ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Composition and origin of the sabkha brines, and theirenvironmental impact on infrastructure in Jizan area, Red SeaCoast, Saudi Arabia

Mohammed H. Basyoni1 • Mahmoud A. Aref1,2

Received: 2 March 2015 / Accepted: 8 August 2015

� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract The sulfate evaporite minerals (gypsum and

anhydrite) and brines of Jizan sabkha cause corrosion of the

steel reinforcement and deterioration of the concrete, and

consequently hinder the development activity for building

new urban communities and industrial zones in Jizan area,

Red Sea coastal plain of Saudi Arabia. The sabkha evaporite

minerals below the sediment surface are represented by

displacive and inclusive growth of lenticular and rosette

gypsum, and nodular anhydrite. In small saline pans, halite

precipitates form rafts, chevrons and cornets. The salinity

(TDS) of the groundwater in the sabkha area is highly vari-

able, and ranges from 12,900 to 495,000 mg/l, compared to

the average value of the Red Sea water of 40,366 mg/l. The

low salinity values of the sabkha brines are most probably

caused by localized influx of groundwater of meteoric origin

from direct rain fall and/or temporary floods, in addition to

seepage of sewage water from septic tanks. The electric

conductivity (EC) values range from 20,000 to 199,100 lS/cm which are conformable to the salinity values of the brine.

The dominant cation concentration order in seawater

and brines of the sabkha is Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?, orNa?[Mg2?[K?[Ca2?. The dominant anion concen-tration order is Cl-[ SO4

2-[HCO3-. The dominant brine

type for most samples is sodium chloride, with variable

proportions of the major cations Ca2? and Mg2? and the

major anion SO42-. Most brine samples indicate their source

is of modified marine water having an elevated CaCl2 con-

tent, which may be derived from dissolution of mixed salt

from the Miocene salt dome in Jizan area. The chemical

composition and origin of the brines, and mineralogy and

textures of the evaporite minerals in Jizan sabkha help in

understanding the nature of the corrosive factors to the

foundations in Jizan area.

Keywords Brine chemistry � Genesis � Gypsum �Corrosion � Infrastructure � Sabkha � Saudi Arabia

Introduction

Sabkhas are ubiquitous geomorphic features in arid and

semiarid regions where evapotranspiration potentials are

very high and the hydrological inputs are conducive to the

development of endoreic (internal) drainage systems

(Goudie and Wells 1995; Shaw and Thomas 1997). They

represent flat and barren surfaces that are in dynamic

equilibrium with eolian deflation and sedimentation con-

trolled by local water table level. Major geotechnical and

constructional problems, namely, strength loss, differential

settlement, concrete deterioration, and steel corrosion may

emerge due to the presence of sabkha (Abou Al-Heija and

Shehata 1989; Shehata et al. 1990; Youssef et al. 2012;

Youssef and Maerz 2013). In addition, salt crystallization

usually occurs in the concrete pores above the water

table leading to their slow disintegration due to the high

crystallization pressure that is enhanced by evaporation

(Al-Amoudi and Abduljauwad 1994; Al-Amoudi et al.

1995). There are three different models that explain the

sources of the groundwater and solutes in sabkhas. These

are the ‘‘seawater flooding’’ model that was proposed by

Kinsman (1969), Butler (1969), and Patterson and Kinsman

& Mahmoud A. Arefm1aref@yahoo.com

1 Department of Petroleum Geology and Sedimentology,

Faculty of Earth Sciences, King Abdulaziz University,

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

2 Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University,

Giza, Egypt

123

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

DOI 10.1007/s12665-015-4913-6

(1977, 1981). The ‘‘evaporative pumping’’ model was

proposed by Hsü and Siegenthaler (1969); Hsü and Sch-

neider (1973), and McKenzie et al. (1980). The recent

model of ‘‘ascending brine’’ or ‘‘conceptual’’ model was

proposed by Wood and Sanford (2002), Yechieli and Wood

(2002), Wood et al. (2005), and Tyler et al. (2006) for the

recent sabkha and most coastal-sabkha environments. In

this model, capillary forces bring solutes and water to the

surface, where the water evaporates and halite and other

soluble minerals are precipitated. Retrograde minerals,

sensu Wood et al. (2005), such as gypsum, anhydrite,

calcite, and dolomite precipitate and accumulate in the

capillary zone beneath the surface of the coastal sabkha.

Sabkha sediments in Jizan area have a negative impact

on infrastructure causing problems to buildings. The degree

of damage depends on the characteristics of the sabkha, the

amount of subsidence and the bearing capacity of the

sabkha (Shabel 2007). In addition, salt domes offer some

problems related to underground dissolution in the Jizan

area, especially in the old city of Jizan. These include

surface collapse, building failure, fractures, tilting, cracked

roads, undulating ground surface, tilting of posts and

electricity poles or even damage of the old buildings and

infrastructure (Erol 1989; Al-Mhaidib 2002; Youssef et al.

2012; Youssef and Maerz 2013). Most studies carried out

on Jizan sabkha are related to the geotechnical properties of

the sabkha soil and the problems related to construction on

the sabkha (Dhowian et al. 1987; Dhowian 1990; Erol

1989; Al-Shamrani and Dhowian 1997; Al-Mhaidib 2002;

Shabel 2007; Youssef et al. 2012; Youssef and Maerz

2013). Erol and Dhowian (1988) found severe and wide-

spread damage in the settlements of Jizan city, which is

related to sinkholes and to linear depressions associated

with solution channels in the salt dome. The regional

composition of the sediments in the Jizan sabkha is the

interest of Al-Shamrani and Dhowian (1995, 1997),

Youssef et al. (2012), and Youssef and Maerz (2013).

The objectives of the present paper are: (1) identification

of the evaporite mineral composition and textures of the

sabkha sediments, (2) understanding the hydrochemistry,

brine evolution and genesis of Jizan sabkha, and (3)

understanding the effect of brine and evaporite minerals to

building failure in Jizan sabkha. The results can be used to

interpret the chemistry and source of the brines, formation

and textures of gypsum, anhydrite and halite in ancient

sabkha deposits.

Materials and methods

The present paper is based on the results of 10 days of field

work and excavation of several shallow trenches down to

the groundwater table (36–150 cm in depth) in the area of

Jizan sabkha. The water and brine samples were taken in

this area from seawater, groundwater, surface shallow pan

or surface excavations in Jizan sabkha (Fig. 1; Tables 1, 2).

