CONFIGURATION OF HORIZONTAL VOIDS AND LIGHTWELL …eprints.utm.my/id/eprint/77955/1/TareqGaberFareaPFAB2014.pdf · alternatif bagi sebuah model bangunan berskala penuh. Model

CONFIGURATION OF HORIZONTAL VOIDS AND LIGHTWELL TO

IMPROVE NATURAL VENTILATION IN HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL

BUILDINGS IN HOT HUMID CLIMATE

TAREQ GABER FAREA

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Architecture)

Faculty of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

DECEMBER 2014

iii

To my beloved parents, wife, children and siblings

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

After thanks and gratitude are expressed to “Allah”, my deepest gratitude

goes to my main supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilshan Remaz Ossen for his valuable

supervision, motivation and friendship throughout the study. I am also grateful to my

co-supervisor Prof. Saqaff Alkaff for his assistance and time spent in consultation,

particularly in mechanical topics. Without their support and guidance, this thesis

would not have been the same as presented here.

I wish to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education in Yemen for the

scholarship. I would like to thank the stuff in the building science laboratory in the

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia (UTM) for providing the resources, facilities and instruments required for

the research. I would also like to thank the Center of Information and

Communication Technology (CICT) in the UTM for providing the ANSYS

workshop and access to the high-performance computer (HPC).

I would also like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ismail Bin Said (the chairman of

Greenovation Research Group) for his support, encouragement and friendship during

the study. Many thanks also go to Dr. Agung Murti Nugroho for his valuable

comments and invitation to the Architecture Department, University of Brawijaya,

Indonesia. My sincere appreciation goes to all who have provided assistance directly

or indirectly in this study.

I am very grateful to my beloved mother and dearest wife for love, care,

patience, understanding and prayers during my study. I would like to thank my

beloved father and eldest brother for their encouragement and support during my

study. Finally, many thanks also go to all my friends for their assistance and

consultations.

v

ABSTRACT

Cross-flow ventilation is the most effective strategy for providing thermal

comfort and ensuring air quality in buildings, while minimizing the required energy

cost. In hot and humid climate, the high-rise building plan configuration incorporates

different types of lightwell, either in the core or perimeter of the building, that allow

for opening the windows in different directions and thus enables better cross-

ventilation. The lightwell space is subjected to produce a suction effect along its

space and thus adjoining indoor spaces. Lightwell at the core with opening at top

trapped unwanted gases and thus reduce the fresh air flow in its space and reduce the

cross flow ventilation in adjoining units. Nevertheless, having a lightwell may not be

enough to provide adequate natural ventilation in high rise buildings. This study

examines the internal lightwell connection to the outside through different horizontal

voids as inlets. A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique employing

ANSYS Fluent code is used to predict airflow characteristics for eighteen (18)

alternative ventilation configurations of a full-scale building model. The full-scale

model was developed according to common configurations of high-rise residential

(HRR) buildings in Kuala Lumpur, as well as referring to the minimum requirements

of the Malaysian Uniform Building By-Law (1984). The results show that the

existence of a direct connection of the internal lightwell through a horizontal void

affects the air change per hour (ACH) and the thermal comfort in the lightwell space

and adjoining units, respectively. Although the existence of double-level voids

increases ACH by up to 67 % along the lightwell, it reduces the air velocity by 70 %

in adjoining units compared to the lightwell without direct connection. In order to

reduce such contrast and to optimize the cross-flow ventilation in the lightwell and

its adjoining units, the study recommends giving more attention to the lightwell inlet

design. This study provides proper guidelines to predict ventilation performance and

to improve the design of naturally ventilated HRR buildings.

vi

ABSTRAK

Pengudaraan aliran silang adalah strategi yang paling berkesan untuk

memberikan keselesaan terma dan memastikan kualiti udara di dalam bangunan serta

meminimumkan kos penggunaan tenaga yang diperlukan. Di negara beriklim panas

dan lembap, konfigurasi pelan bangunan bertingkat tinggi menggabungkan pelbagai

jenis telaga cahaya, sama ada pada teras atau sempadan bangunan, yang

membolehkan bukaan tingkap dari arah yang berbeza dan seterusnya membolehkan

pengudaraan silang yang lebih baik. Ruang telaga cahaya tersebut berfungsi

menghasilkan kesan sedutan udara di sepanjang ruang tersebut dan seterusnya

bersambung dengan ruang dalam bangunan. Telaga cahaya pada teras bangunan

dengan bukaan di bahagian atas memerangkap gas yang tidak dikehendaki, oleh itu

mengurangkan aliran udara segar ke dalam ruang telaga cahaya tersebut dan

mengurangkan pengudaraan aliran silang di dalam unit-unit yang bersambung.

Bagaimanapun, satu telaga cahaya mungkin tidak memadai untuk memberikan

pengudaraan semula jadi yang mencukupi bagi bangunan bertingkat tinggi. Kajian

ini menguji sambungan ruang dalaman dan luaran telaga cahaya melalui lowong

mendatar yang berbeza sebagai salur masuknya. Satu teknik Perkomputeran

Dinamik Bendalir (CFD) menggunakan kod aliran ANSYS telah digunakan untuk

meramalkan ciri-ciri aliran udara untuk lapan belas (18) konfigurasi pengudaraan

alternatif bagi sebuah model bangunan berskala penuh. Model berskala penuh

tersebut telah dibangunkan mengikut konfigurasi umum bangunan-bangunan

kediaman bertingkat tinggi di Kuala Lumpur dan juga merujuk kepada keperluan

minimum Undang-undang Kecil Bangunan Seragam (1984). Keputusan

menunjukkan bahawa kewujudan sambungan langsung antara ruang dalaman telaga

cahaya dengan lowong mendatar memberi kesan kepada perubahan udara per jam

dan keselesaan terma dalam ruang telaga cahaya dan unit-unit yang bersambung.

Walaupun kewujudan lowong berganda meningkatkan perubahan udara per jam

sehingga 67% di sepanjang ruang telaga cahaya, tetapi ia mengurangkan halaju udara

sebanyak 70% dalam unit-unit yang bersambung, berbanding dengan ruang telaga

cahaya tanpa sambungan langsung. Untuk mengurangkan perbezaan tersebut dan

mengoptimumkan pengudaraan aliran silang di dalam ruang telaga cahaya dan unit-

unit yang bersambung, kajian ini mencadangkan perhatian yang lebih perlu diberikan

kepada rekabentuk salur masuk ruang telaga cahaya. Kajian ini menyediakan garis

panduan yang tepat untuk meramal prestasi pengudaraan dan menambah baik

rekabentuk pengudaraan semula jadi bagi bangunan-bangunan kediaman bertingkat

tinggi.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xv

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxvii

LIST OF APPENDICES xxviii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Overview 1

