makkar, H. P. S., Aderibigbe, A. O. and Becker, K. (1998). Comparative evaluation of nontoxic and toxic varieties of Jatropha curcas for chemical composition, digestibility, protein degradability and toxic factors. Food Chemistry 62: 207- 215.

Makkar, H. P. S., Goel, G., Francis, G. and Becker, K. (2007). Phorbol esters: structure, biological activity and toxicity in animals. International Journal of Toxicology 26: 279– 288.

Michiels, J. A., Kevers, C., Pincemail, J., Defraigne, J. O. and Dommes, J. (2012). Extraction conditions can greatly influence antioxidant capacity assays in plant food matrices. Food

Chemistry 130(4): 986-993.Narayani, M., Johnson, M., Sivaraman, A. &

Janakiraman, N. (2012). Phytochemical and Antibacterial studies on Jatropha curcas L. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 4(5), 2639 -2642.

Niciforovic, N., Mihailovic, V., Maškovic, P., Solujic, S., Stojkovic, A. D. & Muratspahic, D. P. (2010) Antioxidant activity of selected plant species; potential new sources of natural antioxidants. Food and Chemical Toxicology 48(11), 3125-3130.

NIMET (2010). Nigeria Meteorological Unit, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Annual Report, 2010.

Offenberg, J., Nielsen, M. G., Macintoch, D. J., Havanon, S. & Aksornkoae, S. (2004). Evidence that insect herbivores are deterred by ant pheromones. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B. 271: S433–S435.

Offenberg, J., Nguyen, Thi Thu Cuc, N. & Wiwatwitaya, D. (2013). The effectiveness of weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) biocontrol in Southeast Asian citrus and mango. Asian Myrmecology 5: 139–149

Ojiako, F. O., Dialoke, S. A., Ihejirika, G. O., Ahuchaogu, C. E. and Iheaturueme, H. I. (2014). Management of stored maize against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) with the seed & root powders of Jatropha curcas (L.). International Journal of Agriculture & Rural Development 17(3): 1899 – 1904.

Olapeju, O., Aiyelaagbe, O. O., James, B. and Gloer, J. B. (2008). Japodic acid, A Novel Aliphatic Acid from Jatropha podagrica Hook. Records of Natural Products 2(4):100-106.

Olotu, M. I., Du Plessis, H., Seguni, Z. S. and Maniania, N. K. (2013). Efficacy of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the control of Helopeltis spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) and Pseudotheraptus wayi (Hemiptera: Coreidae) in cashew crop in Tanzania. Pest Management Science 69(8), 911- 918.

Peng, R. K. & Christian, K. (2008). The dimpling bug, Campylomma austrina Malipatil (Hemiptera: Miridae): The damage and its relationship with ants in mango orchads in the Northern Territory of Australia.

FUTO Journal Series (FUTOJNLS), 2015, VOL. 1, Issue 2 135


p-ISSN: 2467-8325; e-ISSN: 2476-8456

International Journal of Pest Management 54, 173-179.

Periago, M. J., Rincon, F., Aguera, M. D. & Ros, G. (2004). Mixture approach for optimizing lycopene extraction from tomato and tomato products. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52(19), 5,796 - 5,802.

Rachana, S., Agarwal, T., Rastogi, R., Arora, N. & Rastogi, M. (2012). Comparative analysis of antibacterial activity of Jatropha curcas fruit parts. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science, 15(12), 1- 4.

Sauerwein, M., Sporer, F. & Wink, M. (1993). Insect - toxicity of phorbol esters from Jatropha curcas seed oil. Planta Medica 59, A686.

Schluns, E. A., Wegener, B. J., Schluns, H., Azuma, N., Robson, S. K. & Crozier RH (2009). Breeding system, colony and population structure in the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina. Molecular Ecology 18(1):156 – 167.

Sharma, A. K., Gangwar. M., Tilak, R., Nath, G., Sinha, A. S. K., Tripathi, Y. B. & Kumar D (2012). Comparative in -vitro antimicrobial and phytochemical evaluat ion of methanolic Extract of root, stem and leaf of Jatropha curcas Linn. Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics 4: 34-40.

Shelke, S. S., Jadhav, L. D. & Salunkhe, G. N. (1987). Ovicidal action of some vegetable oils and extracts on the storage pest of potato, Phthorimaea operculella Zell. Biovigyanam, 13: 40 – 4.