During the field work, the salinity, temperature and pH

value of the brine in trenches dug in the sabkha were

measured. The salinity was determined by glass hydrom-

eters taking into account the measuring of standard sea

water. The hydrometer measures the mass % NaCl in the

brine up to 250 %. Temperatures were measured at thesurface by mercury thermometer ranging from 0 to 100 �Cin 0.1 �C divisions. The density of the brine samples wasmeasured by using two portable glass hydrometers, the first

measures density from 1.00 to 1.10 g/cm3, and the second

measures density from 1.10 to 1.2 g/cm3. The pH value of

the brine was measured in the field by these portable pH-

meters. Thirteen (13) samples (10 samples from sabkha

brines and 3 samples from the Red Sea water) were

chemically analyzed at the Geochemistry Lab, Saudi

Geological Survey, following the procedures given by

Clesceri et al. (1998). The chemical analyses were carried

out for the major cations Na?, K?, Ca2?, and Mg2? and the

major anions HCO3-, CO3

2-, SO42- and Cl-. Total dis-

solved solids (TDS) were measured by sample evaporation

techniques. Calcium (Ca2?) and magnesium (Mg2?) are

determined by compleximetric titration using standard

EDTA solution. Chloride (Cl-) is determined by titration

with standard (0.05 N) AgNO3. Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

are determined by titration with standard (0.1 N) HCl.

Sodium (Na?) and potassium (K?) are measured by flame

photometry. Sulfate ions (SO42-) are determined colori-

metrically using spectrophotometer technique. The ana-

lytical precision of the ions is determined by calculating

the absolute error in ionic balance in terms of equivalents

per milligram (meq/l), which is found in all samples within

a standard limit of ±5 %. All concentration values were

expressed in milligram per liter (mg/l) unless otherwise

indicated. The chemical data on the major cations and

anions were displayed in graphical forms of the Trilinear

Piper and Sulin diagrams to delineate the composition and

origin of the brines in the sabkha.

Previous studies

In the Red Sea coastal plain of Saudi Arabia, most of the

hydrochemical works are concerned with coastal pollution

that resulted from sewage plants and other human inference

(Turki 2007; Badr et al. 2009; Basaham et al. 2009). Some

works are concerned also with the hydrochemistry of

coastal lagoons and supratidal sabkhas in the Red Sea and

Arabian Gulf coasts (e.g., Bahafzullah et al. 1993; Basyoni

1997; Basyoni and Mousa 2009; Al-Shaibani 2013; Taj and

Aref 2015). Bahafzullah et al. (1993) classified the sabkha

105 Page 2 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

development around Sulaymaniya lagoon area into four

stages; these are: (1) incipient; (2) slightly developed; (3)

moderately developed; and (4) well developed. They found

that the salinities of the water samples in incipient and

slightly developed sabkhas are very saline and slightly

hypersaline waters, whereas the moderately to well-de-

veloped sabkhas are moderately to highly hypersaline.

Basyoni (1997) found that the groundwater in Al-Lith

sabkha is moderately hypersaline and highly hypersaline,

whereas slightly hypersaline and very saline water exist

south of Al-Lith sabkha. He found positive correlations

between TDS, and Na? and CI-. The TDS values, cations

and anions, except SO42- of the pore water decrease with

depth. The pH values of the groundwater of Al Lith sabkha

range from 6.8 to 7.9, in contrast to the 8.0–8.2 pH values

of the Red Sea water. Serhan and Sabtan (1999) measured a

salinity range of 55–95 % in the groundwater in Al-Nekhaila sabkha, south Jeddah. This water has a high

content of sulfate and chloride that cause corrosive action

on reinforced concrete. Banat et al. (2005) studied

numerous water samples from coastal sabkhas between

Jeddah and Yanbu Al-Bahar, Red Sea coast. They assumed

that the climatic conditions over the Red Sea sabkhas lead

to the formation of ‘‘ …marine brines of magnesium-sodic

to chloride type with neutral pH value …’’. Al-Harbi et al.(2008) studied the hydrogeochemical processes and the

isotopic characteristics of Al-Awshaziyah inland sabkha in

Al-Qaseem region, central Saudi Arabia, as well as the

waters from shallow and deep wells. They compared the

salinity, cations and anions concentrations, and found that

the water types of the sabkha are sodium-magnesium

chloride, magnesium-sodium-chloride and sodium-chlo-

ride, and of meteoric origin. Alsaaran (2008) studied the

brine chemistry of Jayb Uwayyid sabkha, eastern Saudi

Arabia, and found that the average total dissolved solids in

the sabkha brines is 243 %, and the order of cation dom-inance is Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?, and the aniondominance is Cl-[ SO4

2-[HCO3-. He concluded that

sabkha brines have evolved from deep groundwater rather

than from other near surface sources (i.e., direct rainfall,

runoff from the surroundings, or inflow of shallow

groundwater). Al-Dakheel et al. (2009) interpreted the

major hydrodynamic process in Al Asfar Lake, Al Hassa

area, Saudi Arabia, as possibly due to the upward migration

of subsurface brines from groundwater by capillary action

due to evaporation, that precipitate salt on the surface.

Basyoni and Mousa (2009) interpreted the brines of Murayr

sabkha, Arabian Gulf as belonging to chloride type (MgCl2

Quaternary surficial deposits

Pleistocene basalt

Mesozoic & Paleozoic sedimentary rocks

Granite pluton

Proterozoic rocks

Hijaz-Asir complex

0 250 km

NORTH

EGYPT

SUDAN

SUDI ARABIA

Jeddah

Duba

Jizan

RED SEA

RED SEA

13

1

2

35

4

6

7

9

8

1011

12

a

0 3 km

RED SEA

YEMEN

Jizan b

SAUDI ARABIA

Miocene salt dome

Seawater sample

Brine sample

5 Sample number

Wet mudflat/sandflat

Dry mudflat/sandflat

Fig. 1 Surface sediments in Jizan sabkha and geologic setting of Jizan area. (a) Surface sediments and location of seawater and brine samples inJizan sabkha, (b) Geology of Jizan area (After Blank et al. 1986)

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 3 of 17 105

123

and CaCl2) that recharged mainly from seepage of recent

marine water from the Gulf side and from marine and

meteoric waters reacted with the surrounding carbonates.