1.2 Problem Background 3

1.3 Problem Statement 12

1.4 Research Hypothesis 13

1.5 Research Questions 14

1.6 Research Aim and Objectives 15

1.7 Research Scope 16

1.8 Research Limitations 17

1.9 Research Significance 20

1.10 Thesis Outline 20

2 THE CONCEPT OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN

THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 23

2.0 Introduction 23

viii

2.1 Natural Ventilation in Buildings: Understanding of

the Concept 23

2.1.1 Principles of Natural Ventilation 24

2.1.1.1 Natural Ventilation due to Wind Alone 24

2.1.1.2 Natural Ventilation due to Buoyancy

Alone 25

2.1.1.3 Natural Ventilation due to Wind and

Buoyancy 25

2.1.2 Natural Ventilation Strategies 26

2.1.2.1 Single-sided Ventilation 27

2.1.2.2 Cross-Ventilation Strategy 27

2.1.2.3 Upward Ventilation Strategy 28

2.1.2.4 Top-down Ventilation Strategy 29

2.1.3 Ventilation Systems in Buildings and Energy 29

2.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural

Ventilation 30

2.2 Factors Affecting Outdoor Wind Flow and Indoor

Airflow 31

2.2.1 Outdoor Wind Flow Environment (Kuala

Lumpur Boundary Conditions) 31

2.2.2 Built Environment Affecting Outdoor Wind

Flow and Indoor Airflow 33

2.2.3 Architectural and Aerodynamic Elements 34

2.3 Ventilation Functions and Benefits 36

2.3.1 Ventilation for Air Quality 37

2.3.2 Ventilation for Thermal Comfort 39

2.3.2.1 Air Temperature and Air Velocity for

Thermal Comfort 40

2.3.2.2 Thermal Comfort in Hot-Humid

Regions by Field Studies 42

2.3.2.3 Neutral Temperature by Adaptive

Approach 45

2.3.3 Natural Ventilation and Safety Aspects 48

2.4 Wind Engineering in the Built Environment 50

ix

2.4.1 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) 51

2.4.2 Turbulent Flow 54

2.4.3 Fundamental vs. Applied Studies 54

2.5 Overview of Ventilation Prediction Models 55

2.6 Summary 58

3 NATURALLY VENTILATED HIGH-RISE

BUILDINGS AND SEMI-OPEN SPACES 60

3.0 Introduction 60

3.1 Naturally Ventilated High-Rise Buildings: Important

Principles 60

3.1.1 Physical Aspects of High-Rise Building 61

3.1.2 Bioclimatic Aspects for High-Rise Buildings 61

3.1.3 Learning From Vernacular Houses 62

3.1.4 Outdoor Wind Flow around High-Rise

Building 65

3.1.5 Building Codes and Design Guidelines for

Naturally Ventilated HRR Buildings 66

3.2 Aerodynamic Elements and Transitional Spaces 68

3.2.1 Semi-open Spaces in High-Rise Buildings:

Physical Aspects 70

3.2.1.1 Types of Lightwell 71

3.2.1.2 The Existence of the Horizontal Void 73

3.2.1.3 Combinations between Vertical and

Horizontal Semi-open Spaces 74

3.2.2 Semi-open Spaces in High-Rise Buildings:

Airflow Characteristics 76

3.2.2.1 Connected Spaces Vs. Isolated Spaces 76

3.2.2.2 Conventional Openings Vs. Long

Openings 78

3.2.2.3 Airflow in the Horizontal Void 79

3.2.2.4 Airflow in the Internal Lightwell 80

3.2.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages the

Airflow in the Lightwell 81

x

3.3 Internal Lightwell Connection to Outside 82

3.3.1 Airflow in the Lightwell and Alternative

Connections to Outside 82

3.3.1.1 The Lightwell Inlet 83

3.3.1.2 The Lightwell Outlet 85

3.3.2 Previous Studies on Ventilation

Configurations of the Lightwell and Void 87

3.3.3 Research Gap 94

3.4 Alternative Ventilation Configurations and

Connection to Outdoor 96

3.4.1 Cross-flow Ventilation in Rooms Adjoining

the Lightwell 97

3.4.2 Ventilation Configuration of the Lightwell

and Voids 98

3.4.3 Alternative Ventilation Configurations of

Lightwell-Void Connection 99

3.5 Summary 103

4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 105

4.0 Introduction 105

4.1 Ventilation Prediction Models 106

4.1.1 Full-Scale Experimental Model and Pilot

Study 106

4.1.2 Small-Scale Experimental Model 107

4.1.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics Model 108

4.1.4 CFD Advantages Compared with

Experimental Models 109

4.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 110

4.2.1 Governing Equations 110

4.2.2 CFD Modelling Approaches 111

4.2.2.1 Coupled approach 111

4.2.2.2 Decoupled approach 112

4.2.3 CFD Code Selection and Modelling Process 114

4.2.3.1 CFD Code Selection 114

xi

4.2.3.2 CFD Modelling Process 115

4.2.4 Methods Used in CFD Model and Turbulence

Modelling 121

4.2.4.1 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) 122

4.2.4.2 RANS Models 123

4.2.4.3 RANS Turbulence Models in Semi-

open Spaces 124

4.2.4.4 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) 126

4.2.5 Important Issues in the CFD Model 126

4.2.5.1 CFD Errors and Uncertainly 126

4.2.5.2 CFD Validation 127

4.2.5.3 Requirements for Similarity between

Small-scale and Full-scale Models 128

4.3 CFD Validation and Sensitivity Analysis of Small-

scale Model 130

4.3.1 Wind Tunnel Experiment (WTE) 131

4.3.2 CFD Simulation: Sensitivity Analysis for the

Small-scale Model 131

4.3.2.1 Computational Geometry and Grid 132

4.3.2.2 Boundary Conditions 135

4.3.2.3 Convergence Criteria 139

4.3.2.4 Turbulence Modelling 139

4.4 Developing the Hypothetical Lightwell Building

Model 140

4.4.1 Common HRR Buildings 141

4.4.2 Developing the Hypothetical Model of Units

in HRR Buildings 142

4.5 Developing a Full-scale Building Model Applicable

to Kuala Lumpur 143

4.5.1 HRR Buildings Survey in Kuala Lumpur 143

4.5.2 Categorizing the Hypothetical Ventilation

Configurations of the Lightwell 146

4.5.3 Deriving the Basic Model with Hypothetical

Units 147

xii

4.5.4 Alternative Ventilation Configurations 150

4.6 Parametric Study in Small and Full-Scale Building

Models 153

4.7 Performance Measures 155

4.8 Thermal Comfort and Mean Wind Speed for Kuala

Lumpur 156

4.8.1 Determining Thermal Comfort in Kuala

Lumpur 156

4.8.2 Determining the Main Wind Speed (Uref) for

Kuala Lumpur 157

4.9 CFD Simulation Settings for Full-scale Model 158

4.9.1 Simplified Boundary Conditions for Kuala

Lumpur 158

4.9.2 Computational Settings 160

4.10 Summary 162

5 RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS 164


5.1 Required Outputs and the Process of the Results,

Discussion and Findings 165

5.2 Vertical Void-Position Groups and Its Existence:

Impact on Cross-flow Ventilation and Temperature 167

5.2.1 No-connection Through Void (Nco) 168

5.2.2 Single-Bottom Void Group (G1) 170

5.2.2.1 Alternative Ventilation Configurations

of G1: Results 171

5.2.2.2 Impact of Ventilation Configurations

of G1 on the Airflow in the Lightwell

and Units: Comparison and Discussion 179

5.2.3 Single-Middle Void Group (G2) 182


of G2: Results 183

xiii




5.2.4 Double Same-Direction Void Group (G3) 194


of G3: Results 195




5.2.5 Double Different-Direction Void Group (G4) 206


of G4: Results 206




5.2.6 Impact of the Vertical Void-Position Groups

and its Existence on Cross-flow Ventilation 221

5.3 Horizontal Void-Direction Groups: Impact on Cross-

flow Ventilation 222

5.3.1 Windward-Void sub-Group (s-G1) 223

5.3.2 Leeward-Void sub-Group (s-G2) 227

5.3.3 Cross-Void Sub-Group (s-G3) 229

5.3.4 Whole-Void sub-Group (s-G4) 231

5.3.5 Impact of Horizontal Void-Direction Groups

on Cross-flow Ventilation 234

5.4 Comparing the Impact of Vertical Void-Positions and

Horizontal Void-Directions Groups on Cross-flow

Ventilation 235

5.5 Impact of Ventilation Configurations on Thermal

Comfort 236

5.6 Impact of Ventilation Configurations on the ACH 239

5.7 Findings and Interpretations 241

5.8 Summary 244

xiv

6 SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FURTHER

RESEARCH 246


6.1 Thesis Summary and Achievements 246

6.2 Research Contributions 251

6.3 Suggestions for Further Research 254

REFERENCES 257

Appendices A-H 276-314

xv

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 High-rise non-residential buildings in different climatic regions

