MOTIVATION

“Motivation is getting people to do what you want them to do because they want to do it”

- Dwight D. Eisenhower

The word motivation is derived from motive, which means an active form of a desire, craving or need that must be satisfied. Motivation is the key to organizational effectiveness. The manager in general has to get the work done through others. These 'others' are human resources who need to be motivated to attain organizational objectives.

DEFINITION According to George R. Terry, "Motivation is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action." In the words of Robert Dubin, it is "the complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization". Viteles defines motivation as "an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium, by satisfying the need." According to Encyclopaedia of Management. "Motivation refers to the degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goals and implies the determination of the nature and locus of force inducing a degree of readiness."

Today, virtually all people including lay people and scholars have their own definition of motivation. Usually one or more of the following words are included in the definition: “desires,” “wants,” “wishes,” “goals,” “needs,” “drives,” “motives,” and “incentives.” Technically, the term motivation can be traced to the Latin word movere, which means, “to move.” This meaning is evident in the following comprehensive definition: “A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and that directs or channels behaviour toward goals. The key to understand motivation, it appears, lies in the meaning of, and relationship between, needs, drives, and goals.

Needs Drives Goals

(Deprivation) (Deprivation with direction) (Reductionof drives)

In a systems sense, motivation consists of three interacting and interdependent elements: needs, drives and goals.

1. Needs. The best one-word definition of a need is deficiency. In the homeostatic sense, needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance.

2. Drives. With a few exceptions drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs. A drive can be simply defined as a deficiency with direction. Drives are action-oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward goal accomplishment. They are at the very heart of the motivational process.

3. Goals. At the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. A goal in the motivation cycle can be defined as anything, which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining a goal will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Motivation can be divided into two types: internal, or intrinsic motivation, and external, or extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than working towards an external reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy,

believe they have the skill that will allow them to be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),

are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, which then contradicts intrinsic motivation. It is widely believed that motivation performs two functions. The first is often referred as to the energetic activation component of the motivation construct. The second is directed at a specific behaviour and makes reference to the orientation directional component. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic incentives. The concept of motivation can be instilled in children at a very young age, by promoting and evoking interest in a certain book or novel. The idea is to have a discussion pertaining the book with young individuals, as well as to reward them.

Comparison of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over-justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition. For those children who received no extrinsic reward, self-determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological needs.

Push and Pull

This model is usually used when discussing motivation within tourism context, so the most attention in gastronomic tourism research should be dedicated to this theory. Pull factors illustrate the choices of destinations by tourists, whereas push factors determine the desire to go on holiday. Moreover, push motives are connected with internal forces for example need for relaxation or escapism and pull factors in turn induce a traveller to visit certain location by external forces such as landscape, culture image or climate of a destination. Dann also highlights the fact that push factors can be stimulated by external and situational aspects of motivation in shape of pull factors. Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a location itself and therefore ‘push’ an individual to choose to experience it. Since, a huge number of theories have been developed over the years in many studies there is no single theory that illustrates all motivational aspects of travelling. Many researchers highlighted that because motives may occur at the same time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives an individual to perform an action as it was presumed in previous studies. On the other hand, since people are not able to satisfy all their needs at once they usually seek to satisfy some or a few of them.

Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Professor Victor Vroom's Yale School of Management "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self-control to pursue a particular goal.

A drive or desire can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.

By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.

MOTIVES

Primary Motives Physiologists do not totally agree on how to classify the various human motives, but they would acknowledge that some motivates are unlearned and physiologically based. Such motives are variously called physiological, biological, unlearned, or primary. The last term is used here because it is more comprehensive than the others. The use of the term primary does not imply that this group of motives always takes precedence over the general and secondary motives.

General Motives

A separate classification for general motives is not always given. Yet such a category seems necessary because there are a number of motives, which lie in the gray area between the primary and secondary classifications. To be included in the general category, a motive must be unlearned but not physiologically based. Although not all psychologists would agree, the motives of competence, curiosity, manipulation, activity, and affection seem best to meet the criteria for this classification. An understanding of these general motives is important to the study of human behaviour – especially in organizations. They are more relevant to organizational behaviour than the primary motives.