They assumed that the capillary rise of these waters from

the shallow water table to the surface is a consequence of

surface evaporation that led to deposition of evaporite

minerals in the sabkha. Hussein and Loni (2011) studied

the Jizan thermal springs that flowed through fractures

within the Precambrian- Cambrian Arabian Shield rocks.

The thermal springs are characterized by having a lower

(Cl- ? SO42-)/HCO3

- ratio (0.38–0.56), higher

(Na? ? K?)/(Ca2? ? Mg2?) ratio ([4) and Cl-[SO42-.

Al-Shaibani (2013) estimated the concentrations and total

masses of magnesium, potassium, calcium, and sodium

from 20 shallow wells in Jayb Uwayyid sabkha, eastern

Saudi Arabia. His results showed that Jayb Uwayyid sab-

kha contains about 1.4, 0.4, 0.9, and 9.9 million metric tons

of magnesium, potassium, calcium and sodium, respec-

tively. In the south Jeddah area, Taj and Aref (2015) found

that the supratidal saline pans increase in salinity from 80

to 140, and 220–375 % during deposition of gypsum andhalite, respectively. The dominant cations and anions

concentration order in the saline pans is Na?[Mg2?[ -K?[Ca2?, and Cl-[ SO4

2-[HCO3-, respectively.

They indicated that the brines were derived mainly from

recent and old marine waters of MgCl2 and CaCl2 char-

acters, with minor contribution of meteoric water.

Study area

Geologic setting and location of Jizan sabkha

Three topographic zones exist in the Jizan area, which run

for 1800 km parallel to each other in a northwest-southeast

direction (Blank et al. 1986; Hussein and Loni 2011), these

are (Fig. 1b): (1) the dissected highland of Hijaz-Asir

escarpment that forms a narrow belt of strongly eroded

terrain of Precambrian basement complex; (2) the central

plateau is a west-east gently sloping peneplain that pene-

trated by west-east trending wadis which drain the western

highlands. It consists of the Cambro-Ordovician Wajid

Sandstone that rests unconformably on peneplain Precam-

brian basement rocks and below Permian rocks (Powers

et al. 1966); and (3) the Tihama, low-elevation and gently

sloping coastal plain that forms a strip of land that consists

of the Quaternary eolian sands to alluvial terrace deposits.

A Miocene salt dome forms a prominent high land (\50 m)that intersects the monotonous flat coastal plain area.

Recent moist, sabkha sediments are widespread near the

shore of the Red Sea, whereas loess and sand dunes exist in

the dry land to the east of the coastal plain. The Jizan

sabkha is present in- and around Jizan city at theTable

1Concentrationvalues

ofthemajorcationsandanionsin

theseaw

ater

ofJizanarea

S.no.

Unit

Ca2

?Mg2?

Na?

K?

Cl-

HCO3-

SO42-

NH4

FNO2

PO4

TDS

PH

Mg/Ca

Brinetype

1mg/l

680.0

2000.00

12206.0

370.0

19466.0

125.00

4000.00

44.40

1.96

0.23

0.34

38500

7.97

2.94

Mg,Ca,

sodium,SO4,chloride

epm

33.9

164.52

531.0

9.5

557.6

2.05

83.28

2.46

2mg/l

740.0

2083.00

13360.0

462.5

21619.0

129.00

4400.00

68.70

1.38

0.17

0.26

40,700

8.09

2.82

Mg,sodium,SO4,chloride

epm

36.9

171.35

581.2

11.8

609.9

2.11

91.61

3.81

3mg/l

824.0

4000.00

14727.5

480.0

20406.0

137.00

4150.00

6.15

1.95

0.06

0.27

41,900

7.52

4.85

Ca,

Mg,sodium,chloride

epm

41.1

329.04

640.7

12.3

575.7

2.25

86.40

0.34

Maxim

um

824

4000

14727.5

480

21619

137

4400

68.7

1.96

0.23

0.34

41,900

8.09

4.85

Minim

um

680

2000

12,206

370

19,466

125

4000

6.15

1.38

0.06

0.26

38,500

7.52

2.82

Average

748

2694.3

13431.1

437.5

20,497

130.3

4183.3

39.7

1.763

0.15

0.29

40366.6

7.86

3.53

Locationofsamplesisin

Fig.1a

105 Page 4 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

Table

2Concentrationvalues

ofthemajorcationsandanionsin

thebrines

ofJizansabkha

S.

no.

Brinenature

unit

Ca2

?Mg2?

Na?

K?