that used natural ventilation (after Wood and Salib (2013)) 4

1.2 Vertical and horizontal architectural elements and aerodynamics

elements in some pioneering naturally ventilated high-rise

residential and non-residential buildings and highlighted

elements of the present study 8

2.1 Relationship between different architectural and aerodynamic

elements and ventilation strategies, (after Kleiven, (2003)) 36

2.2 Recommended ACH and ventilation rate (ls-1

m-2) for indoor

spaces (Source: Wills et al. (1995) as cited in Li (2008)) 39

2.3 Thermal sensation indexes applicable to tropical regions show

human reactions to different air velocities and temperature 42

2.4 Temperature and corresponding air velocity appropriate for

thermal comfort in naturally ventilated buildings in tropical

countries from previous studies 45

2.5 Usage of room windows for different residential building

types in tropics 48

2.6 Beaufort scale showing some varied wind velocities and its

effect on the environment (Source: after Ismail (1996) ) 50

2.7 Empirical values of y and (Davenport, 1965 as cited

in Givoni, 1998) 53

2.8 Differences between fundamental and applied studies 55

2.9 Advantages and disadvantages of theoretical and experimental

models (Source: Gan, (1999) as cited in Yang, (2004)) 58

xvi

3.1 Previous studies related to internal lightwells and outdoor

connections 96

4.1 Selected different EFM studies show the CFD code and its

validation methods 115

4.2 Conditions of computational flow parameters for sensitivity

analysis with indication of the reference case conditions 132

4.3 Illustration of the streamlines of the airflow pattern indicating

the airflow rate (Q) and temperature profile in the center of the

lightwell using various turbulence models compared with the

experimental model data 141

4.4 Common configuration plans of HRR buildings in relation to

lightwell type in Kuala Lumpur 144

4.5 Common hypothetical possible configurations of different

lightwell types with semi-open spaces and windows in HRR

buildings (plans and sections) 147

4.6 Alternative ventilation configurations of the parametric study 152

4.7 The differences of CFD parameters for small-scale and

full-scale models 153

4.8 Conditions of computational parameters for full-scale building

model 162

5.1 The groups of vertical void- positions 167

5.2 The groups of horizontal void-direction 223

6.1 Comparing the ventilation configurations effects on ACH

through the lightwell and comfortable air velocity in the units 250

xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Plan configurations of low-income HRR buildings built by

DBKL- Malaysia (Source: Sapian, 2004) 6

1.2 Commerzbank - Frankfurt, 1997, shows aerodynamic

configuration, open-able segmented atrium and sky gardens

(Source: Lambot (1997), 1997 and PC. Liu, 2012) 9

1.3 Torre Cube, Mexico, 2005, 100 % naturally ventilated

throughout the year (Source: Wood and Salib, 2013) 9

1.4 The Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang

(2006), attached lightwell, wind corridor and wing-wind wall

(Source: http://www.propwall.my) 10

1.5 The Idaman Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah &

Yeang (2008), using semi-enclosed lightwells as funnels to

capture wind, wind corridor and attached lightwells (Source:

http://www.skyscrapercity.com) 10

1.6 The Plaza - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang (2006),

using attached lightwells for upward flow, wind corridor and

wing-wind wall (Source: EAG website http://eag.my/) 11

1.7 D’Leedon – Singapore by Zaha Hadid, semi-enclosed

lightwell as funnel to capture wind (Source: Feng (2012)) 11

1.8 The Met – Bangkok by WOHA (2013), view looking down

through the semi-enclosed lightwell between the towers,

(Source: Feng (2012)) 11

1.9 Ventilation configuration of the internal lightwell connected

indirectly to the outdoor through its adjoining units 13

xviii

1.10 Ventilation configuration of the lightwell connected to the

outdoor through horizontal voids, which may affect upward

flow and indoor air velocity 14

1.11 The flow of the research process and thesis chapters 22

2.1 Effect of opposing and assisting wind ( Etheridge (2012)) 26

2.2 Single-sided ventilation in isolated space (Source: Brown and

Mark DeKay, 2001) 27

2.3 Cross ventilation in isolated space (Source: Brown and Mark

DeKay (2001)) 28

2.4 Upward cross-flow in lightwell/ non-segmented (left) and

segmented (right) lightwells ( Etheridge and Ford, 2008) 28

2.5 The balance between the IAQ based on airflow rate and

energy required (Source: Hal Levin - building ecology

research group, a PowerPoint presentation) 30

2.6 The prevailing wind (2003 – 2012) in Kuala Lumpur, Subang

weather station 32

2.7 Hypothetical model to examine the fire safety in a lightwell

high-rise building (Source: Chow and Hung (2003)) 49

2.8 The difference between the log law and power law compared

with uniform velocity distribution, the reference wind velocity

10 m/s at a height of 10 m (Blocken and Carmeliet (2004b)) 53

2.9 Wind speed at the meteorological station (Upot), the reference

wind at the building site (Uref) and the airflow velocity inside

the building (U) (Source: after Blocken and Persoon (2009)) 53

2.10 Ventilation prediction models 57

3.1 Chinese shop-houses with integrated courtyard ( Sanusi (2012)) 64

3.2 Ventilation strategies in a traditional Malay House ( Lim (1987)) 64

3.3 High-rise building configuration and wind direction effect of

the wind flow pattern on the building façades, roof and edges

( ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Applications 44.3, 2005) 66

3.4 Wind flow pattern around high-rise building ( ASHRAE

Handbook-HVAC Applications 44.3, 2005) 66

3.5 Plans of the three types of transitional spaces, from left to right,

Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 (Source: Chun et al. (2004)) 70

xix

3.6 Types of lightwell in high-rise buildings based on lightwell type 72

3.7 Combination between vertical (wind core) and horizontal

(wind floor) in Liberty Tower, Japan (Source: CTBUH (2012),

as cited in Liu (2012)) 75

3.8 Plan of Bedok Court Condominium, Singapore (Source: after

plan of the Architect) 76

3.9 Sectional diagram of a high-rise building illustrates the

difference between connected spaces and isolated spaces

(Source: after Etheridge (2012)) 77

3.10 Cross-sections illustrating types of opening classification based

on aspect ratio L/dh; the window is a very small aspect ratio,

while the void and lightwell are a very large value (right) 78

3.11 The airflow pass through the horizontal void in high-rise

building ( after ASHRAE Handbook Fundamental (2005)) 79

3.12 Lightwell connection to outdoors through bottom void and top

opening (sky opening) 80

3.13 Cross section of a multi-storey building illustrates the lightwell

connection to the outdoor 85

3.14 Cross section of GSW building in Germany shows the

Venturi-shaped roof above the outlet of the vertical chimney

(Source: Wood and Salib (2013)) 86

3.15 Venturi-shaped roof (Source: van Hooff et al. (2011)) 87

3.16 The ventilation configuration between the lightwell and different

sizes of the void (Source: Mohsen et al. (1987)) 88

3.17 The airflow pattern around high-rise office building (plan and

section) combined with an internal lightwell connected to a

bottom void (Source: Ismail (1996)) 89

3.18 The ventilation configurations between the lightwell and voids

examined by Kotani et al. 1997 91

3.19 Different ventilation configurations of lightwell and voids

(Source: Chiang and Anh (2012)) 92

3.20 The ventilation configurations examined by Liu (2012) 94

xx

3.21 Sectional diagram shows cross-ventilation by producing a

suction effect along the lightwell through the void, adjoining

rooms and sky opening 98

3.22 Vertical and direct connection of the lightwell through voids 101

3.23 Possible horizontal direction of the voids that directly connect

the lightwell to outside 103

4.1 Research methodology flow chart 105

4.2 (a) coupled and (b) decoupled (outdoor wind flow and indoor

airflow) approaches for a generic and simple room (Source:

(Ramponi and Blocken, 2012a)) 112

4.3 CFD and ANSYS software modelling processes (Source: after

ANSYS Inc, 2009) 116

4.4 Perspective view of the computational domain size used in

the numerical study shows the building model location and

possible wind direction inlet and building model dimensions

used by Kotani et al. (2003) 133

4.5 Temperature distribution (T) and airflow rate (Q) along the

height (H) of the lightwell in small and recommended

simulation domain sizes compared with experimental data 133

4.6 Grid discretization of the whole domain (a) with more

elaboration in the building (b) and the lightwell with void (c) 134

4.7 Air temperature distribution (T) and airflow rate (Q) along the

height (H) of the lightwell for three types of meshes 3.89x105

(Grid A), 5.51x105 (Grid B) and 9.32x10

5 (Grid C) compared

with experimental data (Exp.) 135

4.8 Generating inlet profile numerically by one-fourth power law

and comparing with experimental inlet 136

4.9 Temperature distribution (T) and airflow rate (Q) along the

height (H) of the lightwell for near-wall treatment adopting the

standard wall function (WF), the enhanced wall treatment (WT)

and standard wall function with inflation mesh (WF+infla) 137

4.10 Temperature (T) and airflow rate (Q) using different methods

for heat generating by wall flux from the internal surfaces of the

lightwell, lightwell volume with and without calculating heat loss

xxi

as suggested by the authors of the experimental study,

compared with experimental data (Exp.) 138

4.11 External facades and detailed snapshots for light-wells for

surveyed buildings in Kuala Lumpur 144

4.12 Possible parameters in the physical configuration of the HRR

building including internal lightwell and voids 146

4.13 The 3D building model for hypothetical units’ positions in

relation to the void and lightwell as well as the direction of

the wind 149

4.14 Plans for possible ventilation configurations between the

lightwell and voids configurations (a-d) and units position in

relation to the lightwell (c) with detailed plan and section

design for a selected living room (e) 150

4.15 Configurations of the lightwell connection to outside through

different-void positions (left) and wind directions (right) for

small-scaled model 154

4.16 Mean wind velocity profile generated at the inlet of the

computational domain by log law (Uref is 0.92 at 10m height

in Kuala Lumpur) 159

4.17 Computational domain boundaries and size for the full-scale

model 160

5.1 Flow chart of the results, discussion and findings 166

5.2 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines vectors (a) and

vertical temperature gradient and its pattern (b) in mid-section

of the lightwell of Nco 169

5.3 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a), temperature

pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors (c) in

mid-section of both units of Nco 170

5.4 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors

(a) and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in

mid-section of the lightwell of Bww 172

5.5 Predicted indoor air velocity and temperature (a),

temperature pattern (b) and air velocity pattern with vectors

(c) in mid-section of both units in Bww 173

xxii



mid-section of the Blw 174



(c) in mid-section of both units in Blw 175



mid-section of the lightwell in Bcs 176



(c) in mid-section of both units in Bcs 177



mid-section of the lightwell in Bwh 178



(c) in mid-section of both units in Bwh 179

5.12 Predicted upward air velocity in the vertical centerline of

the lightwell in all configurations of G1 181

5.13 Average indoor air velocity along the x-axis at the middle level

of the lower and upper units for the configurations of G1 182

5.14 Upward air velocity visualized by streamlines and vectors (a)

and vertical temperature gradient and pattern (b) in

mid-section of the lightwell in Mww 184



(c) in the mid-section of both units in Mww 185



mid-section of the lightwell in Mlw 186



(c) in mid-section of both units of Mlw 187

xxiii



mid-section of the lightwell of Mcs 188



(c) in mid-section of both units of Mcs 189



mid-section of the lightwell of Mwh 190



(c) in mid-section of both units of Mwh 191

5.22 Predicted upward air velocity in vertical centerline of the

lightwell in all configurations of G2 193





mid-section of the lightwell of Dww 196



(c) in mid-section of both units of Dww 197



mid-section of the lightwell of Dlw 198



(c) in mid-section of both units of Dlw 199



mid-section of the lightwell of Dcs 200



(c) in mid-section of both units of Dcs 201

xxiv



mid-section of the lightwell of Dwh 202



(c) in mid-section of both units of Dwh 203







mid-section of the lightwell in Ddf-ww 207



(c) in mid-section of both units in Ddf-ww 208



mid-section of the lightwell in Ddf-lw 209



(c) in mid-section of both units in Ddf-lw 210



mid-section of the lightwell in Bcs-ww 211



(c) in mid-section of both units in Bcs-ww 212



mid-section of the lightwell in Bcs-lw 213



(c) in mid-section of both units in Bcs-lw 214

xxv



mid-section of the lightwell in Mcs-ww 215



(c) in mid-section of both units in Mcs-ww 216



mid-section of the lightwell in Mcs-lw 217



(c) in mid-section of both units in Mcs-lw 218





5.48 Predicted upward air velocity in the vertical centerline of the

lightwell in all configurations of s-G1 225


of the lower and upper units for the configurations of s-G1 226


lightwell in all configurations of s-G2 227




the lightwell in all configurations of s-G3 230


of the lower and upper units for all s-G3 configurations 231


the lightwell in all configurations of s-G4 232



5.56 The average air velocity and temperature along the lower

and upper hypothitical units for all ventilation configurations 239

xxvi

5.57 Average ACH and temperature along the lightwell for all

configurations 241

xxvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Q - flow rate (m3/h)

T - temperature (oC)

k - turbulent kinetic energy (m2/s

2)

g - acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Pr - Prandtl number

Re - Reynolds number

u - mean air velocity magnitude (m/s)

u - velocity fluctuation component (m/s)

t - temperature fluctuation component (oC)

ijS - strain rate tensor (1/s)

- time average

Γ - diffusion coefficient

- magnitude of rotation tensor

- von Karman constant (= 0.4187)

- temperature fluctuation (oC)

- dissipation of k (m2/s

3)

- coefficient of thermal expansion (K-1

)

- dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)

v - kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

- intermittency

- turbulent viscosity damping factor

- mass density (kg/m

3)

- specific dissipation rate (s_1

)

- turbulent Pr for k or

- Kronecker delta

U - local wind speed (m/s)

Uref - reference wind speed (m/s)

Upot - potential wind speed (at 10m height with y0 = 0.03 m) (m/s)

NVB

HRR

WTE

UBBL

CFD

DSF

KBES

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Naturally ventilated building

