1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 1 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Citizens of Tournai bury plaguevictims. Fragment of a miniature from"The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis"(1272-1352). Bibliothèque royale deBelgique, MS 13076-77, f. 24v.

The spread of the "Black Death" from1347 to 1351 through Europe

Consequences of the Black DeathFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Consequences of the Black Death included a series of religious, socialand economic upheavals, which had profound effects on the course ofEuropean history. The Black Death was one of the most devastatingpandemics in human history, peaking in Europe between 1347 and 1350with 30–60 percent of the entire population killed.[1] It reduced worldpopulation from an estimated 450 million to between 350 and375 million in the 14th century. It took 150 and in some areas more than250 years for Europe's population to recover.

From the perspective of the survivors, however, the impact was muchmore benign, for their labor was in higher demand. Hilton has arguedthat those English peasants who survived found their situation to bemuch improved. For English peasants the fifteenth century was a goldenage of prosperity and new opportunities. Land was plentiful, wages high,and serfdom had all but disappeared. A century later, as populationgrowth resumed, the peasants again faced deprivation and famine.[2][3]

Contents

1 Death toll1.1 China1.2 Europe1.3 Middle East

2 Social, environmental,and economic effects

2.1 Impact onpeasants2.2 Impact onurban workers2.3 Labour-savinginnovation2.4 Persecutions2.5 Religion

3 Cultural impact

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 2 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

3.1 Medicine3.2 Architecture

4 References5 Further reading

Death tollFigures for the death toll vary widely by area and from source to source as new research and discoveries cometo light. It killed an estimated 75–200 million people in the 14th century.[4][5][6] According to medievalhistorian Philip Daileader in 2007:

The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45% to 50% of the Europeanpopulation dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. InMediterranean Europe and Italy, the South of France and Spain, where plague ran for about fouryears consecutively, it was probably closer to 75% to 80% of the population. In Germany andEngland it was probably closer to 20%.[7]

China

Estimates of the demographic impact of the plague in Asia are based on both population figures during this timeand estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The initial outbreak of plague in the Chinese provinceof Hubei in 1334 claimed up to ninety percent of the population. China had several epidemics and famines from1200 to the 1350s and its population decreased from an estimated 125 million to 65 million in the late 14thcentury.[8][9][10]

Europe

It is estimated that between one-quarter and two-thirds of the European population (35 million people) diedfrom the outbreak between 1348 and 1350.[11][12] Contemporary observers, such as Jean Froissart, estimated thetoll to be one-third—less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the Book of Revelation meant to suggestthe scope of the plague.[13] Many rural villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the fewsurvivors fled to larger towns and cities leaving behind abandoned villages.[14] The Black Death hit the cultureof towns and cities disproportionately hard, although rural areas (where most of the population lived) were alsosignificantly affected. A few rural areas, such as Eastern Poland and Lithuania, had such low populations andwere so isolated that the plague made little progress. Parts of Hungary and, in modern Belgium, the Brabantregion, Hainaut, and Limbourg, as well as Santiago de Compostela, were unaffected for unknown reasons (somehistorians[15] have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resistthe disease, although these regions would be touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360–63 and later during

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 3 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

the numerous resurgences of the plague). Other areas which escaped the plague were isolated mountainousregions (e.g. the Pyrenees). Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quartersmade disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas, and rats, and subjectto diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to journalist John Kelly, "[w]oefully inadequatesanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its populationwithout a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside".(p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated themovement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within largercommunities.

In Italy, Florence's population was reduced from 110,000 or 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351.Between 60 to 70% of Hamburg and Bremen's population died. In Provence, Dauphiné, and Normandy,historians observe a decrease of 60% of fiscal hearths. In some regions, two thirds of the population wasannihilated. In the town of Givry, in the Bourgogne region in France, the friar, who used to note 28 to 29funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September. About half of Perpignan's populationdied in several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague). Over 60% of Norway'spopulation died from 1348 to 1350.[16] London may have lost two-thirds of its population during the 1348–49outbreak.[17] England lost 70% of its population, which declined from 7 million before the plague, to 2 millionin 1400.[18]

All social classes were affected, although the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were mostvulnerable. Alfonso XI of Castile was the only European monarch to die of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragonlost his wife, his daughter, and a niece in six months. Joan of England, daughter of Edward III, died in Bordeauxon her way to Castile to marry Alfonso's son, Pedro. The Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the kingdomof France, Joan of Navarre, daughter of Louis X le Hutin and of Margaret of Burgundy, was killed by theplague, as well as Bonne of Luxembourg, the wife of the future John II of France.