Cl-

HCO3-

SO42-

NH4

FNO2

PO4

TDS

PH

Mg/

Ca

Brinetype

4Water

table;depth

36cm

mg/l

3140.0

1633.00

3590.0

168.0

9527.0

87.00

2150.00

0.41

1.20

0.06

0.30

17,700

7.45

0.52

Ca,

Mg,sodium,

chloride

epm

156.7

134.33

171.8

4.3

268.8

1.43

44.76

0.02

5Halitepond

mg/l

15500.0

10390.00

55800.0

2400.0

136981.0

113.00

1950.00

177.00

1.52

0.66

8.65

223,000

6.63

0.67

Mg,sodium,chloride

epm

773.5

854.68

2427.3

61.4

3864.2

1.85

40.60

9.81

6Water

table;depth

150cm

mg/l

4800.0

2340.00

4998.0

132.0

26548.0

69.00

2550.00

135.00

1.64

0.19

1.35

43,200

6.91

0.49

Mg,Na,

calcium,

chloride

epm

239.5

192.49

217.4

3.4

748.9

1.13

53.09

7.48

7Water

table;depth

150cm

mg/l

1332.0

830.00

2292.0

520.0

5367.0

137.00

3200.00

2.50

1.57

0.07

0.28

12,900

7.39

0.62

Ca,

Mg,sodium

chloride

epm

66.5

68.28

99.7

13.3

151.4

2.25

66.62

0.14

8Artificial

excavation

mg/l

1024.0

8350.00

251700.0

11450.0

213023.0

117.00

8950.00

174.00

1.35

0.98

0.19

495,000

7.15

8.15

Mg,sodium,SO4,

chloride

epm

51.1

686.87

10949.0

292.9

6009.4

1.92

186.34

9.64

9Water

table;depth

120cm

mg/l

16500.0

15500.00

87900.0

16050.0

226789.0

45.00

465.00

72.00

0.65

0.58

1.75

363,000

6.01

0.94

Ca,Mg,sodium,SO4,

chloride

epm

823.4

1275.03

3823.7

410.6

6397.7

0.74

9.68

3.99

10

Water

table;depth

150cm

mg/l

6550.0

5000.00

176650.0

617.5

47440.0

95.00

4100.00

117.00

0.77

0.26

1.08

67,400

6.99

0.76

Sodium,chloride

epm

326.8

411.30

7684.3

15.8

1338.3

1.56

85.36

6.48

11

Water

table;depth

70cm

mg/l

1112.0

8800.00

54300.0

1650.0

122748.0

189.00

8950.00

43.00

2.16

0.39

1.80

200,000

6.77

7.90

Ca,

Na,

magnesium

chloride

epm

55.5

723.89

2362.1

42.2

3462.7

3.10

186.34

2.38

12

Artificial

excavation

mg/l

17100.0

15000.00

35280.0

1520.0

132160.0

95.00

2150.00

132.00

2.05

0.19

0.90

129,200

6.60

0.88

Mg,sodium

chloride

epm

853.3

1233.90

1534.7

38.9

3728.2

1.56

44.76

7.31

13

Water

table;depth

80cm

mg/l

18100.0

15000.00

27720.0

1560.0

123660.0

86.00

4150.00

117.00

1.55

0.41

1.30

118,400

6.05

0.83

Sodium

chloride

epm

903.2

1233.90

1208.8

39.9

3488.5

1.41

86.40

6.48

Maxim

um

18,100

15,500

251,700

16,050

226,789

189

8950

177

2.16

0.98

8.65

495,000

7.45

8.15

Minim

um

1024

830

2292

132

5367

45

465

0.41

0.65

0.06

0.19

12,900

6.01

0.49

Average

8515.8

8284.3

70,023

3606.7

104,424

103.3

3861.5

96.99

1.45

0.38

1.76

166,980

6.795

2.176

Locationofsamplesisin

Fig.1a

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 5 of 17 105

123

southwestern sector of Saudi Arabia, between latitudes

16�480 and 16�580N and longitudes 42�320and 42�380E(Fig. 1a).

Climate

The Jizan area has a subtropical desert climate, where

several ephemeral wadi systems drain to the Red Sea, such

as Jizan, al Khums, Mais, Bish and others (Abdelrahman

and Ahmad 1995). Jizan city is characterized by sparse rain

storms which vary in intensity and duration. The southern

part of the city is sometimes exposed to the risk of flash

floods due to the heavy rain intensity, and the wadis flow

from the east towards west (Elsebaie et al. 2013). Abdel-

rahman (1997) reported that the average temperature in

Jizan area is 23 �C, the annual precipitation is 1.3 cm, andthe average relative humidity varies between 45 and 65 %

in winter, and 25 and 40 % in summer. The mean rate of

evaporation at Jizan was estimated as 156 cm/year by

Abdelrahman and Ahmad (1995), and 128.72 cm/year by

Al-Subhi (2012). The prevailing winds at Jizan blow from

the west during summer and southwest during winter, with

wind speeds ranging between 2 and 50 km/h. Elsebaie

et al. (2013), in their study on the mangroves of Jizan city,

stated that the average surface temperature of the Red Sea

water in Jizan area ranges between 26 �C in winter and32 �C in summer. The seawater at the southern part of theJizan area has a lower salinity (36–37 %) than the northern

part (37–38.5 %).

Sediment characteristics of the sabkha area

The coastal plain of Jizan area extends approximately

10 km inland to the foothills of the Red Sea escarpment,

and is covered by Quaternary eolian sand, alluvial sand and

gravel, loess and flood plain silt deposits. The prominent

elevated relief on the coastal plain is a salt dome at Jizan

city (Fig. 1a). The recent sediments are represented by

sabkha deposits on the wet, coastal plain of Jizan area, in

addition to sand dunes and loess deposits in the dry land.

The old city of Jizan is situated at an elevated terrain,

5–50 m (above sea level) underlain by the Miocene salt

dome covering an area of 4 km2. The salt dome is covered

by cap rocks of brecciated gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite,

shale and sandstone layers. Several dissolution sinkholes of

a diameter\4 m and depth exceeding 6 m are observed onthe floor of the abandoned salt quarries (Fig. 2). Loess

sediment is distributed over the eastern side of Jizan city.

Loess form small hills,\5 m in height, and is composed ofwell-sorted, silt to fine sand-sized quartz, feldspar, and

mica grains. Sand dunes (barchan) and sand sheets form

most of the eastern part of the coastal plain. Youssef et al.

(2012) measured the highest point of the barchan dunes as

about 4 m with a slope angle reaching 40�. The high slopeangle of the dunes may be related to the occurrence of

efflorescent gypsum and/or halite cements between the

sand grains at/or near their sediment surface.

Three areas are distinguished in the sabkha that vary in

the composition and mechanism of formation of the

evaporite minerals, and the nature and depth of the brine

that precipitates the evaporite minerals; these are the halite

pan, wet sabkha, and dry sabkha. Few, small halite pans

(\25 m2 in diameter, and 20–50 cm deep) exist in thelowest topographic depressions in the sabkha (Fig. 3a).

They are filled with high salinity brine ([250 %, anddensity 1.26 g/cm3). Halite crystallizes in these pans at the

brine surface as thin rafts and pyramidal hoppers, and on

the floor of the pan as aggregates of chevrons and cornets

(Fig. 3b). The wet sabkha is represented by wet mudflat

and sandflat areas, where the water table ranges from 36 to

150 cm below the surface (Fig. 3c). The sabkha sediments

are composed mainly of moist, loose sand and silt that form

adhesion ripples, in addition to a variable abundance of

gypsum, anhydrite and halite minerals (Basyoni and Aref,

2015). The surface of the wet sabkha is composed of

buckling petee crusts (Fig. 3d). The petee structure is

composed of black and green microbial mats and gypsum

layers that form elongated, hollow, twisted ridges (Fig. 3d).

The dry sabkha is composed of\1 cm thick halite cruststhat form inverted, V-shaped, polygonal tepee structures

(Fig. 3e). The subsurface sediments in all sabkha areas are

composed of interbedded brown, sand and grey, mud lay-

ers. Scattered lenticular and rosette gypsum crystals

(Fig. 3f) are aggregated and form thin layers at the depths

of 10, 40 and 90 (Fig. 3c). Nodular mosaic and enterolithic

folds of milky white, soft anhydrite are recorded at the

depth of 15 cm (Fig. 3g).