High-rise residential

Wind-tunnel experiment

Malaysian Uniform Building By-Law

Computational Fluid Dynamics

Double skin facade

Knowledge-based expert systems

xxviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A List of Related Publications 277

B HRR Buildings Survey in Kuala Lumpur for

Developing the Model Configuration

278

C Meteorological Data in Kuala Lumpur (Subang weather

station, 2003 – 2012)

282

D Review Survey 285

E Result of the Pilot Study to Monitor the Effect of the

Lightwell Existence in Apartment

287

F Results of the Initial Parametric Study for Small-scale

Building Model

289

G Equations and Script used in Full-scale Model

Simulations

292

H CFD Simulation Results for all Configurations of Full-

scale Model

295

CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

Tropical cities in Southeast Asia are encountering the rapid growth of urban

population, which has increased the demand for residential units. The increasing

income level of people in most of these cities has led to an increasing demand level

in both quantity and quality aspects of housing (Yuen and Yeh, 2011). In order to

meet this growing demand, many countries in the region of Southeast Asia have

adjusted their housing policies to include the construction of high-rise residential

(HRR) buildings. This is particularly prevalent in capital cities such as Kuala

Lumpur, Bangkok and densely populated cities with insufficient area of land such as

Singapore and Hong Kong. For instance, in the last decade the number of high-rise

buildings in Singapore has increased by three times and the number has doubled

within the same period in Kuala Lumpur and Bangkok (Rimmer and Dick, 2009)

according to updates by www.emporis.com. Most of these buildings are utilized for

housing, particularly in Singapore due to the high population density (Yuen and Yeh,

2011). In Malaysia, for instance, census statistics for 2010 recorded a significant

increase in the apartment housing numbers, which has increased by about 7.3% in the

last decade. During this same period, only a rise of 3.8 % was recorded for terraced

houses, whereas there was no increase in the number of detached and semi-attached

houses (Population and Housing Census of Malaysia 2010).

The significant rise of housing projects, particularly apartment housing,

demands more energy for lighting or cooling and running other utilities in houses.

According to statistics reports in Malaysia (2011), the energy consumption in the

http://www.emporis.com/

2

building sector (residential and commercial) has doubled. About 67% of the total

energy consumed in residential building is used only for cooling and refrigeration

(CETDEM, 2006). The General Report of the Population and Housing Census in

Malaysia, 1970, 1990 and 2000 shows that the number of households using air-

conditioners dramatically increased from 13,000 in 1970 to 229,000 in 1990 and

775,000 in 2000. Kubota et al. (2009) found that the increase in using air-

conditioners was mainly due to the increase in household income.

In order to cut down the energy consumption in the building sector, some

Southeast Asian countries have established guidelines and codes, particularly those

countries with high rates of energy consumption. In addition, these countries have

developed criteria that adapt to the local environment when assessing energy

consumption. In Malaysia, for instance, standards and checklists have been

formulated to evaluate buildings’ performances. The Green Building Index (GBI),

Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) and Building Energy Indicator (BEI) are

commonly used in Malaysia today (Rahman, 2010). In order to meet the criteria of

these standards and checklists, minimizing energy consumption by applying

bioclimatic principles and energy efficiency techniques in buildings is required.

Natural ventilation is considered one of the most fundamental low-cost

passive cooling strategies in buildings (Jiang and Chen, 2002; Zhai, 2006). Thus, it

could contribute to the reduction of energy consumption without compromising

thermal comfort (Kubota et al., 2009) and air quality inside the buildings. Many

previous researchers recommended naturally ventilated buildings as being the

preferred strategy in hot and humid climates (Aynsley, 1980; de Dear et al., 1991;

Feriadi and Wong, 2004; Givoni, 1994; Kubota et al., 2009; Rahman et al., 2011;

Rajapaksha et al., 2003). Therefore, the present research is directed towards naturally

ventilated buildings, giving attention to high-rise residential (HRR) buildings in

Malaysia. The result of the study will contribute to the knowledge related to this

area, and is aimed at saving energy and thus reduction of household expenses as well

as considering the environmental dimension.

3

1.2 Problem Background

Bioclimatic principles were first applied to large-scale buildings, e.g. high-

rise buildings, in the last decade of the last century. These principles have been noted

in some works of pioneering architects e.g., Yeang and Foster. Bioclimatic high-rise

buildings could play an important role in reducing energy consumption, particularly

the energy required for running air-conditioning. Based on a mixed mode of

ventilation (hybrid ventilation), it can cut down 63% of the energy required for fully

running air-conditioning in high-rise non-residential buildings in tropical climatic

conditions (Wood and Salib, 2013). In Malaysia, the UMNO high-rise non-

residential building is designed to be fully naturally ventilated (Wood and Salib,

2013). However, it cuts down on about 25% of the energy that is required for running

air-conditioning as measured in post-occupancy evaluations of the building. The

most famous international example is the high-rise building of Commerzbank,

which relies on mixed mode ventilation and can be naturally ventilated 80% of the

year, thus saving about 63% of energy compared to a fully air-conditioned building

in Germany (Lambot, 1997; Wood and Salib, 2013). Table 1.1 clearly illustrates the

dramatic increase of the number of naturally ventilated high-rise non-residential

buildings during the last three decades.

In fact, the naturally ventilated high-rise non-residential building is not a new

concept, but one that was introduced in the 19th

century. Although the first high-rise

air conditioned office building was built in 1928 (Milam in USA), many office

buildings are still depend on natural ventilation, and thus the plans of such buildings

are very limited in depth to induce cross-ventilation. The required energy to run such

air conditioning systems was initially expensive and this also limits the depth of most

high-rise office buildings’ plans (Wood and Salib, 2013). The lightwell was

integrated into the building in different configurations, e.g. internal and semi-

enclosed (u-shaped). However, these configurations changed in the middle of the 20th

century when the plan of the building became deeper. This is because these buildings

started to rely on air-conditioned systems in office buildings once the energy became

more affordable than before (Wood and Salib, 2013). In addition, operable windows

disappeared and curtain walls were used in order to mechanically control the indoor

4

environment i.e. totally using air-conditioned systems. As a result, bioclimatic

design strategies found in old high-rise buildings gradually disappeared.

Table ‎1.1: High-rise non-residential buildings in different climatic regions that used

natural ventilation (Source: after Wood and Salib (2013))

Building

name

Plan depth

/ floors

number

Climate Ventilation

type / (%) of

year natural

vent. used

Natural

ventilation

Strategy

Design

strategies

Commerzbank

Germany, 1997

11.5m

(from the

central

atrium) /

56

Temp. Mixed-mode

/ 80%

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

DSF, full-

height

central atrium,

void

UMNO,

Malaysia, 1998

14m /

21

Trop. Mixed-mode

/ 0-100 %

depends on

users

Wind-driven

cross

(isolated

spaces)

Vertical wing-

wall wind,

aerodynamic

form

Liberty Tower,

Japan,

1998

20 m /

23

Temp. Mixed-mode

/ 29 %

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

18-floors height

atrium, void

GSW

Headquarters

Germany, 1999

11 m /

22

Temp. Mixed-mode

/ 70%

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

20-floors height

DSF, Venturi,

aerodynamic

form

Post Tower,

Germany, 2002

12m (from

central

atrium) /

41

Temp. Mixed-mode /

unpublished

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

DSF, atrium,

void, wing-

wall,

aerodynamic

Torre Cube,

Mexico,

2005

9-12m

(from

central

atrium) /

16

Temp.