The Competence Motives

While proposed a new conceptualization based upon the assumption that all organisms, animal and human, have a capacity to interact effectively with their environment. He called from activities which, though playful and exploratory in character, at the same time show direction, selectivity, and persistence in interacting with the environment.” Thus defined, the competence motive is the most inclusive general drive. The other general drives of curiosity, manipulation, and activity can be considered more specific competence drives.

The Curiosity Manipulation, and Activity Motives

It is generally recognized that human curiosity, manipulation, and activity drives are quite intense; anyone who has reared or been around small children will quickly support this generalization. Although these drives often get the small child into trouble, curiosity, manipulation, and activity, when stifled or inhibited, the total society might become very stagnant.

The Affection Motives

Love or affection is a very complex form of general drive. Part of the complexity stems from the fact that in many ways love resembles the primary drives and in other ways it is similar to the secondary drives. For this reason, affection is sometimes placed in all three categories of motives,

Secondary MotivesWhereas the general drives seem relatively more important than the primary ones to the study of human behaviour in organizations, the secondary drives are unquestionably the most

important. As a human society develops economically and becomes more complex, the primary drives, and to a lesser degree the general drives, give way to the learned secondary drives in motivating behaviour. With some glaring exceptions that have yet to be eradicated, the motives of hunger and thirst are not dominant among people living in the economically developed Western world.

In particular, the learning principle of reinforcement is conceptually and practically related to motivation. The relationship is obvious when reinforcement is divided into primary and secondary categories and is portrayed as incentives. Some writer’s regards reinforcement and motivation as equivalent. Once again, however, it should be emphasized that although the various behavioural concepts can be separated for study and analysis, in reality concepts like reinforcement and motivation do not operate as separate entities in producing human behaviour. The interactive effects are always present.

A motive must be learned in order to be included in the secondary classification. Numerous important human motives meet this criterion. Some of the more important ones are power, achievement, and affiliation, or as they are commonly referred to today, n Ach, and n Aff. In addition, especially in reference to organizational behaviour, security and status are also important secondary motives.

The Power Motives

It is the need to manipulate other or the drive for superiority over others – Adler developed the concepts of inferiority complex and compensation.

The Achievement MotiveCharacteristics of high achievers:

1. Moderate risk taking. Taking moderate risks is probably the single most descriptive characteristic of the person possessing high n Ach.

2. Need for immediate feedback. Closely connected to high achievers’ taking moderate risks is their desire for immediate feedback.

3. Satisfaction with accomplishment. High achievers find accomplishing a task intrinsically satisfying in and of itself, or they do not expect or necessarily want the accompanying material rewards. A good illustration of this characteristic involves money, but not for the usual reasons of wanting money for its own sake or for the material benefits that it can buy.

4. Preoccupation with the task. Once high achievers select a goal, they tend to be totally preoccupied with the task until it is successfully completed.

The Affiliation MotiveAffiliation plays a very complex but vital role in human behaviour. Sometimes affiliation is equated with social motives and / or group dynamics. As presented here, the affiliation motive is neither as broad as is implied by the definition of social motives nor as comprehensive or complex as is implied by the definition of group dynamics.

The Security MotiveOne the surface, security appears to be much simpler than other secondary motives, for it is based largely on fear and is avoidance-oriented.

In reality, security is much more complex than it appears on the surface. Gellerman notes that this special drive for security is largely unconscious but that it greatly influences the behaviour of many people.

The Status MotiveStatus can be simply defined as the relative ranking that a person holds in a group, organization, or society.

Three key areas of responsibilityA. Performance definition (Set Objectives)

Goals Measures Assessment

B. Performance facilitation (provide resources) Elimination of roadblocks to performance Providing means and adequate resources for performance (finance, material,

infrastructure, HR etc.) Carefully selecting personnel

C. Performance encouragement (Provide timely rewards) Values of rewards Amount of rewards Timing of rewards Likelihood of rewards Fairness of rewards

Goal Setting theory

The cognitive based work was given by locke et. al. The theoretical background

a. Role of intention in human behaviour.b. Scientific Management – Talyor – forerunner of goal setting.c. Importance of values or valence and consequences.d. Emotions or desires are the ways person experiences values.e. People strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires.f. Goals provide direction to behaviour.