Fig. 2 A funnel-shaped sinkhole forms due to recent dissolution ofhalite and its partial filling with clastic sediments

105 Page 6 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

c

a b

d

e

g

f

Fig. 3 Evaporite deposition in the sabkha area. (a) Shallow, desic-cated pan encrusted with white halite rafts and skeletal crystals.

(b) Bedding plane view showing the variable size of halite cubes thatform the rafts. (c) A general sand mud layering, with gypsumcrystallization at several levels (arrows). (d) Elongated, wavy, ridgeswith smooth upper surface form the petee structure. (e) Inverted,

V-shaped, polygonal ridges (\5 cm in height) of tepee halite crusts,partially covered with eolian sand. (f) Aggregates of lenticular androsette gypsum grow inclusively in brownish silt. (g) Milky whiteanhydrite nodules grow displacively at a certain level in the wet sand

of the sabkha

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 7 of 17 105

123

Results and discussion

Chemical composition of seawater and the brines

The distribution of the concentrations of the cations Na?,

K?, Ca2? and Mg2?, the anions Cl-, SO42-, and HCO3

-,

NH4, TDS and pH are presented in Figs. 4 and 5. The

statistical parameters, such as maximum, minimum and

mean of the chemical composition of the brines in Jizan

sabkha are also presented in Tables 1 and 2. Generally, the

concentrations of cations and anions in the seawater are

lower than the concentration values of the sabkha brines in

most samples, except samples Nos. 4 and 7 (Fig. 4), which

have also lower salinity values due to recharge from rain

water, temporary floods and seepage of sewage water from

septic tanks. Na? has the highest concentration with

respect to the cations K?, Mg2? and Ca2? in the brines of

the sabkha (Fig. 4a). Mg2? concentration is next in abun-

dance, followed by Ca2? in most samples, whereas K?

concentration value is the lowest, except in samples Nos.

12 and 13 (Fig. 4a). For the anions, the Cl- concentration

is the highest among all samples, SO42- concentration is

very low, whereas the HCO3- is the lowest (Fig. 4b).

The Cl- concentration in the seawater of Jizan area

ranges from 19,466 to 21,619 mg/l, with an average value

of 20,497 mg/l, whereas the Na? concentration ranges

from 12,206 to 14,727 mg/l, with the average of

13,431.1 mg/l (Table 1). The dominant anion in the brines

of Jizan sabkha is Cl- where its concentration ranges from

5367 to 226,789 mg/l, and the average is 104,424 mg/l,

which accounts for more than 50 % of the charge balance

in the brines. The dominant cation is Na?, where its con-

centration ranges from 2292 to 251,700 mg/l, with the

average concentration value of 70,023 mg/l. Such con-

centrations of Cl- and Na? in the brines of Jizan sabkha

are several times higher than their concentration in sea-

water of Jizan area. They are also slightly higher than the

average concentration values of chloride (96,851 mg/l) and

sodium (45,239 mg/l), measured in the groundwater of

Dahaban sabkha by Banat et al. (2005).

The Ca2? concentration in seawater of Jizan area ranges

from 680 to 824 mg/l, with the average of 748 mg/l, and

the Mg2? concentration ranges from 2000 to 4000 mg/l,

with the average of 2694 mg/l (Table 1). In the brines of

Jizan sabkha, the Ca2? concentration ranges from 1024 to

18,100 mg/l, with the average of 8516 mg/l, and the Mg2?

concentration ranges from 830 to 15,500 mg/l, with the

average of 8248 mg/l (Table 2). The average concentra-

tions of Ca2? and Mg2? in the brines of Jizan sabkha

greatly exceed the values measured from the seawater of

Jizan area. They are also higher than the average concen-

trations of Ca2? (2832 mg/l) and Mg2? (4314 mg/l),

Seawater Brine sample

b

Seawater Brine sample

a

c

Seawater SeawaterBrine sample

d

Brine sample

pH

Fig. 4 Histograms representing the concentration of the cations (Ca2?, Mg2?, Na? and K?), anions (Cl-, HCO32- and SO4

2-) and TDS, and pH

values in seawater and brine samples of Jizan sabkha

105 Page 8 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

measured by Banat et al. (2005) for Dahaban sabkha, north

Jeddah.

K? ions have a narrow range of 370–480 mg/l in sea-

water of Jizan area, with the average of 437 mg/l (Table 1).

The concentration of K? in the brines of Jizan sabkha

ranges from 132 to 16,050 mg/l, with the average of

3607 mg/l (Table 2). The K? values in the brines exceed

the values in Jizan seawater, and the average value of

1911 mg/l in the groundwater of Dahaban sabkha mea-

sured by Banat et al. (2005).

The SO42- concentration in seawater of the Jizan area

ranges from 4000 to 4400 mg/l, with the average of

4183 mg/l (Table 1). The SO42- concentration in the bri-

nes of Jizan sabkha ranges from 465 to 8950 mg/l, with the

average of 3861 mg/l (Table 2). The average SO42- con-

centration in seawater and brines of Jizan area are similar.

They are also similar to the average concentration value of

3819 mg/l in the Dahaban sabkha, measured by Banat et al.

(2005). However, seven brine samples have SO42- con-

centration less than the average in Jizan seawater, indi-

cating the removal of SO42- due to gypsum precipitation

and/or the reduction of SO42- ions by sulfate-reducing

bacteria, similar to observations by Deng et al. (2010),

Spadafora et al. (2010), and Glunk et al. (2011).

HCO3- ions have low concentration in seawater of the

Jizan area, as well as in the brines of Jizan sabkha

(Tables 1, 2). The HCO3- concentration in seawater of

Jizan area ranges from 125 to 137 mg/l, with the average of

130 mg/l, whereas the HCO3- concentration in the brines

of Jizan sabkha ranges from 45 to 189 mg/l, with the

average of 103 mg/l. The average HCO3- concentration in

Dahban sabkha is 204 mg/l (Banat et al. 2005), which is

slightly higher than the average values measured for the

Red Sea water and sabkha water in Jizan area. The low

concentration values of HCO3- in seawater and brines in

Jizan sabkha are due to their removal during precipitation

of the carbonate minerals.