&

Trop.

Full natural

ventilation (no

mechanical)

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

Lightwell, void,

wing-wall,

aerodynamic

form

Manitoba

Hydro Place,

Canada,

2008

11.5 (from

central

core) /

21

Cold Mixed-mode

/ 35%

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

DSF, atrium,

void, solar

chimney

1 Bligh Streets,

Australia, 2011

23.5(from

atrium) /

30

Mild Mixed- mode:

zoned/lobby

full natural

vent.

Cross &

stack

(connected

spaces)

DSF, full-

height atrium,

void,

aerodynamic

Mixed-mode: switches between mechanical and natural ventilation daily or seasonally; DSF:

double skin façade; Temp.: temperate climate; Trop.: tropical climate

Since the interest of the present study is the configuration of high-rise

residential buildings, it is possible to rely on some developments trends in high-rise

non-residential buildings, particularly the high-rise non-residential buildings that

5

existed before HRR buildings. As a result, bioclimatic high-rise non-residential

buildings have been the area of interest to many researchers (e.g. (Busch, 1992;

Chang et al., 2004; Daghigh et al., 2009; Ismail, 1996; Ismail, 2007; Liu, 2012; Liu

et al., 2012; Wood and Salib, 2013)).

In Malaysia, house types were divided into four groups based on cost, these

being low-cost, low-medium cost, medium-cost and high-cost (Ministry of Housing

and Local Government, MHLG). Although most previous Malaysian Government

plans have encouraged increasing the number of units for the first two groups to

provide low-income household, the achievement is relatively low compared to the

medium-cost and high-cost housing types (Shuid, 2004). Most of the low-cost HRR

buildings were built by government e.g., Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL). Since the

housing policy in the present plans are directed towards achieving adequate, quality

and affordable houses to all Malaysians, many passive design strategies are

incorporated into this type of housing to provide quality. Sapian (2004) defined five

configurations in low-cost HRR buildings of DBKL. These configurations are

rectangular, rectangular with courtyard, compact rectangular, L-shape and U-shape

plans. All of these configurations were built to promote daylight and cross-

ventilation flow either using a single-loaded corridor, or providing lightwells. Figure

1.1 shows the plan configurations of non-lightwell HRR buildings utilizing a single-

loaded corridor in a rectangular plan (a), internal-lightwell in rectangular plan with

courtyard (b), semi-enclosed lightwell in double-loaded corridor, U-shape and L-

shape, (c, d,& e, respectively). Therefore, the low-cost HRR buildings in Malaysia

rely on different lightwell configurations as they are totally based on natural

ventilation or low cost mechanical means such as fans.

6

Figure ‎1.1 Plan configurations of low-income HRR buildings built by DBKL-

Malaysia (Source: Sapian, 2004)

On the other hand, most of the medium-cost HRR buildings in Malaysia were

built by the private sector (Shuid, 2004). This type of housing is more preferred by

households and thus this encourages the private sector to build numerous units. For

example, based on the Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006-2010), the achieved percentage

of medium-cost units is 227.8 % of the targeted units in this plan.

The high-cost housing type considered the highest percentage in terms of

implementation in Malaysia for the last three plans (MHLG). This type of housing is

not affordable for Malaysian households as it is high-cost and thus it is only used by

a limited section of the population. Although naturally ventilated high-rise buildings

are implemented for low-income households as stated above, there are good

examples of high-cost HRR buildings built in Kuala Lumpur. They are incorporated

with architectural and aerodynamic elements to provide natural ventilation. For

example, Hamzah and Yeang, who began to design naturally ventilated high-rise

non-residential buildings (e.g. the UMNO building) at the end of the last century,

introduced naturally ventilated HRR buildings at the beginning of this century. Well-

known HRR building projects in Kuala Lumpur are the Idman Residence (2008), The

Plaza (2006) and The Residences (2006) (Figs., 1.4 -1.6). These buildings

incorporated architectural and aerodynamic elements such as wing-wall wings, and

internal, attached and semi-enclosed lightwells (Richards, 2007). Some of these

design strategies played an important role in avoiding deep plan and thus encourage

cross-ventilation flow for most units (Hart and Littlefield, 2011; Richards, 2007).

a) b) c)

d) e)

7

These architectural and aerodynamic elements implemented in pioneering

high-rise buildings (residential and non-residential) in hot and humid region are

presented in Table 1.2. It is noted from the table that the high-rise non-residential

buildings are integrated with several aerodynamic elements more than those in high-

cost HRR buildings. In addition, the table shows that these architectural and

aerodynamic elements of HRR buildings were started to be implemented in the last

decade (at least in tropical cities) and was limited to luxury or high-cost housing as

extra cost was required. However, some of these architectural elements could be used

to improve airflow characteristics due to their multi-functions.

Those multi-function elements could be found in other types of HRR

buildings i.e. low-cost and medium-cost HRR buildings. Some of these design

elements such as corridors, balcony, void, lightwell and staircase could be feasible in

terms of adaptation to provide indoor natural ventilation (Ismail, 1996). For example,

the void can be used as car parks, entrance to the lifts hall and at the same time

provide shadow and so it can be employed to induce the airflow into the units of the

building (Sapian, 2004). In addition, lightwell can be used to induce ventilation and

admit daylight into the units or rooms, which are far from the perimeter of the

building and at the same time it can be used for some vertical installations. These

architectural elements usually have a large space that could be adapted as thermal

buffer zones to control the indoor thermal performance of HRR buildings (Ismail,

1996).

8

Table ‎1.2 : Vertical and horizontal architectural elements and aerodynamics

elements in some pioneering naturally ventilated high-rise residential and non-

residential buildings and highlighted elements of the present study

Vertical

elements

Horizontal

elements

Aerodynamic elements and

forms

Lig

htw

ell

Atr

ium

S.

ch

imn

ey

DS

F

Vo

id

Co

rrid

or

Bal

con

y

Win

g-w

all

Nar

row

pla

n

3D

Bu

ild

ing

form

Ven

turi

-eff

ect

Inn

ov

ativ

e

win

do

ws

Hig

h-r

ise

No

n-R

esid

en

tia

l B

uil

din

g

Commerzbank

Germany, 1997

UMNO,

Malaysia, 1998

Liberty Tower

Japan, 1998

GSW

Germany, 1999

Post Tower

Germany 2002

Torre Cube

Mexico 2005

Manitoba Hydro

Canada, 2008

1 Bligh Streets,

Australia, 2011

Hig

h-r

ise

Res

iden

tia

l B

uil

din

gs

Idman Residence

Malaysia, 2008

The Plaza

Malaysia, 2006

The Residences

Malaysia, 2006

The Troika,

Malaysia, 2012

D’Leedon,

Singapore, 2014

Moulmein,

Singapore, 2003

The Met,

Thailand, 2013

9

Figure 1.2 Commerzbank - Frankfurt, 1997, shows aerodynamic configuration,

open-able segmented atrium and sky gardens (Source: Lambot (1997), 1997 and PC.