Goal – Setting theory

Values and value Emotions and Intentions or Responses Consequences

Judgments desires goals action or Feedback or

Performance reinforcement

Valid and practical – useful No commitment to work – Goal setting will not work.

Theories of Motivation

There is no simple formula to motivate people. But if you look at the theoretical emphasis of the behavioural scientists who have been studying motivation, there is a surprising degree of agreement.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs or Deficient Theory of Motivation

Needs are arranged in a definite sequence of domination i.e., unless the needs of lower order are reasonably satisfied, those of the higher order do not dominate.

Lower/primary order needs includes basic physiological needs & safety and security. Higher/secondary needs are belonging or social needs, esteem and self-actualization needs.

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belonging

Safety

Physiological

McClelland’s Achievement Theory of Motivation

We have three basic social needs: affiliation, power & achievement. Need for achievement : The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards,

to strive to succeed. Need for affiliation : The drive for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Need for power : The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have

behaved otherwise.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

In the first category are Maintenance or Hygiene factors, which are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of job satisfaction. Absence of these factors may dissatisfy the employee but will not de-motivate them. In the Second category are the Motivators since they seem to be effective in motivating people to superior performance.

Hygiene/Maintenance Motivators

Company policy & Admn. Relationship with supervisor Working conditions Salary Relationship with peers Personal life Relationship with subordinates Status Job security Technical supervision

Achievement Recognition Work Responsibility Advancement Growth

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X emphasizes on discipline, incentive programs, welfare measures, close supervision, pension and other benefit programs.

Theory Y represents the democratic approach and gives to the employees scope for creativity and responsibility. It stresses man’s need for work, responsibility and involvement in serious endeavour; work force is a reservoir of untapped imagination, intelligence and commitment.

DEFINITION

According to George R. Terry, "Motivation is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action." In the words of Robert Dubin, it is "the complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization". Viteles defines motivation as "an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium, by satisfying the need." According to Encyclopedia of Management. "Motivation refers to the degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some designated goals and implies the determination of the nature and locus of force inducing a degree of readiness."

On the basis of above definitions, the following observations can be made regarding motivation:

Motivation is an inner psychological force, which activates and compels the person to behave in a particular manner.

The motivation process is influenced by personality traits, learning abilities, perception and competence of an individual.

A highly motivated employee works more efficiently and his level of production tends to be higher than others.

Motivation originates from the-needs and wants of an individual. It is a tension of lacking something in his mind, which forces him to work more efficiently.

Motivation is also a process of stimulating and channelising the energy of an individual for achieving set goals.

Motivation also plays a crucial role in determining the level of performance. Highly motivated employees get higher satisfaction, which may lead to higher efficiency.

Motivating force and its degree, may differ from individual to individual depending on his personality, needs, competence and other factors.

The process of Motivation helps the manager in analysing and understanding human behavior and finding but how an individual can be inspired to produce desirable working behavior.

Motivation may be positive as well as negative. Positive motivation includes incentives, rewards and other benefits while negative motivation implies some punishment, fear, use of force etc.

The motivation procedure contributes to and boosts up the morale of the employees. A high degree of motivation may lead to high morale.

FEATURES OF MOTIVATION The following are the features of motivation:

It is an internal feeling and forces a person to action.

It is a continuous activity.

It varies from person to person and from time to time.

It may be positive or negative.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION Motivation is an important part of managing process. A team of highly qualified and motivated employees is necessary for achieving objectives of an organization because of the following reasons:

Motivated employees make optimum use of available resources for achieving objectives.

Motivation is directly related to the level of efficiency of employees. Motivated employees make full use of their energy and other abilities to raise the

existing level of efficiency.

Motivated employees make goal-directed efforts. They are more committed and cooperative for achieving organizational objectives.

Motivated employees are more loyal and sincere to an organization. These factors help reduce absenteeism and labor turnover.

Motivation is considered as a backbone of good industrial relations.