The concentrations of ammonia (NH4) in the brines of

Jizan sabkha and seawater range from 0.41 to 177, and

6.15–68.7 mg/l, respectively, and their mean values are

96.99 mg/l and 39.7, respectively. The concentration of

nitrite (NO2) ranges from 0.06 to 0.98 mg/l, and the mean

value is 0.38 mg/l in the brines of Jizan sabkha. The high

values of NH4 and NO2 may be due to leakage from septic

tanks of the houses in Jizan city, or from fertilizers in

nearby agriculture fields. It is worth to mention that during

excavation of the lands for the foundations of new houses,

high quantities of groundwater having a bad odor have

seeped from nearby old houses. This water may provide the

elevated NH4 and NO2 in the brine of Jizan sabkha.

The concentration of fluoride (F-) in the brine of Jizan

sabkha ranges from 0.65 to 2.16 mg/l, with a mean value of

1.45 mg/l. Fluoride is considered as an essential element in

health problems that may arise from either deficiency or

excess amount (Gopal and Gosh 1985). Fluoride can be

considered as one of the main trace element in ground-

water, where it occurs generally as natural constituent (Al-

Ahmadi 2013). The high concentrations of fluoride are

generally due to rocks containing fluoride minerals (Wen-

zel and Blum 1992; Bardsen et al. 1996).

The concentration of phosphate (PO43-) in the brines of

Jizan sabkha ranges from 0.19 to 8.65 mg/l, with a mean

value of 1.76 mg/l. The phosphate is usually found in

groundwater with a minimal level due to the low solubility

of native phosphate minerals and the ability of soil to retain

phosphate (Rajmohan and Elango 2005).

Total dissolved solids (TDS) in the seawater of Jizan

area range from 38,500 to 41,900 mg/l, with the average of

40,366 mg/l (Table 1). The TDS in the brines of Jizan

sabkha range from 12,900 to 495,000 mg/l, with the

average of 166,980 mg/l (Table 2; Fig. 4c). The TDS

values of seawater in Jizan area are nearly similar to TDS

value that generally recorded for the Red Sea water. Two

brine samples from trenches in Jizan sabkha have a lower

TDS value of 17,700 and 12,900 mg/l in samples 4 and 7,

than the average TDS in seawater of Jizan area. The brines

of these samples may be derived from a mix with rain-

water, groundwater of meteoric origin or seepage of sew-

age water from septic tanks. For the brines of Jizan sabkha

that have higher TDS values than the average TDS of

seawater (40,366 mg/l), are likely related to extensive

evaporation rate with respect to the small groundwater

inflow, rainfall or seawater seepage. The very high salinity

values of 495,000 and 363,000 mg/l (Table 2) of the sab-

kha brines may be related to dissolution of halite in the salt

dome.

The values of electrical conductivity (EC) range from

20,000 to 199,100 lS/cm with a mean value of 99,800 lS/cm. The high values in EC are attributed mainly to evap-

oration process and increase in the salinity of the brine.

Both TDS and EC are affected by the high concentration

values of Na?, Ca2?, Mg2?, Cl-, and SO42-.

The pH values in the seawater of Jizan area range from

7.52 to 8.09, with the average of 7.86 (Table 1). The pH

values in the brine samples of Jizan sabkha range from 6.01

to 7.45, with the average of 6.79 (Table 2), which are lower

than the values recorded from the Red Sea water in Jizan

area (Fig. 4d). Six brine samples have values slightly\7,which indicate neutral or slightly acidic brines. Whereas,

four samples have values more than 7, indicating that all

carbonate alkalinity is in the form of HCO3- (Stumm and

Morgan 1996; Drever 1998).

An isochronal map of the cations in the brines of Jizan

sabkha indicates that Na? increases to[250,000 mg/l inthe halite pans at central western margin of the sabkha area,

while low values of Na? (\10,000 mg/l) dominate the

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 9 of 17 105

123

Ca Mg

K Na

105 Page 10 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

eastern margin of the sabkha (Fig. 5). K? values follow

Na?, where the highest value is 16,000 mg/l in the central

western part of the studied sabkha, and the K? concen-

tration decreases to values less than 2000 mg/l in the north,

east and southeastern sides (Fig. 5). The low values of Na?

and K? concentrations at the eastern margin of the sabkha

is attributed to dilution from the landward side of the

sabkha, less evaporation and lower salinity (up to

12,900 mg/l) compared to the western margin of the sab-

kha area. The Ca2? concentration value is the reverse of the

concentration of Na? and K?. Ca2? concentration is lower

at the southwestern part of the sabkha (\1000 mg/l), andincreases to 2200 mg/l to the northeastern side of the

sabkha (Fig. 5). The Mg2? concentration increases from

1500 mg/l in the southeastern part of the sabkha

to[10,000 mg/l in the central western part of the sabkha,and then increases gradually to 15,000 mg/l in the northern

part of the sabkha (Fig. 5). The isochronal map of the

anions showed that the concentration of Cl- is similar to

Na?, where the highest value of[200,000 mg/l is recordedin the central western margin of the sabkha, and decreases

to the east and north sides (Fig. 5). The SO42- and HCO3

-

concentrations are similar, and they increase to the western

margin of the sabkha, to values of 9000 and 180 mg/l,

respectively (Fig. 5). The concentrations of SO42- and

HCO3- decrease to the northeastern side of the sabkha to

180 and 45 mg/l, respectively. The concentration of NH4shows a narrow range, but it generally increases to the west

and north margins of the sabkha (Fig. 5). High concen-

tration of NH4 and NO2 in Jizan sabkha may indicate

intrusion into the sabkha water from adjacent sewage

waters and agricultural areas which receive excess nitrogen

fertilizers (such as urea and ammonium nitrate) that are

assumed to increase the agricultural production.

Brine types

The ionic concentrations of the seawater and brines in

samples numbers 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 13 (Tables 1, 2)

have the following general pattern: Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?. Some samples, however, (2, 12 and 13) havethe abundance Na?[Mg2?[K?[Ca2?, and threesamples have variable abundances such as Na?[Ca2?[Mg2?[K?, or Ca2?[Na?[Mg2?[K?, orMg2?[Na?[Ca2?[K? (Tables 1, 2). On the otherhand, the abundance of the major anions in all samples is

Cl-[SO42-[HCO3

-. The brine type for most samples

is sodium chloride, with variable proportions of the major

cations Ca2? and Mg2? and the major anion SO42-

(Tables 1, 2). Three samples have Ca2?, Mg2?, sodium

chloride brine type, two samples have the following brine

types Mg2?, sodium, SO42-, chloride, or Mg2?, sodium

chloride, and only one sample has the following brine types

Mg2?, Ca2?, sodium, SO42-, chloride, or Mg2?, Na?,

calcium chloride, or Ca2?, Mg2?, sodium, SO42-, chloride,

or Ca2?, Na?, magnesium chloride (Tables 1, 2).