Liu, 2012)

Figure 1.3 Torre Cube, Mexico, 2005, 100 % naturally ventilated throughout the

year (Source: Wood and Salib, 2013)

10

Figure 1.4 The Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang (2006),

attached lightwell, wind corridor and wing-wind wall (Source:

http://www.propwall.my)

Figure 1.5 The Idaman Residence - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang

(2008), using semi-enclosed lightwells as funnels to capture wind, wind corridor and

attached lightwells (Source: http://www.skyscrapercity.com)

http://www.propwall.my/

http://www.skyscrapercity.com/

11

Figure 1.6 The Plaza - Kuala Lumpur by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang (2006), using

attached lightwells for upward flow, wind corridor and wing-wind wall (Source:

EAG website http://eag.my/)

Figure 1.7 D’Leedon – Singapore by Zaha Hadid, (under construction), semi-

enclosed lightwell as funnel to capture wind (Source: Feng (2012))

Figure 1.8 The Met – Bangkok by WOHA (2013), view looking down through the

semi-enclosed lightwell between the towers, (Source: Feng (2012))

http://eag.my/

12

1.3 Problem Statement

From the environmental design point of view, the building configuration in

hot and humid climate incorporating different types of lightwell either in the core or

perimeter of the building (Givoni, 1998; Nutalaya, 1999) affords large external

facades and thus allows the opening of windows in different orientations, which

provides cross-ventilation for most indoor spaces. The internal lightwell is

commonly implemented in the core of high-rise building to maintain daylight and

natural ventilation. Physically, the position of the internal lightwell means that it is

totally separated from the surrounding outdoor environment. However, it connects

directly to outside through sky openings at the top which act as outlets and horizontal

spaces such as corridors and voids acts as inlets. It also connects indirectly to the

outdoor through its adjoining spaces, i.e. rooms have external and adjoining window

(Fig. 1.9).

The internal lightwell is subjected under the Malaysian building code

(UBBL) to improve its performance in terms of providing natural ventilation and

daylight. However, the code determines the minimum area for the outlet (sky

opening) of the lightwell space and links with its height. In order to guarantee better

performance of the lightwell in terms of providing natural ventilation to adjoining

rooms, the code also stipulates the minimum area of the adjoining windows, as later

presented in Section 3.1.5. Based on the results of a survey conducted in Kuala

Lumpur (Farea et al., 2012), the stipulated minimum area of the lightwell outlet by

UBBL is achieved in most surveyed HRR buildings (see Table B.1 in Appendix B).

However, the survey results found that the lightwell connected to outdoors through

several methods, which are categorized into four groups (see Table B. 2 in Appendix

B). This indicates that the inlet of the lightwell space was left for the designer to

select the method of the connection. Thus, the provision of the regulations may not

be enough to guarantee indoor natural ventilation into adjoining units through only

stipulating criteria for the outlet and adjoining windows areas.

A literature survey demonstrates that the lightwell space is subjected to

produce a suction effect along the lightwell by either upward or downward cross-

flow (Chiang and Anh, 2012; Etheridge, 2012; Ghiaus and Roulet, 2005; Ismail,

13

1996). Thus, the method used to connect the lightwell to outside through different

locations of the inlet certainly affects the suction force along the lightwell. If the

lightwell does not connect to the outdoor appropriately, unwanted gases may become

trapped in the lightwell and thus reduce the fresh air flow in its space and reduce the

cross flow ventilation in adjoining units. In other words, lightwell outlet and

windows size (as stated above) may not be adequate to achieve the target of

providing natural ventilation. This leads to use of mechanical ventilation to extract

the unwanted gases from the lightwell space (e.g. exhaust fans) and to provide

thermal comfort to the adjoining room. Although the direct inlet of the internal

lightwell space is an important parameter that affects the airflow pattern along its

space and adjoining indoor spaces, there is lack of exploration on the ventilation

configuration between lightwell and horizontal void and its performance.

Consequently, it is important to understand the aerodynamics characteristics in the

internal lightwell connected, whether directly or indirectly, to the outdoor in HRR

buildings for improving natural ventilation.

Figure 1.9 Ventilation configuration of the internal lightwell connected indirectly to

the outdoor through its adjoining units

1.4 Research Hypothesis

This research hypothesises that connecting the internal lightwell to the

outdoor through horizontal voids (Fig. 1.10) in an appropriate ventilation

configuration will achieve the following;

14

a) Improve air quality through increased air changes per hour (ACH) and thus

supply fresh air which is important to discharge the CO2 and other

contaminants from the lightwell space,

b) Improve the cross- flow ventilation in the adjoining units and thus provide the

required indoor thermal comfort without total dependence on mechanical

means.

This is applicable to climatic conditions of Kuala Lumpur, and to satisfy the

minimum dimensions of the lightwell ratio and adjoining windows as subjected by

UBBL. It should be noted that the term “ventilation configuration” refers to the

configuration of the connection between the lightwell and the outdoor through the

void or no-connection i.e. no void.

Figure 1.10 Ventilation configuration of the lightwell connected to the outdoor

through horizontal voids, which may affect upward flow and indoor air velocity

1.5 Research Questions

This thesis addresses the following questions:

1) Does the connection of the lightwell to the outdoor environment through

horizontal void affect the cross-flow ventilation in the lightwell space and

thus the adjoining units?

15

2) What is the most effective ventilation configuration of the lightwell and void

to increase air velocity and reduce temperature in order to obtain adequate

indoor thermal comfort?

3) What is the optimum ventilation configuration for providing adequate fresh

air in the lightwell, while at the same time providing adequate thermal

comfort to the adjoining units?

4) Are the level and position of the adjoining unit significant parameters in

increasing air velocity and thus reducing indoor air temperature?

5) Is the CFD model acceptable and reliable as a tool to predict the air velocity

and temperature in high-rise buildings with an internal integrated lightwell?

1.6 Research Aim and Objectives

The primary goal of this research is to investigate the effect of the horizontal

void existence and its position on the cross-flow ventilation in the lightwell and thus

adjoining units in HRR buildings. The investigation includes a wide range of

alternative ventilation configurations of the lightwell connected to the outdoor

environment through different void positions and directions. The objectives are as

follows:

a) To identify alternative physical configurations of the lightwell connection to

the outdoor with special reference of the HRR buildings in Kuala Lumpur.

b) To validate the performance of CFD in terms of predicting the temperature

gradient and the upward airflow velocity driven by combined wind and

buoyancy forces in the lightwell.

c) To evaluate the ventilation configurations of the lightwell in terms of

providing adequate indoor thermal comfort of adjoining units and adequate

fresh air in the lightwell space. This is achieved by following the sub

objectives:

To examine the effect of proposed ventilation configurations on the

air velocity and temperature in the lightwell space and adjoining units.

To examine and compare the adjoining unit position (lower and

upper) effect on the indoor air velocity and airflow pattern.

16

1.7 Research Scope

The study focuses on common configurations of the lightwell high-rise

residential building with special reference to the hot and humid climate of Kuala

Lumpur in Malaysia. The lightwell in HRR buildings can be divided into three types

based on its location in the plan and the configuration of the building, namely

internal, semi-enclosed and attached (Farea et al., 2012; Ismail, 1996). The present

study only focuses on the internal lightwell as representative of the worst case in

terms of driving external wind flow into the building. The internal lightwell is also

totally separated from the outdoor surrounding environment.

The connection of the lightwell to the outdoor environment through the void

does not only affect the air quality in the lightwell and thermal comfort in the units

but it also plays an important role in cooling the building fabric and outdoor

environment (Givoni, 1998). However, the effect of cooling down the building

construction and outdoor flow are not included in the output of the present study.

Since the study focuses on air quality in lightwell and thermal comfort in

adjoining units, the air change per hour (ACH) and air temperature in the lightwell

and the air velocity and air temperature in the units are the output of this study.