Furthermore, resurgences of the plague in later years must also be counted: in 1360–62 (the "little mortality"),in 1366–69, 1374–75, 1400, 1407, etc. The plague was not eradicated until the 19th century.

Middle East

The precise demographic impact of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate. Mortality wasparticularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Judea and Syria. Many rural people fled, leavingtheir fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated.

Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left anestimated 10,000 people dead, while Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. InDamascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day,with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the timethe epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe,scholars such as John Fields of Trinity College in Dublin believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was lessthan one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.

Social, environmental, and economic effects

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 4 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Because fourteenth century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces,earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague's emergence.[19] No one inthe fourteenth century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe onlyGod's anger could produce such horrific displays. There were many attacks against Jewish communities. InFebruary 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. In August of the same year, the Jewish communitiesof Mainz and Cologne were exterminated.[20]

Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports offoodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing.At best, they proved mostly unenforceable. At worst, they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. Thehardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad: from France because of the prohibition andfrom most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain thatcould be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many ofthe largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their treasury andexacerbating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to warin what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupledwith war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe fortragedy.

Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population could haveresulted in higher wages and more available land and food for peasants because of less competition forresources.[21] In 1357, a third of property in London was unused due to a severe outbreak in 1348–49.[17]

However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak untilaround 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does notentirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See Medievaldemography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in livingstandards took longer to evolve.

Impact on peasants

The great population loss brought favourable results to the surviving peasants in England and Western Europe.There was increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligationsto remain on their traditional holdings. Feudalism never recovered. Land was plentiful, wages high, andserfdom had all but disappeared. It was possible to move about and rise higher in life. Younger sons and womenespecially benefited.[22] As population growth resumed however, the peasants again faced deprivation andfamine.[3][23]

In Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightlyto the land than ever before through serfdom. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the BlackDeath and so peasant revolts were less common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, not occurring in theeast until the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries.

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 5 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Furthermore, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the averagepeasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in thecoming century.[24] Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pastureand put more meat on the market; the consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beefand butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany. However, the upper class oftenattempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in EasternEurope, by instituting sumptuary laws. These regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) couldwear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member withtheir increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more withincreasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such alaw was one of the causes of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England.

The rapid development of the use was probably one of the consequences of the Black Death, during whichmany landowning nobility died, leaving their realty to their widows and minor orphans.

Impact on urban workers

In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, wages shot up and laborers could moveto new localities in response to wage offers. Local and royal authorities in Western Europe instituted wagecontrols.[25] These governmental controls sought to freeze wages as the old levels before the Black Death.[25]

Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, enacted in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers,enacted in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers.[25] If workers attempted to leavetheir current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned. The Statute was poorly enforced inmost areas, and farm wages in England on average doubled between 1350 and 1450,[26] although they werestatic thereafter until the end of the 19th century.[24]

Cohn, comparing numerous countries, argues that these laws were not primarily designed to freeze wages.Instead, he says the energetic local and royal measures to control labor and artisans' prices was a response toelite fears of the greed and possible new powers of lesser classes that had gained new freedom. Cohn says thelaws reflect the anxiety that followed the Black Death's new horrors of mass mortality and destruction, and fromelite anxiety about manifestations such as the flagellant movement and the persecution of Jews, Catalans, andbeggars.[27]

Labour-saving innovation

By 1200, virtually all of the Mediterranean basin and most of northern Germany had been deforested andcultivated. Indigenous flora and fauna were replaced by domestic grasses and animals and domestic woodlandswere lost. With depopulation, this process was reversed. Much of the primeval vegetation returned, andabandoned fields and pastures were reforested.[28]

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 6 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