Despite the dominance of Na? and Cl- ions in most of

the studied brine samples that exhibited a marine-like

chemical character (Herczeg et al. 2001), a broad range of

secondary processes can significantly affect the evapora-

tive pathways and are responsible for the variables brine

types in the Jizan sabkha, similar to the interpretation

proposed by Radke et al. (2002). The secondary processes

may include mineral dissolution, cation exchange reac-

tions, sulfate reduction, brine mixing, brine reflux, mineral

precipitation and recycling of soluble salts within the

sabkha.

Ion inter-relationship

The correlations of the concentration of cations, anions,

TDS and pH are shown in Fig. 6. The correlation between

Na? and Cl- for most samples (except samples 9 and 11

which have very high Na? values) indicates a positive

correlation (R2 = 0.9017) (Fig. 6a). This positive correla-

tion indicates the enrichment of the brines with NaCl

(halite) that may be precipitated at high salinity. The cor-

relation between Ca2? and Mg2? (Fig. 6b) also indicates a

positive correlation (R2 = 0.7237). This is contrary to the

fact that the brine should have lower Ca2? concentration

due to the earlier precipitation of CaCO3 (calcite and/or

aragonite) and CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum). Most probably, the

relatively high Ca2? concentration is due to dissolution of

carbonate grains in the sediments. No pronounced corre-

lation exists between Ca2? and SO42- (R2 = 0.2827)

(Fig. 6c). This is due to the possible precipitation of

CaSO4.2H2O (gypsum) from the brine and dissolution of

carbonate grains. No correlation between Ca2? and HCO3-

(R2 = 0.3519) (Fig. 6d) in two groups of the brines, may

be interpreted as a result of oxidation of organic matter in

the sediments and reduction of sulfate ions, which lead to

the increase in HCO3-. There are strong positive relations

between TDS and Na? (R2 = 0.8653) (Fig. 6e), and

between TDS and Cl- (R2 = 0.8903) (Fig. 6f), and no

pronounced relation between TDS and SO42-

(R2 = 0.1163) (Fig. 6g). The positive relations indicate

that the TDS is mainly represented by Na? and Cl- ions,

whereas changes in SO42- does not affect the TDS of the

brine. Plotting of the values of TDS and pH indicates no

relation between them (R2 = 0.1869) (Fig. 6h). The pH

values of seawater are around 8 that decrease to about 6

bFig. 5 Contour lines representing the distribution of the majorcations and anions in seawater and brine samples of the studied

sabkha, Jizan area

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 11 of 17 105

123

NH4

Cl SO4

HCO3

Fig. 5 continued

105 Page 12 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

with the increases in the salinity of the brine. This result is

in agreement with the data of Bąbel and Schreiber (2014).

The Mg2?/Ca2? ratio of seawater at Jizan area ranges

from 2.82 to 4.85, with the average of 3.53 (Table 1;

Fig. 7a). Whereas for the Jizan sabkha, the Mg2?/Ca2?

ratio of the brines range from 0.49 to 8.15, with the average

of 2.176 (Table 2; Fig. 7a). All brine samples have lower

Mg2?/Ca2? ratio than that measured in Jizan seawater,

except samples numbers 8 and 11, which have exceedingly

high values of 8.15 and 7.90, respectively (Fig. 7). The low

Mg2?/Ca2? ratio in most brine samples is most probably

due to the dissolution of carbonate grains in the sediments

that increases the concentration of Ca2? ions. Whereas the

high Mg2?/Ca2? ratio in samples 8 and 11 is due to the

removal of Ca2? ions through precipitation of calcite and

gypsum. However, the dominant low Mg2?/Ca2? ratio

indicates that the brine has a low potential to dolomitize the

high Mg-calcite and aragonite minerals. Only the brines in

R2 = 0.2827 R2 = 0.3519

R2 = 0.8653 R2 = 0.8903

R2 = 0.7237b

c d

e f

g hR2 = 0.1163 R2 = 0.1869

R2 = 0.9017a

Fig. 6 Scatter diagrams showing the correlations between various anions, cations, TDS and pH values

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 13 of 17 105

123

samples 8 and 11 could dolomitize the carbonate grains in

the sediments due to their high Mg2?/Ca2? ratio. Banat

et al. (2005) found that the increases in the Mg?2/Cl-

concentration and decreases in SO42- concentration lead to

the formation of protodolomite in the coastal sabkha sed-

iments between Jeddah and Yanbu Al-Bahar.

Brine evolution

The hydrochemical evolution of the brines of Jizan sabkha

can be understood using the analytical data obtained from

brine samples as a result of plotting the major cations and

anions in the Piper Trilinear diagrams (Fig. 8). The dia-

grams show that all brine samples in Jizan sabkha have

similar affinity and composition, which are similar to the

composition of seawater. The diagrams show two groups of

samples, the first group shows that the majority of the brine

samples of Jizan sabkha fall in the field NaCl type of water.

The second group shows approximately equal percentage

of the alkali metals (Na? ? K?), and the alkaline earth

elements Mg2? and Ca2?, whereas the strong acid (Cl-)

greatly exceeds the weak acid (HCO3- and CO3

2-), and

the strong acid (SO42-) (Fig. 8). Also, from the Piper plot,

the deficiency of Ca2? in the brines of the sabkha is due to

the precipitation of calcite, aragonite and gypsum. The

chemical characters (ionic concentration patterns and brine

types) of the studied brine samples in Jizan sabkha and

seawater are similar, which indicate that the brine chem-

istry of Jizan sabkha has been modified from initial sea-

water composition to the stages of deposition of calcium

carbonate, followed by calcium sulfate and finally to

sodium chloride dominant composition (Fig. 8).

Genesis of the brines

Results of the chemical analyses were recalculated for both

the major cations and major anions and plotted on a Sulin

graph (Fig. 9) to interpret the origin of brine of Jizan

sabkha. It is clear that the seawater samples and four brine

samples of Jizan sabkha are located in the field of recent

marine water origin and of MgCl2 composition (Fig. 9).