Effectively motivated employees get more job satisfaction and possess high morale.

Motivation also helps in improving the image of an organization.

The motivation process begins with identification of individual needs. For example, when an employee feels underpaid then what, then he tries to fulfill his needs by asking for a raise or by working harder to earn a raise or by seeking a new job. He then chooses to pursue one or more of these options for instance, working harder while simultaneously looking for a job. If his hard work resulted in a pay rise, he probably feels satisfied and will continue to work hard. But if no raise has been provided he is likely to try another option. Since people have many different needs, the satisfaction of one need or set of needs is likely to give rise to the identification of other needs. Thus, the cycle of motivation is constantly repeated. Understanding human motivation is crucial for managing people. Extensive research has been performed to find out what makes people work and how to motivate them. This includes managers, social scientists, behaviorists and psychologists. A number of theories have been developed, even though there is no universally acceptable motivation theory. Understanding these theories facilitates the managers to get a better insight into the human behavior.

Unconscious motivation

Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to Maslow, "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct."

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior. The 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities as:

Acceptance, the need for approval Curiosity, the need to learn Eating, the need for food Family, the need to raise children Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group Idealism, the need for social justice Independence, the need for individuality Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments Physical activity, the need for exercise Power, the need for influence of will Romance, the need for sex Saving, the need to collect Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships) Social status, the need for social standing/importance Tranquility, the need to be safe Vengeance, the need to strike back Controlling motivation

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.

Employee motivation

Work motivation

Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most of the time, the salary of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. An employee must be motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is present in an employee, then that employee’s quality of work or all work in general will deteriorate.

When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational strategies or specific motivational appeals. General motivational strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals, advice and praise. Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure and rank. Also, you can consider

basing your strategy on your audience personality. Specific motivational appeals focus on provable facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audience threats.

JOB DESIGN

Job Design

Job design follows job analysis i.e. it is the next step after job analysis. It aims at outlining and organising tasks, duties and responsibilities into a single unit of work for the achievement of certain objectives. It also outlines the methods and relationships that are essential for the success of a certain job. In simpler terms it refers to the what, how much, how many and the order of the tasks for a job/s.

Job design essentially involves integrating job responsibilities or content and certain qualifications that are required to perform the same. It outlines the job responsibilities very clearly and also helps in attracting the right candidates to the right job. Further it also makes the job look interesting and specialised.

What is Job Design? Meaning

Job design means to decide the contents of a job. It fixes the duties and responsibilities of the job, the methods of doing the job and the relationships between the job holder (manager) and his superiors, subordinates and colleagues.

Job design also gives information about the qualifications required for doing the job and the reward (financial and non-financial benefits) for doing the job. Job design is mostly done for managers' jobs. While designing the job, the needs of the organisation and the needs of the individual manager must be balanced. Needs of the organisation include high productivity, quality of work, etc. Needs of individual managers include job satisfaction. That is, they want the job to be interesting and challenging. Jobs must not be made highly specialised because they lead to boredom.

There are various steps involved in job design that follow a logical sequence, those that were mentioned earlier on. The sequence is as follows:

1. What tasks are required to be done or what tasks is part of the job?2. How are the tasks performed?3. What amount are tasks are required to be done?4. What is the sequence of performing these tasks?

All these questions are aimed at arriving upon a clear definition of a specific job and thereby make it less risky for the one performing the same. A well defined job encourages feeling of achievement among the employees and a sense of high self esteem.

The whole process of job design is aimed to address various problems within the organisational setup, those that pertain to ones description of a job and the associated relationships. More specifically the following areas are fine tuned:

Checking the work overload. Checking upon the work under load. Ensuring tasks are not repetitive in nature. Ensuring that employees don not remain isolated. Defining working hours clearly. Defining the work processes clearly.

The above mentioned are factors that if not taken care of result into building stress within the employees.

Benefits of Job Design

The following are the benefits of a good job design:

1. Employee Input: A good job design enables a good job feedback. Employees have the option to vary tasks as per their personal and social needs, habits and circumstances in the workplace.

2. Employee Training: Training is an integral part of job design. Contrary to the philosophy of “leave them alone’ job design lays due emphasis on training people so that are well aware of what their job demands and how it is to be done.