The Black Death encouraged innovation of labour-saving technologies, leading to higher productivity.[29] Therewas a shift from grain farming to animal husbandry. Grain farming was very labor-intensive, but animalhusbandry needed only a shepherd and a few dogs and pastureland.[28]

Plague brought an eventual end of Serfdom in Western Europe. The manorial system was already in trouble, butthe Black Death assured its demise throughout much of western and central Europe by 1500. Severedepopulation and migration of the village to cities caused an acute shortage of agricultural laborers. Manyvillages were abandoned. In England, more than 1300 villages were deserted between 1350–1500.[28] Wages oflabourers were high, but the rise in nominal wages following the Black Death was swamped by post-Plagueinflation, so that real wages fell.[24]

Labor was in such a short supply that Lords were forced to give better terms of tenure. This resulted in muchlower rents in western Europe. By 1500, a new form of tenure called copyhold become prevalent in Europe. Incopyhold, both a Lord and peasant made their best business deal, whereby the peasant got use of the land andthe Lord got a fixed annual payment and both possessed a copy of the tenure agreement. Serfdom did not endeverywhere. It lingered in parts of Western Europe and was introduced to Eastern Europe after the BlackDeath.[28]

There was change in the inheritance law. Before the plague, only sons and especially the elder son inherited theancestral property. Post plague all sons as well as daughters started inheriting property.[28]

Persecutions

Renewed religious fervor and fanaticism came in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted"groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims",[30] lepers[30][31] and Romani, thinking that theywere to blame for the crisis.

Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices also led to persecution. As the plague swept across Europe in themid-14th century, annihilating more than half the population, Jews were taken as scapegoats, in part becausebetter hygiene among Jewish communities and isolation in the ghettos meant in some places that Jews were lessaffected.[32][33] Accusations spread that Jews had caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells.[34][35]

European mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewishcommunities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred.

According to Joseph P. Byrne, women also faced persecution during the Black Death. Muslim women in Cairobecame scapegoats when the plague struck.[36] Byrne writes that in 1438, the sultan of Cairo was informed byhis religious lawyers that the arrival of the plague was Allah's punishment for the sin of fornication and that inaccordance with this theory, a law was set in place stating that women were not allowed to make publicappearances as they may tempt men into sin. Byrne describes that this law was only lifted when "the wealthycomplained that their female servants could not shop for food."[36]

Religion

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 7 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph ofDeath (c. 1562) reflects the socialupheaval and terror that followed theplague which devastated medievalEurope

There was a significant impact on religion, as many believed the plague was God's punishment for sinfulways.[37] The Church lands and buildings were unaffected, but there were too few priests left to maintain theold schedule of services. Over half the parish priests, who gave the final sacraments to the dying, themselvesdied. The Church moved to recruit replacements, but the process took time. New colleges were opened atestablished universities, and the training process sped up.[38] The shortage of priests opened new opportunitiesfor lay women to assume more extensive and more important service roles in the local parish.[39]

Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone forsins. The movement became popular after the Black Death. It may bethat the flagellants' later involvement in hedonism was an effort toaccelerate or absorb God's wrath, to shorten the time with which otherssuffered. More likely, the focus of attention and popularity of their causecontributed to a sense that the world itself was ending and that theirindividual actions were of no consequence.

The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of theirproximity with the sick who sought refuge there. This left a severeshortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. Eventually the losses werereplaced by hastily-trained and inexperienced clergy members, many ofwhom knew little of the rigors of their predecessors. Reformers rarely pointed to failures on the part of theChurch in dealing with the catastrophe.[40]

Cultural impactThe Black Death had a profound impact on art and literature. After1350, European culture in general turned very morbid. The generalmood was one of pessimism, and contemporary art turned dark withrepresentations of death. The widespread image of the "dance of death"showed death (a skeleton) choosing victims at random. Many of themost graphic depictions come from writers such as Boccaccio andPetrarch.[41] Peire Lunel de Montech, writing about 1348 in the lyricstyle long out of fashion, composed the following sorrowful sirventes"Meravilhar no·s devo pas las gens" during the height of the plague inToulouse:

They died by the hundreds, both day and night, and all werethrown in ... ditches and covered with earth. And as soon as thoseditches were filled, more were dug. And I, Agnolo di Tura ...buried my five children with my own hands ... And so many diedthat all believed it was the end of the world.

