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Politics and Society in Eastern Europe

J oni Lovenduski

Jean Woodall

M MACMILLAN EDUCATION

© Joni Lovenduski and Jean Woodalll987

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended), or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 7 Ridgmount Street, London WClE 7AE.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

First published 1987

Published by MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

Typeset by Latimer Trend & Company Ltd, Plymouth

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Lovenduski, Joni Politics and society in Eastern Europe.~ (Comparative government and politics) I. Europe, Eastern~ History~ 1945-1. Title II. Woodall, Jean Ill. Series 947.085 DJK50 ISBN 978-0-333-36905-0 ISBN 978-1-349-18877-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-18877-2

For Ghita lonescu

Contents

List qf Tables and Figures X

Acknowledgements Xll

1 How We Know What We Know about Eastern Europe 1

2 Interwar Eastern Europe 15 State- and nation-building 15 The geographical and cultural setting 17 The interwar economies 27 Interwar social patterns 31 Interwar politics 37

3 War, Communism and Stalinism 48 World War Two 48 Liberation and communist ascent 53 Stalinism 62

4 The Structure and Development of Centrally Planned Economies in Eastern Europe 68 Eastern Europe is different 69 The strategy of industrialisation 76 Agriculture 83 Industrial management: control over the production

process 91

Vll

Vlll Contents

5 The Implementation of Economic Reform in Eastern Europe 97 Reforming the Stalinist model of industry: the

debates 97 National experience of economic reform 105 Summary 121 Conclusion: the politics of economic reform-who

benefits? 122

6 Equality and the Social Order 129 Social inequality and political domination 131 Social stratification and social mobility 136 The new social structure 139 The peasantry 144 The manual working class 149 The intelligentsia 153 The social significance of gender 155 Ethnicity, nationality and inequality 159 The political significance of social inequality 164

7 The Logic of Party Rule (I): History, Ideology and Structure 173 The Marxist-Leninist heritage and the origins of the

communist parties of Eastern Europe 174 Marxist-Leninist principles and party life: the role

of ideology 175 Party structures 191 Party-state relations 197 Conclusion 204

8 The Logic of Party Rule (II): Power and Representation 205 Party membership 207 The party apparatus and cadre policy 222 Leadership 227 Political elites and party rule 237 Conclusion 244

9 The State Institutions 246 Constitutional systems 248 The institution of government 253

Contents IX

Socialist law 272 Institutional legitimation 281

10 Political Participation and Interest Articulation 283 Political participation 284 Elections 288 Institutional intermediation 292 Mass communication, participation and

mobilisation 308 Summary and discussion 310

II Political Accommodation: Interests, Opposition and Dissent 314 Working-class politics 315 Religion and the churches 332 Opposition and dissent 340

12 From Ability to Need: Social Welfare and Educational Policy 347 Economic and social policy 347 The labour market 352 Education 354 Housing and uFbarrl-safion 369 Social security and pensions 373 Family policy 383 Conclusion: social policy and inequality 386

13 The External Relations of the East European Socialist States 388 Bloc politics: the development of a framework 390 The Warsaw Treaty Organisation 393 East European foreign policy initiatives 399 East European trading relations 410 Ideological developments 417 Summary and conclusion 419

14 Conclusions: Legitimating State Socialism in Eastern Europe 421

Bibliography 433 Index 456

List of Tables and Figures

Tables

4.1 Average growth rates, 1950-79 72 4.2 Main economic indicators 74 4.3 Landholding by sector of ownership (percentage

of both arable and pastoral area), 1983 84 6.1 Percentage of the workforce employed in

agriculture in 1960 and 1980 in Eastern Europe 130 6.2 East European populations in 1984 130 6.3 Occupational patterns in Russia, 1913, and the

Soviet Union, 1939 (per cent) 140 6.4 Social structure in the Soviet Union (official

figures), 1959 and 1979 (per cent) 141 6.5 Inter-generational social mobility: percentages

born into a particular stratum who have moved to a different stratum 142

6.6 Social stratification in Eastern Europe: proportion of population by occupational group of main source of family income or by occupation of individual-economically active population only (per cent) 143