Thermal comfort data applicable to tropical cities in general, and specifically to

Kuala Lumpur, were used in order to evaluate the acceptable thermal comfort for

different ventilation configurations of the lightwell. Thermal comfort is determined

based on neutral temperature, which was derived by two approaches, namely field

studies and the adaptive approach. The neutral temperature method is based on the

previous field work in several tropical cities, while the adaptive approach is based on

the outdoor average air temperature of Kuala Lumpur. Since neutral temperature

estimations considered only those studies based on operative temperature (the

combination between average air temperature and mean radiant temperature), the

humidity variables are not considered in the output of the thermal comfort estimation

(see Section 2.3.2.).

17

1.8 Research Limitations

The limitations of the research are discussed in three main categories as

follows:

a) Building model configuration:

From the perspective of building design, it is difficult to involve all possible

configurations in one study. Therefore, a systematic method is used in order to

develop the building model, which is based on a survey for selected HRR buildings

in Kuala Lumpur in addition to the data obtained from the literature. In the process of

developing the building model and the parameters of the ventilation configurations

(combination between the lightwell and void), the functional approach rather than

aesthetic is employed. For example, the horizontal void is usually used on the ground

floor as a car park or used on the middle level for building services or a refuge floor.

In order to reduce the number of variables in the numerical proposed building

model that represents the common configurations of the lightwell high-rise

residential building, an isolated and generic building model is used in this study. This

is because the nature of the wind is varied with time (wind direction and magnitude

variable per second) and thus it is difficult to predict its characteristics with complex

configurations and more architectural details of the building model.

b) Methods:

There are many methods available to predict the airflow characteristics based

on theoretical, experimental and numerical models. The numerical model is the

primary method used in this study, which is based on CFD simulations. However, the

small-scale building model in wind tunnel experiments available in the literature is

used to validate the CFD. Similarly, the validation study was used in order to

examine the performance of the CFD code for predicting the non-isothermal airflow

18

(combination between wind and stack forces) in high-rise buildings. The results of

CFD simulation of the small-scale model are compared with wind tunnel

experimental data for validation. In addition, the small-scale model simulation is

used to examine different wind direction, and further discussion on this issue is

provided below.

Full-scale building model simulations are conducted in an atmospheric

boundary layer (ABL), closer to the realistic environment than possible in small-

scale model simulations. However, simulation results of the full-scale building model

still need further realistic conditions because the effects of the existing surrounding

buildings are neglected. Since HRR buildings are usually surrounded by lower

buildings rather than high-rise buildings (Ismail, 1997), the absence of the

surrounding environment in simulation could not have a significant effect on the

results of CFD simulations, particularly at upper stories where the wind is free flow

(Burnett et al., 2005). The present study examines the natural ventilation in the

lightwell and higher floor units so the effect of surrounding buildings will be less

significant. Therefore, the study concentrates only on isolated and generic buildings,

which helps to reduce the time of calculations.

The objective of the parametric study is to examine and compare the

performance of different ventilation configurations in terms of providing thermal

comfort and air quality in the units and lightwell. Therefore, reproducing the actual

transient conditions (i.e. for specific days) is out of the scope of this study. This is

because reproducing the actual transient of the thermal behavior of the building

under realistic transient conditions (i.e. Kuala Lumpur boundary condition) is

difficult in CFD (van Hooff and Blocken, 2010). However, the realistic building and

climatic conditions complexity can be reproduced either by using transient

simulation which is very costly and time consuming or by coupling the CFD with

building energy simulation software e.g., (Wang and Wong, 2009).

Based on CFD applications, modelling airflow in the built environment can

be distinguished under two categories; coupled and de-coupled simulation

(Etheridge, 2012; Ramponi and Blocken, 2012a). Coupled simulations are between

external wind flow and internal airflow and have a single computational domain,

19

while the de-coupled simulation involves either outdoor wind flow or indoor airflow

and thus includes two computational domains. Since the cross-flow ventilation is the

main objective of this study, the interaction between the external wind flow and

internal airflow in units and the lightwell are considered a coupled simulation, as is

selected in this study.

As is commonly known in CFD simulation studies, there is a lack of high

computational performance for modelling large-scale environments. Therefore, the

performance of computer sources available in the market is considerably the greatest

limitation of the present study. For example, in order to decrease the computational

time, all simulations are isolated and the building model is simplified with only two

units representing lower and upper levels.

The wind direction is an important parameter to determine the airflow

characteristics in the lightwell and its adjoining units. However, different wind

directions require large sizes of computational domain and thus increase the

computational time. This problem increases with full-scale model simulation when it

exceeded the maximum length of the CFD pre-processing software. As a result, three

different wind directions of 0o, 45

o and 90

o are examined in small-scale models.

c) The output of the study (Ventilation Functions)

The acceptable air velocity range for providing indoor thermal comfort is

based on previous field studies in Kuala Lumpur. The estimations of the most

appropriate air velocity in naturally ventilated HRR buildings applicable to Kuala

Lumpur still lack real field studies. In general, the output of the study is applicable to

hot and humid climate conditions.

20

1.9 Research Significance

Assessing airflow in the lightwell as a semi-open space, which is common in

HRR buildings, is important in order to improve the upward flow in the core of the

building and thus:

a) Removing the heat from the core of the building and providing better air

quality and thermal comfort which are important for human health and

occupants’ activities;

b) Providing cross-flow ventilation for the adjoining units may contribute to

reducing indoor thermal discomfort time, which leads to saving the household

extra expenditure on electrical appliances, cost of running, maintenance and

electricity bills.

c) Contributing towards the development of design guidelines for naturally

ventilated HRR buildings. This guideline could be also used by policy makers

to improve the building code in Malaysia (UBBL).

1.10 Thesis Outline

This thesis contains seven chapters, including the present chapter which

covers the introduction, background, problems and the objective of the study while

the rest is organized as follows (Fig. 1.11):

Chapter 2 covers the natural ventilation principles in buildings and wind

environment in hot and humid region. Benefits of natural ventilation and models

which are used to predict both air quality and acceptable thermal comfort are also

presented in this chapter. The overview of methods used to predict ventilation

performances in buildings are also outlined.

Chapter 3 reviews transitional spaces in buildings with further detail on semi-

open spaces in high-rise buildings. Most of the studies conducted for natural

ventilation through the lightwell and horizontal void in high-rise buildings are

presented here. This chapter concludes by presenting the research gap in the study.

21

The most appropriate models that are used to achieve the objective of the

present study are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The settings and sensitivity

analysis results of the CFD validation for small-scale model are presented in this

chapter. The procedures used to collect data for several HRR buildings in Kuala

Lumpur are also presented here. The important aspects relating to Kuala Lumpur

boundary conditions e.g. acceptable thermal comfort and main wind reference speed

are determined. The chapter concludes with the presentation of the full scale model

CFD simulation settings.

Chapter 5 presents the results of the air temperature, airflow velocity and

airflow pattern in the lightwell and hypothetical units in each configuration. The

averages of temperature and air velocity in the units and ACH for all configurations

are compared in terms of air quality in the lightwell and thermal comfort levels in

hypothetical units according to Kuala Lumpur boundary conditions. This chapter is

concluded with the important findings of the study.

The summary of the study and conclusions are presented in Chapter 6.

Further research and recommendations in design of naturally ventilated high-rise

buildings are outlined in this chapter.

22

Figure 1.11 The flow of the research process and thesis chapters

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CONFIGURATION OF HORIZONTAL VOIDS AND LIGHTWELL …eprints.utm.my/id/eprint/77955/1/TareqGaberFareaPFAB2014.pdf · alternatif bagi sebuah model bangunan berskala penuh. Model