—The Plague in Siena: An Italian Chronicle[42]

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 8 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Inspired by Black Death, DanseMacabre is an allegory on theuniversality of death and a commonpainting motif in late-medievalperiods.

How many valiant men, how many fair ladies, breakfast with their kinfolk and the same nightsupped with their ancestors in the next world! The condition of the people was pitiable to behold.They sickened by the thousands daily, and died unattended and without help. Many died in the openstreet, others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies.Consecrated churchyards did not suffice for the burial of the vast multitude of bodies, which wereheaped by the hundreds in vast trenches, like goods in a ships hold and covered with a little earth.

—Giovanni Boccaccio[43]

Medicine

The practice of alchemy as medicine, previously considered to benormal for most doctors, slowly began to wane as the citizenry began torealise that it seldom affected the progress of the epidemic and that someof the potions and "cures" used by many alchemists only served toworsen the condition of the sick. Distilled spirit, originally made byalchemists, was commonly applied as a remedy for the Black Death,and, as a result, the consumption of spirits in Europe rose dramaticallyafter the plague.

The doctors visited victims to verify whether they had been afflicted ornot. Surviving records of contracts drawn up between cities and plaguedoctors often gave the plague doctor enormous latitude and heavyfinancial compensation, given the risk of death involved for the plaguedoctor himself. Most plague doctors were essentially volunteers, asqualified doctors had (usually) already fled, knowing they could donothing for those affected.

A plague doctor's clothing consisted of:

A wide-brimmed black hat worn close to the head. At the time, a wide-brimmed black hat would haveidentified a person as a doctor, much the same as how nowadays a hat may identify chefs, soldiers, andworkers. The wide-brimmed hat may have also been used as partial shielding from infection.A primitive gas mask in the shape of a bird's beak. A common belief at the time was that the plaguewas carried from place to place by birds. There may have been a belief that by dressing in a bird-likemask, the wearer could draw the plague away from the patient and onto the garment the plague doctorwore. The mask also included red glass eyepieces, which were thought to make the wearer impervious toevil. The beak of the mask was often filled with strongly aromatic herbs and spices to overpower themiasmas or "bad air" which was also thought to carry the plague. At the very least, it may have dulled thesmell of unburied corpses and sputum from plague victims.

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 9 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Doktor Schnabel von Rom ("DoctorBeak of Rome"), engraving by PaulFürst, 1656.During the period of the Black Deathand the Great Plague of London,plague doctors (physicians) visitedvictims of the plague.

A long, black overcoat. The overcoat worn by the plague doctorwas tucked in behind the beak mask at the neckline to minimizeskin exposure. It extended to the feet, and was often coated headto toe in suet or wax. A coating of suet may have been used withthe thought that the plague could be drawn away from the flesh ofthe infected victim and either trapped by the suet, or repelled bythe wax. The coating of wax likely served as protection againstrespiratory droplet contamination, but it was not known at thetime if coughing carried the plague. It was likely that the overcoatwas waxed to simply prevent sputum or other bodily fluids fromclinging to it.A wooden cane. The cane was used to both direct familymembers to move the patient, other individuals nearby, andpossibly to examine patients without directly touching them.Leather breeches. Similar to waders worn by fishermen, leatherbreeches were worn beneath the cloak to protect the legs and groinfrom infection. Since the plague often tended to manifest itselffirst in the lymph nodes, particular attention was paid to protectingthe armpits, neck, and groin.

It is likely that while the plague doctor's clothing offered some protection to the wearer, the plague doctorsthemselves may have actually contributed more to the spreading of the disease than its treatment, in that theplague doctor unknowingly served as a vector for infected fleas to move from host to host.