3. Work / Rest Schedules: Job design offers good work and rest schedule by clearly defining the number of hours an individual has to spend in his/her job.

4. Adjustments: A good job designs allows for adjustments for physically demanding jobs by minimising the energy spent doing the job and by aligning the manpower requirements for the same.

Job design is a continuous and ever evolving process that is aimed at helping employees make adjustments with the changes in the workplace. The end goal is reducing dissatisfaction, enhancing motivation and employee engagement at the workplace.

Importance of Job Design

Job design is a very important function of staffing. If the jobs are designed properly, then highly efficient managers will join the organisation. They will be motivated to improve the productivity and profitability of the organisation. However, if the jobs are designed badly, then it will result in absenteeism, high labour turnover, conflicts, and other labour problems.

Job Characteristics Model

Work motivation and Job satisfaction

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee motivation. They have identified that any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics;

1. Skill Variety - the degree to which a job requires different skills and talents to complete a number of different activities

2. Task Identity - this dimension refers to the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work versus a partial task as part of a larger piece of work

3. Task Significance - is the impact of the task upon the lives or work of others

4. Autonomy - is the degree of independence or freedom allowed to complete a job

5. Task Feedback - individually obtaining direct and clear feedback about the effectiveness of the individual carrying out the work activities

The JCM links these core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which results in desired personal and work outcomes. This forms the basis of this 'employee growth-need strength." The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index, called the Motivating Potential Score.

Motivating Potential Score

Job characteristics approach to Job Design – Hackman & Oldham

The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed above, as follows;

Equation:Motivating (MPS) = Skill variety + Task identity + Task Sign x autonomy x feedback

Potential score 3

Jobs that are high in motivating potential must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be high on both Autonomy and Feedback. If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts that motivation, performance and job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as absenteeism and turnover, will be reduced.

Various approaches to job designAppropriately designed job – higher employee satisfaction and quality of performance

a. Job enrichment – making jobs more meaningful, interesting and challenging.b. Job enlargement – adding more tasks to the job for variety.c. Job rotation – doing different jobs for variety.d. Social technical approach – making a group or a team responsible for the job and balancing social and technical aspects of the job.e. Job engineering – concentrates on the efficiency of the job through time and motion analysis of person – machine interfaces.f. Goal – setting – building goals, feedback and incentives into the structure of the job.

Factors Affecting Job Design

The guidelines influencing or factors affecting job design are depicted below.

1. Proper scope of job

The scope of the job should be proper. If the scope is narrow (less), then the job will not be challenging. It will not give an opportunity for development. The manager will not get satisfaction after completing an easy job. If the scope of the job is very wide, then the manager will not be able to handle it properly. This will cause stress, frustration and loss of control. Therefore, scope of the job must be balanced and proper.

2. Full-time challenge of the job

The job should be so challenging that it takes up the full-time and effort of the manager. So, the service of the manager must be fully utilised. If not, the manager will have a lot of free time. He will use this free time to interfere in the work of his subordinates. This will cause problems and conflicts because subordinates do not like unnecessary interference from their superiors.

3. Managerial skills

The skills of the manager should be considered before designing his job. All managers do not have equal skills. So jobs should be designed after considering the skills of the manager. So, a manager having a high level of skill should be given very challenging jobs while a manager having a low level of skill should be given fewer challenging jobs. Jobs must be made flexible so that it can be changed according to the skills of the manager.

4. Organization's requirements

Jobs must be designed according to the requirements of the organisation. We cannot use the same job design for all organisations.

5. Individual likes and dislikes

People have different likes and dislikes. Some people like to work alone while some people prefer to work in groups. Some people want to do only planning and decision making while other people like to implement these plans and decision. So, individual likes and dislikes must be considered while designing the job.

6. Organisational structure

Organisational structure also affects the job design. Individual jobs must fit into the organisation's structure.

7. Technology

The level of technology used by the organisation also affects the job design. An organisation having a high level of technology will have different job designs compared to an organisation having a low level of technology

Applications of Motivation in various fields

Education

Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter. It can:

Direct behavior toward particular goals

Lead to increased effort and energy

Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities

Enhance cognitive processing

Determine what consequences are reinforcing

Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.

