Complementary Research Methods

Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies

http://www.gla.ac.uk/t4/education/files/scre/research.pdf

Research Methodologies A continuum rather than “either/or”

  Qualitative   Goal: To Understand,

Predict   Descriptive accounts   Similarities and

Contrasts

  Applied and Theoretical

  Research Questions   Field study

  Natural conditions

  Quantitative   Goal: To Predict and

Control   Measure and Evaluate   Generalize to population,

reproduction

  Basic and Theoretical   Hypothesis testing   Lab study

  Controlled, contrived

Validity and Reliability   Both Quantitative and Qualitative research

designs seek reliable and valid results. For example:   Quantitative Reliability: Data that are consistent or

stable as indicated by the researcher's ability to replicate the findings.

  Qualitative: Validity of findings are paramount so that data are representative of a true and full picture of constructs under investigation.

Part Versus Whole   “Whole” is often greater than “Parts”   It is a non-trivial matter to infer the behavior of the

whole from the behavior of its parts   Quantitative research designs strive to identify and

isolate specific variables within the context (seeking correlation, relationships, causality) of the study.

  Qualitative design focuses on a holistic view of what is being studied (via documents, case histories, observations and interviews).

Data Collection   Quantitative

  Emphasis on numerical data, measurable variables   Data is collected under controlled conditions in

order to rule out the possibility that variables other than the one under study can account for the relationships identified

  Qualitative   Emphasis on observation and interpretation.   Data are collected within the context of their

natural occurrence.

Static and Dynamic   Quantitative

  The accumulation of facts and causes of behavior through careful isolation, measurement and evaluation of variables.

  Predictability and Control over time.

  Qualitative   Concerned with the changing and dynamic nature

of reality.   Understanding a Point in time

Triangulation

  Combines independent yet complementary research methods.   Simultaneous triangulation:

  Use of both qualitative and quantitative methods at the same time

  e.g., Survey methods and Case study

  Sequential triangulation:   Results of one method are essential for planning the next

method   e.g., Exploratory Pilot study precedes Experimental design

  Also known as “mixed methods”

Benefits of Triangulation   Advantages of each complement the other

  resulting in a stronger research design, and   more valid and reliable findings.

  Inadequacies of individual methods are minimized   threats to Internal Validity are realized and addressed

  Example   Quantitative design strives to control for bias so that facts,

instances, phenomena can be understood in an objective way.

  Qualitative approach strives to understand the perspective of participants or a situation by looking at firsthand experience to provide meaningful data.

Additional Benefits   Triangulation offers a balance between logic and

stories.   Qualititative research, which emphasizes exploration,

understanding, contextualizing, introspection, and theory construction, provides a strong base for wider quantitative measures, scaling, and generalization.

  Quantitative research, which emphasizes large samples, can provide an overview of an area that can reveal patterns, inconsistencies, and so forth, that can be further investigated with qualitative methods.

Effectiveness of Triangulation   In order for Triangulation to be used effectively, four

principles must be adhered to:

  1. research question(s) must be clearly focused;   2. strengths and weaknesses of each chosen method must

complement each other;   3. data collection methods should be selected according to

their relevance to the nature of the phenomenon being studied;

  4. a continual evaluation of the approach should be under-taken during the study.

Corner (1990)

Range of Research Methods

  Experimental design   Ethnography   Case study   Survey

Experimental Design

  Hypothesis testing   Independent and Dependent Variables

  For example - Predictor: method of instruction, Resulting differences: math performance

  Sampling of Population   Experimental and Controlled Conditions   Random assignment

Experimental Research   The researcher does something to the

subjects or objects or research, and then attempts to determine the effects of these actions

  Reporting   Careful description of sampling procedure   Inferential statistics, effect size, and so on.

Ethnography   Defined: a picture of the “way of life” of some

identifiable group of people   Anthropology - “doing fieldwork”, “going native”   Preoccupied with culture, and how people interact

with each other   Qualitative Methodology - Both a research process

and a product   Outcome: an ethnographic account

Ethnographic Process   The ethnographer is the primary research

instrument   One year or more in the field setting

  long enough to see a full cycle of activity   For example, a full school year

  Tension and balance between involvement and detachment   Outsider’s broad and analytical perspective on group

studied   Insider view, familiarity, empathy, identification with

group

Field Research Techniques   An Inquiry Process of multiple methods:

  Participant observation   privileged, active participant   passive observer

  Interviewing   key informants, structured, unstructured   groups, surveys and questionnaires

  Making and using records   historical documents, archives, written records

Validity and Reliability of the Ethnographic Account

  “The satisfactoriness of the explanation is what counts, not the power of the method for deriving it”.

  Significance is derived socially, not statistically

Case Study   Understanding the intricate complexity,

idiosyncrasy of one particular case   investigation of a “bounded system”   Some entity deemed worthy of close watch

  a single child, a single classroom, a single school, a single national program…

  Goals   Understand and report the uniqueness of individual

cases (both commonalities and differences)   Usually no attempt to represent case by single or

multiple “scores”

Case Study Methods

  Similar to ethnographic field methods   ASKING - Interviews

  Gather narrative and testimony   WATCHING - Observations   SEARCHING - Written records and artifacts

  Reporting   Develop a conceptual structure, look for patterns,

consistencies, repetitions, and manifestations pertinent to your research question(s)

Validity and Reliability   There are many different stories to be

told   Different researchers have different questions to

answer, different conceptualizations of the situation, and set different boundaries for the case

  Generalizability: What is true of one case is often true about other cases   Consistencies can be found - predictability   How many cases are needed before patterns

emerge? It depends...

Survey Research Methods   Purpose and Goal

  Describe specific characteristics of a large group of persons, objects, or institutions

  Understand present conditions, rather than the effects of particular intervention (as in experimental research)

  Sample of Population   Groups of interest are well defined and chosen

using well defined rules   Representativeness

Survey Methods

  Mail   postage and printing costs, participation rate

  Telephone   sampling, wage and time costs, participation rates

  Face-to-Face   wage and time costs, participation rates, like structured

interview

  Web-based   anytime, anywhere, cost effective

Issues in Survey Construction   Item (question) and scale construction   Pilot Testing and revision   Sampling procedures   Analysis and reporting of results   Generalizability

  Drawing conclusions about the conditions, attitudes, opinions, or status of a population of persons, objects, institutions, or other entities.