Although the Black Death highlighted the shortcomings of medical science in the medieval era, it also led topositive changes in the field of medicine. As described by David Herlihy in The Black Death and theTransformation of the West, more emphasis was placed on “anatomical investigations” following the BlackDeath.[44] How individuals studied the human body notably changed, becoming a process that dealt moredirectly with the human body in varied states of sickness and health. Further, at this time, the importance ofsurgeons became more evident.[44]

A theory put forth by Stephen O'Brien says the Black Death is likely responsible, through natural selection, forthe high frequency of the CCR5-Δ32 genetic defect in people of European descent. The gene affects T cellfunction and provides protection against HIV, smallpox, and possibly plague,[45] though for the last, noexplanation as to how it would do that exists. This, however, is now challenged, given that the CCR5-Δ32 genehas been found to be just as common in Bronze Age tissue samples.[46]

Architecture

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 10 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

The Black Death also inspired European architecture to move in two different directions: (1) a revival of Greco-Roman styles that, in stone and paint, expressed Petrarch's love of antiquity, and (2) a further elaboration of theGothic style.[47] Late medieval churches had impressive structures centered on verticality, where one's eye isdrawn up towards the high ceiling. The basic Gothic style was revamped with elaborate decoration in the latemedieval period. Sculptors in Italian city-states emulated the work of their Roman forefathers while sculptors innorthern Europe, no doubt inspired by the devastation they had witnessed, gave way to a heightened expressionof emotion and an emphasis on individual differences.[48] A tough realism came forth in architecture as inliterature. Images of intense sorrow, decaying corpses, and individuals with faults as well as virtues emerged.North of the Alps, painting reached a pinnacle of precise realism with Early Netherlandish painting by artistssuch as Jan van Eyck (c. 1390– by 1441). The natural world was reproduced in these works with meticulousdetail whose realism was not unlike photography.[49]

References

1. ^ Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective(http://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA21&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false). University of NewMexico Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-8263-2871-7.

2. ^ Barbara A. Hanawalt, "Centuries of Transition: England in the Later Middle Ages," in Richard Schlatter, ed., RecentViews on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 43–44, 58

3. ^ a b R. H. Hilton, The English Peasantry in the Late Middle Ages (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974)4. ^ Dunham, Will (29 January 2008). "Black death 'discriminated' between victims"

(http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/01/29/2149185.htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved2008-11-03.

5. ^ "De-coding the Black Death" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/1576875.stm). BBC News. 3 October 2001. Retrieved2008-11-03.

6. ^ Philipkoski, Kristen (3 October 2001). "Black Death's Gene Code Cracked"(http://www.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2001/10/47288). Wired. Retrieved 2008-11-03.

7. ^ Philip Daileader, The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8.

8. ^ Spengler, Joseph J. (October 1962). "Review (Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953 by Ping-Ti Ho)".Comparative Studies in Society and History 5 (1): 112–114. doi:10.1017/s0010417500001547(http://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0010417500001547). JSTOR 177771 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/177771).

9. ^ Maguire, Michael (22 February 1999). "Re: How many people recovered from Black Death (Bubonic Plague)"(http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/1999-02/919734037.Mi.r.html). MadSci Network. ID: 918741314.Mi. Retrieved2008-11-03.

10. ^ King, Jonathan (2005-01-08). "World's long dance with death" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/Asia-Tsunami/Worlds-long-dance-with-death/2005/01/07/1104832310525.html). The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2008-11-03.

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 11 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

11. ^ Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, in L'Histoire n° 310, June 2006, pp.45–46, say "between one-third and two-thirds"; Robert Gottfried (1983). "Black Death" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 2, pp.257–67, says "between25 and 45 percent".

12. ^ Gottfried, Robert S. (1983). The Black Death. New York: The Free Press13. ^ Jean Froissart, Chronicles (trans. Geoffrey Brereton, Penguin, 1968, corrections 1974) pp.11114. ^ Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004). The Black Death. ISBN 0-313-32492-1, p. 64.15. ^ Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" (La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in

L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.45–4616. ^ Harald Aastorp (2004-08-01). "Svartedauden enda verre enn antatt"

(http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2004/juli/1090833676.68). Forskning.no. Retrieved 2009-01-03.

17. ^ a b Kennedy, Maev (17 August 2011). "Black Death study lets rats off the hook"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/17/black-death-rats-off-hook). The Guardian. Retrieved 18 August 2011.

