Computer Supported Cooperative Work

Springer-Verlag London Ud.

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A list of out of print titles is available at the end of the book

Christine Steeples and Chris Jones (Eds)

Networked Learning: Perspectives and Issues

With 17 Figures

, Springer

BCS

ii

Christine Steeples Chris Jones Centre for Studies in Advances Learning Technology (CSALT), Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA14YL

Series Editors Dan Diaper, PhD, MBCS Professor of Systems Science and Engineering, School of Design, Engineering and Computing, Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, Dorset BH125BB, UK

Colston Sanger Shottersley Research Limited, Little Shottersley, Farnham Lane Haslemere, Surrey GU27 lHA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Networked learning: perspectives and issues. - (Computer

Supported Cooperative work) 1. Education, Higher - Computer network resources 2. Computer-assisted instruction 1. Steeples, Christine II. J ones, Chris 378'.00285

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Networked learning: perspectives and issues / Christine Steeples and Christopher Jones, eds.

p. cm. - (Computer supported cooperative work) Includes bibliographica1 references and indexes. ISBN 978-1-85233-471-0 ISBN 978-1-4471-0181-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-0181-9 1. Education. Higher--Computer network resources. 2. Computer-assisted instruction.

3. Distance education. 1. Steeples. Christine.1954- II. Jones. Christopher. 1951- III. Series. LB2395.7 .N48 2001 378.1 '734--dc21 200 1 042936

Apart from any fair dea1ing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review. as permitted under the Copyright. Designs and Patents Act 1988. this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means. with the prior permission in writing of the publishers. or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers.

ISBN 978-1-85233-471-0

© Springer-V erlag London 2002 Origina1ly published by Springer-Verlag London Berlin Heidelberg in 2002

The use of registered names. trademarks etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement. that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.

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For Mick and for my family For Maggy, Rhia and Bron and in memory of Edna and Bert

Acknowledgements

This book originated in a workshop held at Higham Hall in Cumbria that was part-funded by a grant from the Committee on Awareness, Liaison and Training of JISC (the Joint Information Systems Committee of the UK Higher Education Funding Councils). The views expressed here are not necessarily those of JISC or CALT. Further information about the project can be obtained from the project's website (http://csalt.lancs.ac.ukJjiscl). We would like to acknowledge the contributions of all the members of the project team: Peter Goodyear, Vivien Hodgson, Mireia Asensio, Susan Armitage, Mark Bryson, Michael O'Donoghue and David Hutchison.

The book contains several chapters that were the product of other research conducted with the support of JISC and we would like to express our sincere thanks to everyone at JISC who assisted in all these projects but especially to Rachel Corrie, Jonathan Darby and Maria Lee.

We would also like to thank Alice Jesmont for her tireless help in all aspects of the administration of the project and the book. The final camera­ready copy was in large part the result of the sterling efforts of Debra Smith for which we are eternally grateful.

Contents

List of Contributors ......................................... ix Foreword ................................................. xiii J. Michael Spector

1 Perspectives and Issues in Networked Learning ................... 1 Chris Jones and Christine Steeples

SECTION 1 The Context for Networked Learning . ................... . 15

2 Networked Learning in Higher Education: The Mule in the Barn .... 17 Jonathan Darby

3 The Costs of Networked Learning ............................. 27 Charlotte Ash and Paul Bacsich

4 Psychological Foundations for Networked Learning ............. .49 Peter Goodyear

5 Studying Networked Learning: Some Implications from Socially Situated Learning Theory and Actor Network Theory ............. 77 Steve Fox

6 The Changing Nature of Instructional Design for Networked Learning .................................................. 93 Radha Ganesan, Gerald S. Edmonds and J. Michael Spector

7 Views on Staff Development for Networked Learning ............ 111 Carmel McNaught

8 Managing Institutional Change for Networked Learning: A Multi-Stakeholder Approach ............................... 125 Jonathan Foster, Nicholas Bowskill, Vic Lally and David McConnell

9 Information Specialists and Networked Learner Support ......... 143 Philippa Levy

10 Evaluating Networked Learning: Developing a Multi-Disciplinary, Multi-Method Approach .................................... 169 Charles Anderson, Kate Day, Denise Haywood, Jeff Haywood, Ray Land and Hamish Macleod

viii Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues

SECTION 2 Studies of Networked Learning . ........................ 193

11 Approaches to Researching Teaching and Learning Online ........ 195 Gilly Salmon

12 Learning from Watching Others Learn ........................ 213 Terry Mayes, Finbar Dineen, Jean McKendree and John Lee

13 Issues for Democracy and Social Identity in Computer Mediated Communication and Networked Learning ...................... 229 Vivien Hodgson