However, most of the brine samples in Jizan sabkha are

located in the field of old marine water origin and of CaCl2composition (Fig. 9). Therefore, the main supply to the

brines of Jizan sabkha is through seawater seepage that

may be modified with reaction with the old marine water

from dissolution of the halite crystals of the Miocene salt

dome. This modified seawater is the source of the brines in

Jizan sabkha. The localized formation of sinkholes at the

floor of the abandoned salt quarries (Fig. 2) and collapse of

the buildings of the old Jizan city point to an additional salt

dissolution by rain water and fresh and/or sewage waters

from houses. The possible contribution of fresh water

through Wadi Jizan or occasional rainfall has a minor

effect on those samples that are located close to the field of

meteoric water origin in Sulin graph (Fig. 9). Bagheri et al.

(2014) mentioned three main potential processes that may

cause high salinity values in the Kangan gasfield, these are

halite dissolution, membrane filtration, and evaporation of

water. They indicated that the evaporated ancient seawater

trapped in lagoonal and sabkha carbonates, gypsum, and

clastic rocks is the cause of salinization based on the

concentrations of Cl, Na, and TDS in comparison with Br

concentration.

Environmental impact of the sabkha brines

and minerals

Sabkha evaporite brines and minerals cause severe damage

to buildings and infrastructure in Jizan area. In addition,

partial dissolution of the nearby salt dome can modify the

composition of the brines which increases their corrosive

effect on steel reinforcement and deterioration of the

concrete in the sabkha area. The evaporite minerals gyp-

sum and anhydrite are common in the wet sabkha area.

They are recorded with a variable abundance in the cap-

illary evaporation zone of both shallow (36 cm) and deep

Fig. 7 Relationship between Mg/Ca and sample number, and TDS

105 Page 14 of 17 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105

123

(150 cm) groundwater. In this area halite is only recorded

in saline pans within the sabkha area. These evaporite

minerals reflect the salinity and chemical characteristics of

the brines. Gypsum is displacively grown as lenticular and

rosette crystals in the subsurface sediments of the sabkha

down to the underlying water table. Anhydrite forms

displacive nodules near the sediment surface. Both gypsum

and anhydrite form from brines with salinity\200 %, buthalite is recorded as rafts, chevrons and cornets in those

pans with salinity exceeding 250 %. The crystallizationpressure exerted from displacive growth of gypsum and

anhydrite in pore spaces of the foundations causes their

< 40 g/l

40 – 80 g/l

80 – 220 g/l

220 - 350 g/l

> 350 g/l

Brine salinity

Fig. 8 Piper Trilinear diagramsshowing the brine evolution in

Jizan sabkha

MgCl2Recent Marine Water

CaCl2Old Marine Water

NaHCO3Shallow Meteoric Water

NaSO4Deep Meteoric Water

r(K+ + Na+) – rCl-

rSO42-< 1

= 1

> 1

102030405060708090100

100908070605040302010

r Mg2+

r SO42-

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

2010

r(K

+ +

Na+

) –rC

l-

r(K+ + Na+)

rCl-= 1 rC

l- –r(

K+

+ N

a+)

rCl- – r(K+ + Na+)

rMg2-> 1

= 1

< 1

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90100

Brine sample from the water table of the sabkha

Seawater from tidal flat & mangrove area

Fig. 9 Sulin graph showing theorigin and type of the brines,

Jizan sabkha

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:105 Page 15 of 17 105

123

sever damage. The sulfate nature of the brines causes

corrosion of the steel reinforcement of infrastructure.

Fluctuation of the water table during summer and winter

months increases the degree of damage and corrosion in the

foundation in the sabkha area.

Conclusions

The concentrations of cations and anions in most of the

sabkha brines exceed their respective values within seawater

due to intensive evaporation. However, two brine samples

have a lower salinity value and a lower concentration of

cations and anions than seawater, and thesemay be related to

the mixing of groundwater with meteoric water, leakage

water from septic tanks in Jizan city, or from fertilizers in

nearby agriculture fields. Concomitant with the increases in

salinity is the increase of Na? and Cl-, and the decrease of

K?, Mg2?, Ca2?, HCO3- and SO4

2- in the residual brines.

These are due to the removal of Ca2?, HCO3- and SO4

2-

ions from the brines due to the precipitation of calcite,

aragonite and gypsum. Whereas the remaining brines are

oversaturated with Na? (?K?) and Cl- ions which favor

halite deposition at higher salinity values, the relatively high

Ca2? concentration relative to low HCO3- and SO4

2- ions,

and the low Mg2?/Ca2? ratio are most probably related to

dissolution of carbonate sediment. The order of cations

dominance in most samples is Na?[Mg2?[Ca2?[K?,or Na?[Mg2?[K?[Ca2?, or Na?[Ca2?[Mg2?[K?. The abundance of the major anions in allsamples is Cl-[ SO4

2-[HCO3-. The dominant brine

type is sodium chloride, with variable proportions of the

major cations Ca2? and Mg2? and the major anion SO42-.

The brines of the sabkha have evolved mainly from seawater

seepage, with localized minor modification from dissolution

of halite in the salt dome, rainfall, floods and leakage from

septic tanks and agriculture fields. Capillary evaporation of

the groundwater and surface evaporation of these waters

have modified the brine chemistry and salinity during

deposition of gypsum and halite. Fluctuation of the

groundwater table with variable salinity values cause

extensive evaporite mineral formation and subsequent cor-

rosion of the steel, deterioration of the concrete and possible

damage of buildings in the sabkha area. The composition and

texture of the evaporite minerals in the sabkha area, and the

brine composition and origin can be used to interpret similar

sabkha sediments in the rock record.

Acknowledgments This project was funded by the Deanship ofScientific Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, under

grant No. (307/145/1432). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with

thanks DSR technical and financial support. We thank the reviewers

B. Charlotte Schreiber, an anonymous reviewer, and the Editor-in-

Chief Olaf Kolditz for their helpful comments which greatly

improved the manuscript. Thanks also to Mr. Murad Rajab and Mr.

Ali Khofani for their field assistance.

Compliance with ethical standards

Funding This project was funded by the Deanship of ScientificResearch (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,

under Grant No. (307/145/1432).

Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflictof interest.

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