18. ^ Barry and Gualde 2006.19. ^ Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister (2006). Medieval Europe: A Short History. New York: McGraw-Hill.

p. 329. ISBN 0-07-295515-5. OCLC 56615921 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56615921).20. ^ Bennett and Hollister, 329–330.21. ^ http://voices.yahoo.com/the-devastating-impact-black-death-marriage-376886.html?cat=922. ^ Jay O'Brien; William Roseberry (1991). Golden Ages, Dark Ages: Imagining the Past in Anthropology and History

(http://books.google.com/books?id=3Is3mtuIZ9cC&pg=PA25). U. of California Press. p. 25.23. ^ Barbara A. Hanawalt, "centuries of Transition: England in the Later Middle Ages," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent

Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 43–44, 58

24. ^ a b c Munro, John H. A. (5 March 2005). "Before and After the Black Death: Money, Prices, and Wages in Fourteenth-Century England" (http://ideas.repec.org/p/tor/tecipa/munro-04-04.html). http://ideas.repec.org/. Retrieved 5 August2014.

25. ^ a b c Penn, Simon A. C.; Dyer, Christopher. "Wages and Earnings in Late Medieval England: Evidence from theEnforcement of the Labour Laws". The Economic History Review 43 (3): 356–357. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1990.tb00535.x (http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.1990.tb00535.x).

26. ^ Gregory Clark, "The long march of history: Farm wages, population, and economic growth, England 1209–1869,"Economic History Review 60.1 (2007): 97–135. online(http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/31320/1/50512257X.pdf), page 36

27. ^ Samuel Cohn, "After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval WesternEurope," Economic History Review (2007) 60#3 pp. 457–485 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/4502106)

28. ^ a b c d e Gottfried, Robert S. (1983). "7". The black death: natural and human disaster in Medieval Europe (1. FreePress paperback ed. ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-02-912630-4.

29. ^ "Plagued by dear labour" (http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2013/10/economic-history-1). London: TheEconomist. 21 October 2013. Retrieved 5 August 2014.

30. ^ a b David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence, 1998, ISBN 0-691-05889-X.31. ^ R.I. Moore The Formation of a Persecuting Society, Oxford, 1987 ISBN 0-631-17145-2

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 12 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

32. ^ Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littman A Concise History Of The Jewish People 2005 – Page 154 "However, Jewsregularly ritually washed and bathed, and their abodes were slightly cleaner than their Christian neighbors'.Consequently, when the rat and the flea brought the Black Death, Jews, with better hygiene, suffered less severely ..."

33. ^ Joseph P Byrne, Encyclopedia of the Black Death Volume 1 2012 – Page 15 "Anti–Semitism and Anti–JewishViolence before the Black Death .. Their attention to personal hygiene and diet, their forms of worship, and cycles ofholidays were off-puttingly different."

34. ^ Anna Foa The Jews of Europe After the Black Death 2000 Page 146 "There were several reasons for this, including, ithas been suggested, the observance of laws of hygiene tied to ritual practices and a lower incidence of alcoholism andvenereal disease"

35. ^ Richard S. Levy Antisemitism 2005 Page 763 "Panic emerged again during the scourge of the Black Death in 1348,when widespread terror prompted a revival of the well poisoning charge. In areas where Jews appeared to die of theplague in fewer numbers than Christians, possibly because of better hygiene and greater isolation, lower mortality ratesprovided evidence of Jewish guilt."

36. ^ a b Joseph P. Byrne, The Black Death (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2004), 108.37. ^ Kirk R. MacGregor, A Comparative Study of Adjustments to Social Catastrophes in Christianity and Buddhism. The

Black Death in Europe and the Kamakura Takeover in Japan As Causes of Religious Reform (2011)38. ^ Steven A. Epstein, An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500 (2009) p 18239. ^ Katherine L. French, The Good Women of the Parish: Gender and Religion After the Black Death (U of Pennsylvania

Press, 2011)40. ^ Epstein, p 18241. ^ J. M. Bennett and C. W. Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 372.42. ^ "Plague readings" (http://www.u.arizona.edu/~afutrell/w%20civ%2002/plaguereadings.html). University of Arizona.