If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it difficult to extricate themselves from that path. Consequently student dependency on extrinsic rewards represents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.

The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that distinctive needs of students should be considered in regard to orientation information provided at the beginning of the higher education experience. Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised the awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. In 2007, the National Orientation Directors Association reprinted Cassandra B. Whyte's research report allowing readers to ascertain improvements made in addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later to help with academic success.

Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Classically, these categories are regarded as distinct. Today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinct categories, but instead as two ideal types that define a continuum:

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation for education drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be ascertained. Also, in younger students it has been shown that contextualizing material that would otherwise be presented in an abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these students.

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and academic achievement. Students tending toward a more internal locus of control are more academically successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development with consideration of motivation theories.

Academic motivation orientation may also be tied with one's ability to detect and process errors. Fisher, Nanayakkara, and Marshall conducted neuroscience research on children's motivation orientation, neurological indicators of error monitoring (the process of detecting an error), and academic achievement. Their research suggests that students with high intrinsic motivation

attribute performance to personal control and that their error-monitoring system is more strongly engaged by performance errors. They also found that motivation orientation and academic achievement were related to the strength in which their error-monitoring system was engaged.

Motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what motivates the adult learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.

Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use anxiety as negative motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting students to work. However, they have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation over punishment has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety interferes with performance of complex tasks.

Business

Work motivation

At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.

According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The lower level needs such as Physiological and Safety needs will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be addressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For example, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are active for a certain individual or employee.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered stronger motivators than money.

Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.

Motivated employees are more quality oriented.

Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool in

the work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of production.

Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and find answers independently.

The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study at Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).

Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg included Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's Goal Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times.

According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the mere need for money—in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland, satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.

Elton Mayo found that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for motivating employees.

William Ouchi introduced Theory Z, a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese and American philosophies and cultures. Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culture where organizations focus on a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialization of its members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization.

Ultimately, Theory Z promotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant improvement of work efficacy.

In Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee incentive program:

Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition

Allowing employees to participate Linking rewards to performance Rewarding of nominators Visibility of the recognition process

Job Redesign

Job redesign is a method by which jobs are redesigned so that they ensure of providing the employee higher motivation, interest and satisfaction.

Jobs can be redesigned by taking some key practices into consideration.

Job Rotation : The periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another. Job Enlargement : Increasing the number and variety of tasks that an invidual performs.

Job enlargement results in jobs with more diversity. Job Enrichment : The vertical expansion of jobs, which increases the degree to which

the worker control the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work.

Alternative work arrangements

This is another approach which helps making the work environment more motivating by altering work arrangements. Some alternative work arrangements have become quite popular with time.

Flextime : Flexible working hours. Job Sharing : An arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-

hour-a week job. Telecommuting : Working from home at least two days a week on a computer that is

linked to the employee’s office.

Employee Involvement Programs

A participative process that uses the input of employees and is intended to increase employee’s commitment to an organization’s success.

Participative Management : A process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.

Representative Management : A system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees.

Quality Circles : A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solution and take corrective actions.

Rewards to Motivate Employees

Rewards can be financial as well as non-financial. Some of the financial reward systems are classified under variable pay programs.

Variable-Pay Program : A pay plan that bases a portion of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance.

Some types of variable-pay programs are discussed hereunder.

Piece-rate pay plan : A pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed.

Merit-based pay plan : A pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings. Bonus : A pay plan that rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical

performance. Skill-based pay : A pay plan that sets pay levels on the basis of how many skills

employees have or how many jobs they can do. Profit-Sharing plan : An organization-wide program that distributes compensation based

on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability. Gainsharing : A formula-based group incentive plan. Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP) : A company-established benefits plan in

which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits.

Flexible Benefits : A benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to his or her own needs and situation.

Intrinsic Rewards : Employee recognition programs.

These programs include recognition to the employees in order to motivate them, by the use of awards, accolades, appreciation, certificates etc. These rewards are often believed to have long-range effects.