14 Small Group Teaching Across the Disciplines: Setting the Context for Networked Learning ..................................... 243 Nick Hammond, Annie Trapp and Catherine Bennett

15 Designs for Networked Learning in Higher Education: A Phenomenographic Investigation of Practitioners' Accounts of Design ......................................... 253 Chris Jones and Mireia Asensio

16 Online Collaborative Assessment: Power Relations and 'Critical Learning' ................................................. 279 Kiran Trehan and Michael Reynolds

17 The Campus Experience of Networked Learning ................ 293 Charles Crook

18 Learning Networks and the Issue of Communication Skills ...... .309 Erica McAteer, Andrew Tolmie, Charles Crook, Hamish Macleod and Kerry Musselbrook

19 Beyond E-Learning: A Future for Networked Learning ........... 323 Christine Steeples, Chris Jones and Peter Goodyear

Subject Index ................................................ .343

list of Contributors

Dr. Charles Anderson, Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, Paterson's Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, Scotland UK

Mireia Asensio, Department of Management Learning, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK

Charlotte Ash, School of Computing and Management Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University, Stoddart Building, Howard Street, Sheffield Sl 1 WB, UK

Professor Paul Bacsich, School of Computing and Management Sciences, Sheffield Hallam University, Stoddart Building, Howard Street, Sheffield SllWB, UK

Dr. Catherine Bennett, Department of Psychology, University of York, York YOlOSDD, UK

Nicholas Bowskill, Staff Development Unit, Level 6, University House, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK

Professor Charles Crook, Department of Human Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK

Jonathan Darby, Technology-Assisted Lifelong Learning, Department for Continuing Education, Suite 6 Littlegate House, University of Oxford, 16/17 St Ebbes Street, Oxford OX1 IPT, UK

Dr. Kate Day, Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, Paterson's Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, Scotland UK

Finbar Dineen, Centre for Research in Lifelong Learning, Glasgow Caledonian University, st. Andrew House, 141 West Nile Street, Glasgow GI2RN, UK

Dr. Gerald S. Edmonds, Associate Director, Research and Evaluation, Project Advance, Syracuse University, 400 Ostrom Avenue, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA

Jonathan Foster, Department of Information Studies, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK

x Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues

Dr. Steve Fox, Department of Management Learning, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK

Radha Ganesan, Department of Instructional Design, Development and Evaluation, Syracuse University, 330 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA

Professor Peter Goodyear, Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Department of, Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK

Dr. Nick Hammond, Department of Psychology, University of York, York YOlO SDD, UK

Denise Haywood, Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, Paterson's Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, Scotland UK

Dr. Jeff Haywood, Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, Paterson's Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, Scotland UK

Dr. Vivien Hodgson, Department of Management Learning, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK

Dr. Chris Jones, Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA14YL, UK

Vic Lally, School of Education, University of Sheffield, 388 Glossop Road, Sheffield S10 2JA, UK

Dr. Ray Land, Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, Paterson's Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, Scotland UK

Dr. John Lee, Human Communication Research Centre, University of Edinburgh, 2 Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh EH8 9LW, Scotland UK

Philippa Levy, Lecturer, Department of Information Studies, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK

Dr. Hamish Macleod, Department of Higher and Community Education, University of Edinburgh, Paterson's Land, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ, Scotland UK

Professor Terry Mayes, Centre for Research in Lifelong Learning, Glasgow Caledonian University, St. Andrew House, 141 West Nile Street, Glasgow G 1 2RN, Scotland UK

Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues xi

Dr. Erica McAteer, Teaching and Learning Service, University of Glasgow, 69 Oakfield Avenue, Glasgow_ G 12 8LW, Scotland UK

Professor David McConnell, School of Education, University of Sheffield, 388 Glossop Road, Sheffield S10 2JA, UK

Dr. Jean McKendree, Human Communication and Research Centre, University of Edinburgh, 2 Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh EH8 9LW, Scotland UK

Assoc. Professor Carmel McNaught, Professional Development, Learning Technology Services, RMIT University, GPO Box 2476V, Melbourne 3001, Australia

Kerry Musselbrook, University of Paisley, Paisley PAl 2BE, Scotland UK

Professor Michael Reynolds, Department of Management Learning, Management School, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK

Dr. Gilly Salmon, Centre for Information and Innovation, Open University Business School, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK

Professor J. Michael Spector, Department of Instructional Design, Development and Evaluation, Syracuse University, 330 Huntington Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA

Christine Steeples, Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology, Department of Educational Research, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA14YL, UK

Dr. Andrew Tolmie, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Centre for Research into Interactive Learning, Department of Psychology, University of Strathclyde, 40 George Street, Glasgow G1 1QE, Scotland UK