Retrieved 3 November 2008.43. ^ Quotes from the Plague (http://www.insecta-inspecta.com/fleas/bdeath/Quotes.html)

44. ^ a b David Herlihy, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,1997), 72.

45. ^ Jefferys, Richard; Anne-christine d'Adesky (March 1999). "Designer Genes"(http://web.archive.org/web/20080214110211/http://www.aidsinfonyc.org/hivplus/issue3/ahead/genes.html). HIV Plus(3). ISSN 1522-3086 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1522-3086). Archived from the original(http://www.aidsinfonyc.org/hivplus/issue3/ahead/genes.html) on 14 February 2008. Retrieved 2006-12-12.

46. ^ Philip W. Hedrick; Brian C. Verrelli (June 2006). " 'Ground truth' for selection on CCR5-Δ32". Trends in Genetics 22(6): 293–6. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2006.04.007 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tig.2006.04.007). PMID 16678299(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16678299).

47. ^ Bennett and Hollister, p. 374.48. ^ Bennett and Hollister, p. 375.49. ^ Bennett and Hollister, p. 376.

Further reading

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 13 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Aberth, John, ed. The Black Death: The GreatMortality of 1348–1350: A Brief History withDocuments (2005) excerpt and text search(http://www.amazon.com/Black-Death-Mortality-1348-1350-Documents/dp/031240087X/), withprimary sourcesBenedictow, Ole J. The Black Death 1346-1353: TheComplete History (2012) excerpt and text search(http://www.amazon.com/Black-Death-1346-1353-Complete-History/dp/1843832143/)Borsch, Stuart J. The Black Death in Egypt andEngland: A Comparative Study (U of Texas Press,2005) online(http://www.questia.com/library/118550983/the-black-death-in-egypt-and-england-a-comparative)Britnell, R. H. "Feudal Reaction after the BlackDeath in the Palatinate of Durham," Past & PresentNo. 128 (Aug., 1990), pp. 28–47 in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/651008), in EnglandByrne, Joseph P. Encyclopedia of the Black Death(2012) excerpt and text search(http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Black-Death-Joseph-Byrne/dp/1598842536/)Cantor, Norman. In the Wake of the Plague: TheBlack Death and the World it Made (2001).Carmichael, Ann. The Plague and the Poor inRenaissance Florence (1986).Cohn, Samuel. "After the Black Death: LabourLegislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe," Economic HistoryReview (2007) 60#3 pp. 457–485 in JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/4502106)Deaux, George. The Black Death, 1347 (1969)

Hatcher, John. Plague, Population, and theEnglish Economy, 1348–1530 (1977).Herlihy, David. The Black Death and theTransformation of the West (1997).Hilton, R. H. The English Peasantry in theLate Middle Ages (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974Horrox, Rosemay, ed. The black death(Manchester University Press, 1994.)MacGregor, Kirk R. A Comparative Study ofAdjustments to Social Catastrophes inChristianity and Buddhism. The Black Deathin Europe and the Kamakura Takeover inJapan As Causes of Religious Reform (2011)Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence andSiena after the Black Death: the arts,religion, and society in the Mid-fourteenthcentury (Princeton University Press, 1978)Platt, Colin. King Death: The Black Deathand Its Aftermath in Late Medieval England(1996).Poos, Larry R. A Rural Society after theBlack Death: Essex, 1350–1525 (1991).Putnam, Bertha Haven. The enforcement ofthe statutes of labourers during the firstdecade after the black death, 1349–1359(1908). online(http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ek8pAAAAYAAJ)Williman, Daniel, ed. The Black Death: TheImpact of the Fourteenth-Century Plague(1982)Ziegler, Philip. The black death (1969),comprehensive older survey excerpt and text

1/21/15, 3:58 PMConsequences of the Black Death - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Page 14 of 14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Black_Death

Gottfried, Robert S. The Black Death: Natural andHuman Disaster in Medieval Europe (Simon andSchuster, 2010)

search (http://www.amazon.com/Black-Death-Philip-Ziegler/dp/006171898X/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consequences_of_the_Black_Death&oldid=643030786"

Categories: 14th century in economics Black Death Legacies

This page was last modified on 18 January 2015, at 10:03.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mayapply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registeredtrademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.