Stirpe, F. A., Pession-Brizzi, E., Lorenzoni, P. & Sperti, S. (1976). Studies on the protein from seeds of Croton tiglium and of Jatropha curcas: Toxic properties and inhibition of protein synthesis in vitro. Biochemical Journal 156: 1- 6.

Talukder, F. A. & Howse, P. E. (1993). Deterrent and insecticidal effects of extracts of Pithraj,

Aphanamixis polystachya (Meliaceae) against Tribolium castaneum in storage. Journal of Chemical Ecology19: 2463 – 2471.

Tatiya, A. U., Tapadiya, G. G., Kotecha, S. & Surana, S. J. (2011). Effect of solvents on t o t a l p h e n o l i c s , n t i o x i d a n t a n d antimicrobial properties of Bridelia retus Spreng stem bark. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources 2(4): 442- 447.

Thomas, D. W. (1988). The Influence of aggressive ants on fruit removal in the Tropical tree,

Ficus capensis (Moraceae). Biotropica, 20 (1), 49- 53.

Tint, T. K. & Mya, M. (2009). Production of bio-diesel from Jatropha oil (Jatropha curcas) in pilot Plant. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 477- 480.

Tomsone, L., Kruma, Z. & Galoburda, R.. (2012). Comparison of different solvents and extraction methods for isolation of phenolic compounds from Horseradish roots (Armoracia rusticana). World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 6(4): 1155- 1160.

Van Mele, P., Vayssières, J. F. & Van Tellingen, E. V. J. (2007). Effects of an African weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda, in controlling mango fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Benin. Journal of Economic Entomology 100(3), 695 -701.

Van Mele, P., Cuc, N. T. T. & Vanhuis, A. (2008). A direct and indirect influence of the weaver ant (Oecophylla longinoda) on citrus farmers' pest perceptions and management practices in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. International Journal of Pest Management 48, 225- 232.

Van Mele, P., Thi Thu Cuc, N., Seguni, Z., Camara, K. & Offenberg, J. (2009). Multiple sources of local knowledge: a global review of ways to reduce nuisance from the beneficial weaver ant Oecophylla. International Journal of Agricultural Resources, Government and Ecology 8(5), 484- 504.

Verma, M., Pradhan, S., Sharma, S., Naik, S. N. & Prasad, R. (2011). Efficacy of karanjin and phorbol ester fraction against termites (Odontotermes obesus).- Interational Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 65: 877–882.

Watts, M. (2013). Chlorpyrifos Factsheet. Pesticide Action Network Asia and the Pacific, 1 0 8 5 0 ; P e n a n g , M a l a y s i a . http://www.panna.org/issues/publication/chlorpyrifos-factsheet

Weike, C., Qi, Z., Xingchun, C., Kexiu, W., Ying, X., Lin, T., Shenghua, W., Jie, B. A. & Fang, C. (2006). Chemical modification of Jatropha curcas RIPs (curcin) and effect of the modification on relative activity of curcin. Chinese Journal of Applied Environmental Biology, 12,329- 333.

Winston-Salem, N. C. (2000). Termiticide Treatments.- Thick Vs. Thin. Pest Control Techno logy, Va l l ey View/Uni t ed



p-ISSN: 2467-8325; e-ISSN: 2476-8456

States.http://www. pctonline. com/Article. aspx? article_id=39673

WHO (2009). World Health Organization Specifications and Evaluations for Public Health Pesticides. Chlorpyrifos O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridyl p h o s p h o r o t h i o a t e . Wo r l d H e a l t h O rg a n i z a t i o n ; G e n e v a / S c h w e i z . http://www.who.int/whopes/quality/Chlorpyrifos_WHO_specs_eval_Mar_2009.pdf

Zewdneh, T., Mamuye, H., Asegid, T., Yalemtsehay,

M. & Beyene, P. (2011). Larvicidal effects of Jatropha curcas L. against Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae). Momona Ethiopian Journal of Science (MEJS) 3:52–64.



p-ISSN: 2467-8325; e-ISSN: 2476-8456

Documents

Comparative bioactivity of different solvent extracts of the root … tailor ants, and also to compare the effectiveness of organic and inorganic pesticides in the control of these