Annie Trapp, Department of Psychology, University of York, York YO 10 SDD, UK

Kiran Trehan, Management Department, University of Central England, Galton Building, Perry Barr, Birmingham B32 2SU, UK

Foreword

It is not uncommon to read reports of increased teacher and student interest in and use of the Internet. These reports often contain promises of improved education. However, such reports often include disturbing indicators of problems and pitfalls. For example, in a recent nationwide survey conducted by NetDay in the USA (see http://www.netday.org/), 87% of responding teachers reported that they were comfortable using the Internet, 84% reported that the Internet could improve the quality of education, but 67% said that the Internet was not effectively integrated into their teaching and 78% said that they did not have sufficient time to integrate Internet resources into their teaching (Heller, 2001). Networked learning in higher education has much to promise, but there are problems to overcome and pitfalls to avoid.

Promises, Promises, Promises

If one carefully examines the history of educational technology in the previ­ous century, one is likely to find a history fIlled with broken promises. One can arbitrarily date the history of modern educational technology as begin­ning with the use of radio to deliver instruction in the early part of the 20th

century. There have certainly been some successful uses of radio-based instruction in Australia, Canada, the USA and elsewhere (Beagles-Roos & Gat, 1983). Using radio for teaching in most instances was driven by the remoteness of learners and the ease with which radio could reach those learners. As with subsequent technologies, when radio-based instruction was introduced, there was much enthusiasm about its potential to improve learn­ing on a global basis (Tyack & Cuban, 1995).

Such promises of dramatic improvements in learning coupled with the ability to reach learners neglected due to remoteness or resource constraints were repeated with the advent of television and then again with regard to the introduction of personal computers (1yack & Cuban, 1995). In the 1980s it was predicted that intelligent tutoring systems would produce dramatically significant improvements in learning, similar to the two-sigma effects that Bloom (1984) had documented for some one-to-one human tutoring situa­tions (see, for example, Burns & Capps, 1988). Such improvements did not materialize. What did materialize were less significant improvements in some very well-defined learning situations along with the realization that it

xiv Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues

is extremely difficult to create a dynamic computer model of what a learner understands about a particular domain at any given moment in time.

In the 1990s it was suggested that distributed learning and tele-collabora­tion would make traditional classroom teachers obsolete (see, for example, Koschmann, 1996). This has not happened. What has happened is that learn­ers, teachers, designers and researchers have realized that collaboration at a distance is often quite difficult and challenging (see, for example, Feldman et al., 2000). The role of the teacher is not likely to be eliminated by technology, although technology will surely affect the roles of both teachers and learn­ers. The role of teaching in technology-intensive settings is more difficult and more crucial than ever before. Only a rare few master the skills required to effectively integrate technology into learning and instruction, and teach­ers themselves admit this (Heller, 2001).

Yet vast resources continue to be invested in technology-enhanced learning and instruction. Many have implicit faith that technology will make education better. Such faith is ill-founded. One lesson from the previous century with regard to the effective integration of technology into teaching and learning is that instructional planning is more complicated than ever before (see, for example, Spector & Anderson, 2000). The big lesson about technology and learning from the 20th century is that less is known about how people learn than many educational researchers are inclined to admit. It follows that promises of improved learning, on a global basis across significant differences in subject matter, learning objectives and learner populations, ought to be accompanied with the promise of providing credible evidence. The contribu­tors to this volume are committed to this second promise. Thankfully, such a commitment is becoming more commonplace (see also Feldman et al., 2000; Hanna & Associates, 2000; Spector & Anderson, 2000).

Problems, Pitfalls, and Perils

The problems that can occur when introducing network-based resources into teaching and learning are significant (see, for example, Feldman et al., 2000). There are problems concerning the proper preparation of both teach­ers and learners. These are more or less well documented, although the known pitfalls due to lack of teacher training and student preparation are often overlooked in the haste associated with acquiring and implementing the latest technologies. Institutional pressures are many and complex in nature. There are different groups lobbying for buying and controlling spe­cific technologies. Overly restrictive institutional practices and short-sighted policy planning can result in wasteful investments and in the alienation of crucial constituencies (Rosenberg, 2001).

At a higher level, the social and global implications of the digital divide are much discussed but not especially well understood. Many who are conduct­ing research in the area of networked learning are very optimistic with regard to the potential to confront the digital divide. Whether this occurs

Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues xv

remains to be seen. It would appear that in the area of e-commerce, the divide is widening. Investments of the European Commission, the United Nations, the World Bank, and many national research foundations in spread­ing e-Iearning to developing countries may help in this regard.

