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Components of the Term Vernacular
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One View
1a. Uncodified or unstandardized variety
1b. Acquired in the home, as a first variety
1c. Used for relatively circumscribed functions
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 77.
Four Alternate Views
2. Any non-official language of a country
3. Any minority language of a country
4. The most colloquial variety in a person's linguistic repertoire
5. Language of everyday communication
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Components of the Term Vernacular
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 77.
Standard Languages 1
“A standard variety is generally one which
is written
has undergone some degree of regularization or codification
is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a community
is used for H functions alongside a diversity of L varieties.”
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 78-79.
Standard Languages 2
“This is a very general definition and it
immediately excludes most of the world's four
or five thousand languages. Only a minority
of the world's languages are written, and an
even smaller minority are standardized in the
sense of codified and accepted by the
community as suitable for formal functions.”
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 78-79.
Standard Languages 3
“A standard dialect has no particular linguistic
merits, whether in vocabulary, grammar or
pronunciation. It is simply the dialect of those
who are politically powerful and socially
prestigious.”
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 79.
Lingua Francas
“language of wider communication”
“A lingua franca is a language used for communication between people whose first languages differ.”
“More generally, however, the term lingua franca describes a language serving as a regular means of communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community.”
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 82-83.
Lingua Francas
Tanzania: Swahili
Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin
former USSR: Russian
Arabic-speaking world: Classical Arabic
East Africa: Swahili
West Africa: Hausa
China: Mandarin
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Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 84.
Identifying Characteristics of a Pidgin Language
1. It is used in restricted domains and functions
2. It has a simplified structure and limited vocabulary compared to the source languages
3. It generally has low prestige and attracts
negative attitudes—especially from outsiders
Holmes, Janet. 2008. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 3rd edition. London: Longman, pp. 85-86. 8/21:3
Simplified Comparison of Pidgins and Creoles
Pidgin Creole* Native Speakers none yesFunctions limited unlimited Domains restricted
unrestricted Vocabulary small rich Morphology none/little expanded Structure irregular
regularized Solidarity no yes/can Prestige no yes/can
*This Creole is a fully developed one.Holmes, Janet. 2008. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 3rd edition. London: Longman, pp. 83-94.
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African American English 1
r-deletion (NOT unique to AAE = NU)
guard god
l-deletion (some speakers)
toll toe
Consonant cluster simplification (NU)
passed pass
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 412-414.
10/21:6
Phonology
Neutralization of [] and [] before
nasals (NU)
pin pen
Loss of interdental fricatives (NU)
thing fing
this, that, these, those [d]
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 412-414. 11/21:4
African American English 2
Syntax
Double negatives (NOT unique to AAE) He don’t know nothing.
Deletion of ‘be’SAE AAEHe is / He’s nice He niceThey are / They’re mine They
mine
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 414-417.
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African American English 3
Habitual ‘be’
John be happy. John is always happy.
John happy. John is happy now.
He be late. He is habitually late.
He late. He is late this time.
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 414-417.
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African American English 4
Vocabulary
NOTHING in FR&H
(some of it may NOT be unique to AAE)
Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 412-417.
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African American English 5
Multiple Negation
Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, p. 178.
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History of Jamaican Creole 1
Late 17th century
British settlers raising sugarcane
Slaves imported
CONTACT Language—pidgin arose (English vocabulary; simplified syntax; African influences in pronunciation, maybe 10% of the vocabulary, and some syntax)
Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 82-83.
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Subsequent generations of slaves learned this language (used with masters and fellow slaves)
Evolved, "transformed into a much more complex and flexible language called a creole (defined technically as a pidgin which becomes the first language of a group)" (p. 83)
Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 82-83.
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History of Jamaican Creole 2
Standard English and Jamaican Creole 1 Standard English Jamaican Creole
Plurals the other girls di addah girl dem
with those other girls wid dem addah girl
Past time I went yesterday mi go yeside
I told you so already me tel yu so aredi
I had already walked mi ben waak
home huom aredi
I have finished sleeping mi don sliipMontgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, p. 84. 18/21
Standard English Jamaican Creole
Present what are you doing whey you a dhu out yah?
out there?
where are you going? whey you a go?
Possession the man’s hat di man hat
the man’s woman di man woman
didn’t like this noh like dis
Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, p. 84. 19/21
Standard English and Jamaican Creole 2
Jamaican Creole Continuum
Broadest Standard Creole English
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Schematic of Hypothetical Repertoires Broadest Standard Creole EnglishSpeaker | | 1 2 3 4 5
The horizontal length of the line represents the breadth of the speaker's repertoire.
Based on Martin Montgomery. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 85. 21/21