6. 7 Male blue-collar workers by father's occupation (per cent) 144

8.1 Communist party memberships: total and as percentage of population 208

8.2 Social composition of the communist parties (per cent) 212

X

8.3

8.4 9.1

10.1 10.2

11.1

List of Tables and Figures x1

Women as a percentage of total members of communist parties in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe Party leaders since 1945 Main constitutional state organs Trade union 'peak' organisations in 1984 East European communist youth organisations in 1984 Religious affiliation in Eastern Europe in 1983 as a percentage of the population

219 231 260 296

299

333

Figures

2.1 Map 19 4.1 The interrelation of government, party and

trade-union apparatus in industry 93 7 .I Principal party/state, and social organisations in

the German Democratic Republic 198 12.1 Patterns of schooling in Eastern Europe: the

typical system 359 12.2 Diagrammatic representation of control and

administration of education in Eastern European countries 362

13.1 Structure of the Warsaw Treaty Organisation, 1980 395

13.2 Structure of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance 414

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Nuffield Foundation, which provided financial assistance for the preparation of this book via the Foundation's Small Grant Scheme. In addition, a large number of individuals provided valuable help at various stages of what turned out to be a lengthy process of collecting information, writing and rewriting. We would particularly like to thank Dave Allen, Paul Byrne, Malcolm Hill, George Kolankiewicz, Paul Lewis, Susan Sauhders-Vosper, Mary McAuley, Adam Westoby, George Blazyca, Edwina Moreton, Rob Matthews, John Whittaker and Tony Burkett, all of whom read part or all of the manuscript and offered advice and suggestions. Stephen Carter allowed us to see his unpub­lished work. Mike Hopkins of Loughborough University Library provided considerable assistance in helping us to track down sources, as did the inter-library load staff there. We were particularly fortunate in having access to specialist collections at the British Library of Political and Economic Science at the London School of Economics and the Alexander Baykov Library of the Birmingham University Centre for Russian and East European Studies. Anne Tarver of the Loughborough University Geography Department prepared the map. We are also grateful for the helpful suggestions made by Vincent Wright and for the careful and constructive comments of Macmillan's three anonymous readers. Steven Kennedy, our editor at Macmillan, supported the project from a very early stage. With Keith Povey he patiently and painstakingly saw the manuscript through to publication. Colleagues, friends and

Xll

Acknowledgements xm

family all provided support and reassurance as the work progressed, and special thanks are due to Patricia Swift, who once again proved miraculously patient and cheerful as she typed various drafts of the manuscripts and reorganised its tables. Finally the authors feel obliged to mention that the inspiration for this book came from our experience as the graduate students ofGhita lonescu at Manchester University. He bears at least indirect responsibility for this text. The direct responsibility is ours.

JONI LOVENDUSKI

JEAN WOODALL

The authors and publishers wish to thank the following who have kindly given permission for the use of copyright material:

George Allen & Unwin Ltd for a table from Blue Collar Workers in Eastern Europe by Jan F. Triska and Charles Gati (eds), 1981.

Cambridge University Press for material from 'Real GDP Per Capita For More Than One Hundred Countries' by Irving B. Kravis et al., Economic Journal, 88, June 1978.

Pergamon Press for figures from Society, Schools and Progress in Eastern Europe by Nigel Grant, 1969

United States Information Agency for a table from 'Social Change and Stability in Eastern Europe' by Walter Connor, Problems if Communism, Nov-Dec 1977.

The University of Wisconsin Press for figures from Soviet-East European Relations by Robert L. Hutchings. Copyright © by The University ofWisconsin Press.

Westview Press for a figure from Politics and Change in East Germany: An Evaluation if Socialist Democracy by G. B. Schar( Copyright© 1984 by Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.

Every effort has been made to trace all the copyright-holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangement at the first opportunity.