It's All About Understanding

In the midst of the many promises and problems associated with using net­worked-based resources in teaching and learning, there are conceptual issues to confront. One such issue concerns the nature of learning. Some suggest that a new learning paradigm is emerging on account of new tech­nologies (see, for example, Koschmann, 1996; Spector & Anderson, 2000). While it is true that technology has been a centerpiece in many instructional systems and learning environments, technology is not what learning is all about. Learning is essentially about change. Learning involves changes in attitudes, beliefs, capabilities, knowledge structures, and skills. When these changes have been observed and can be believed to be relatively stable and persist for·some time, it is reasonable to conclude that learning has occurred. In short, the definition of learning is not changing. Rather, what is changing is how we facilitate and support effective learning, especially with regard to complex subject matter.

As a consequence, it is fair to conclude that the conceptualization oflearn­ing activities has undergone dramatic change in the last twenty years or so. Part of this conceptualization is renewed interest in how peers contribute to learning, especially with regard to subjects that are complex from the learner's perspective. Once interest is broadened from an individual learner to a learning community, the need to introduce new methods for assessment arises. Action research and activity theory provide new perspectives and methods (see, for example, Koschmann, 1996). However, their use is not yet so rigorous nor so widespread as to provide a solid basis for an improved understanding of the conditions that facilitate learning in various circum­stances. This situation is likely to improve with time.

A large part of the so-called new learning paradigm involves a shift from what has been characterized as an atomistic perspective to a more holistic perspective (Spector & Anderson, 2000; Spector & Davidsen, 1999; Spector et al., in press). The atomistic perspective emphasizes individual units oflearn­ing (specific and discrete conditions, methods, and outcomes) and tends to treat learners in a similarly isolated manner (focusing assessment on indi­vidual learners and evaluation on aggregates of individual assessments). This atomistic perspective can be contrasted with what Spector (1994, 1995) called the integrated perspective, and with what is here called the holistic perspective. The holistic perspective views a person as a member of a society and as a member of various language communities and communities of practice. The overall goal of a society or language community typically involves a strong survival element, although this is quite often not made

xvi Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues

explicit. Living consists of working and learning, which are viewed as essen­tially collaborative efforts to achieve commonly held goals. This social per­spective, and the realization that learning is most often aimed at integrated collections of human activities (Gagne & Merrill, 1990) comprise a holistic perspective of learning. From the holistic perspective, learning is ultimately aimed at improving the understanding of various phenomena and situations and not merely about recalling specific facts or solving specific problems.

One change due to network technologies involves the blurring of the tra­ditional distinction between learning and working. Individuals may shift seamlessly from performing a work activity into a system-initiated help environment. Workers may put one complex task on hold while taking time out for a focused tutorial. Individuals may initiate background agents to gather information on selected topics which are then pushed into windows that appear in the user's desktop work environment. Workers may shift from working alone on one isolated task to seeking guidance and advice from a networked community involved in similar activities. Other changes include the interaction of learners in a variety of ways around a variety of activities and tasks. Such changes require a more holistic perspective in order to understand what is occurring in these complex and dynamic contexts.

In Conclusion

The editors of this volume have put together a wonderful collection of thoughtful papers that address the promises as well as the problems associ­ated with effective integration of network-based resources into learning and instruction. Contributing authors address issues at nearly every level. Social and institutional perspectives are included. Implications for designers and developers are discussed. There are chapters that examine various technolo­gies and how they have or can be integrated into teaching and learning. Both teachers and learners are taken into account. New perspectives on assess­ment are examined.

Considered as a whole, this volume blends theory and research with prac­tice and application while maintaining an orientation to the future. As the editors remark in the introduction, the rapid pace of technology development is driving us towards a somewhat uncertain future with regard to the effective use of networked technologies in learning. Work such as that represented in this volume will help clear the fog of breathtaking progress and pave the way for improved education on a global level. That, at least, is our hope.

While one ought to be skeptical about dramatic improvements in learning due to new technologies, one cannot ignore what is happening in education due to the advent of the Internet. Networked learning certainly has the potential to improve learning on a global basis and will surely influence the future in many of the ways suggested in this volume.

J. Michael Spector

Network Learning: Perspectives and Issues xvii

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Bloom, B.S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher 13,3-16

Burns, H. L., & Capps, C.G. (Eds.) (1988). Foundations of intelligent tutoring systems. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum

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Hanna, D.E., & Associates (Ed.) (2000). Higher education in an era of digital competition: Choices and challenges. Madison, WI: Atwood

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Spector, J.M., & Davidsen, P.I. (1999, April). Transparency and interaction in system dynamics based learning environments. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada, April, 1999

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Tyack, D. & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.