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Plug-inHybrid&ElectricVehicleResearchCenter
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Considerationsforthedevelopmentofplug-inelectricvehiclecharginginfrastructureforconsumers-Areview
September2017
ScottHardman,AlanJenn,GilTal,JonnAxsen,GeorgeBeard,NicoloDaina,ErikFigenbaum,NiklasJakobsson,PatrickJochem,NealeKinnear,PatrickPlötz,JosePontes,NazirRefa,France,Tom
Turrentine,&BertWitkamp
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Considerations for the development of plug-in electric vehiclecharginginfrastructureforconsumers-Areview Authors:ScottHardman1,AlanJenn2,GilTal3,JonnAxsen4,GeorgeBeard5,NicoloDaina6,ErikFigenbaum7, Niklas Jakobsson8, Patrick Jochem9, Neale Kinnear10, Patrick Plötz11, JosePontes12,NazirRefa13,FrancesSprei14,TomTurrentine15,&BertWitkamp161UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,[email protected],Davis,USA,[email protected],Davis,[email protected],Canada,[email protected],UK,[email protected],UK,[email protected](InstituteofTransportEconomics),Norway,[email protected],Swedenniklas.jakobsson@chalmers.se9KarlsruheInstituteofTechnology,Germany,[email protected],UK,[email protected],Germany,[email protected],[email protected],Netherlands,[email protected],Sweden,[email protected],Davis,[email protected],[email protected](PEVs)needtobeadoptedbylargenumbersofconsumerstohaveasignificant impact on urban air pollution, climate change, and resource depletion. TheadoptionofPEVsispartiallydependentontheavailabilityofPEVcharginginfrastructure.ThedevelopmentofthisinfrastructureneedstobecarefullyconsideredsothatitservestheneedsofPEVbuyersandencouragesmoreconsumerstopurchasethevehicles.Thisarticledrawsfromdatainthecurrentliteraturetomakerecommendationsoncharginglocation,charginglevels (level 1, 2, DC fast), access and payment for charging, pricing, dependability ofinfrastructure,chargemanagement,andnumberofchargingstations.ToensurePEVmarketentryissuccessfulinfrastructurewillbeneededathomelocations,workplaces,andinpubliclocations.Charginglevelshouldbebasedonlocation,withhomeandworkbeinglevel1or2,and public being level 2 or DC fast. Charge stations should be interoperable so that allconsumerscanaccessthem,andthereshouldbeacosttochargetopreventunnecessarychargingandcongestionofchargers.Chargingshouldbemanagedwithsmartchargingorpricingtariffsthatpreventpeakdemandcharging.Finally,thenumberofchargingstationsneededinaregionwilldependonseveralfactorsincludingPEVmarketshare,travelpatterns,andhousingtypes.
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1. IntroductionPlug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) aremore efficient and less polluting than themajority ofinternalcombustionenginevehicles(ICEVs)1–3.Theywillneedtoincreasemarketsharestohaveanimpactonurbanairpollution,energyconsumption,andclimatechange.Thesuccessofthetechnologyispartiallyreliantonthedevelopmentofrecharginginfrastructure.WhilePEVscanberechargedfromstandardplugsockets,thesesocketchargePEVsslowlyandarenotalwayseasilyaccessiblebyvehicles.Developing,dedicatedinfrastructurewillencouragemore consumers to purchase PEVs and allow them to drivemore electricmiles 4–15. Thedevelopment of this infrastructure should be carefully considered so that the benefits ofinfrastructure development can be maximized. PEV charging infrastructure should bedeveloped by policy makers, OEMs, utilities, workplaces, housing developers, charginginfrastructure companies, and anyother stakeholders. Policymakers have someability inensuring the correct infrastructure is deployed and can regulate how infrastructure isdeployed.TherearecurrentlynostudiespublishedthatreviewexistingresearchtoprovideinformationontheconsiderationsforthedevelopmentofPEVrecharginginfrastructure.Thispapers’contributionismostholisticoutlineofthisliterature.Ittakesevidencefromstudiesthatusequestionnairesurveys10,16–24, interviews12,25,GPSdatafromICEVs26–32,GPSdatafromPEVs33–36,datafromelectricvehiclesupplyequipment(EVSE)37–41,andfromstudiesthatconstructmodelsbasedonnationalorregionaltravelsurveys(e.gCaliforniaHouseholdTravelSurvey)42–44.2. LessonsfromAcademicResearch&EmpiricalDataIn the following sections this paperprovides information from studies on charging levels,chargepointlocation,chargepointaccessandpayment,costtocharge,considerationsforhouseholdswithoutoffstreetparking,therequirednumberofchargingstations,chargepointdependability, chargemanagement,and implications forpublic transit. Table1 shows theauthors,yearofpublication,locationofstudy,methodsused,andkeyfindingsofthestudiesusedinthisreview.
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Table 1: Studies used in this paper by author, year, location, methods used, and the key findings of thepublication.
Author(s) Year Location Methods KeyfindingsAxsenandKurani 2013 USA QuestionnaireSurvey Developingmoreinfrastructuremayalleviate
buyerconcernsaboutPEVdrivingrange.Axsenetal. 2011 USA QuestionnaireSurvey MostPHEVrechargingcouldoccuratpeaktimes.
ConstrainingchargingtooffpeaktimeswillresultindeeperGHGemissionreductions.
Azadfaretal. 2015 Europe LiteratureReview Uncontrolledchargingwillleadtoincreasedpeakloads.Lowercostoffpeakchargingcouldpreventthis.
Babrowski,etal. 2014 Europe Modelling Uncontrolledchargingcouldputstrainonthegrid.Controlledchargingcouldbebeneficial.
BjornssonandKarlsson
2015 Sweden GPSData(ICEVs) Optimalbatterysizediffersdependingonusepattern.Workplacechargingisanimportantpublicinfrastructure.
Burnhametal. 2017 USA LiteratureReview Chargemanagementisneededtoavoidpeakpowerdemandissues.StationsshouldbeinteroperableandcompatiblewithallPEVs.
CaliforniaAirResourcesBoard
2017 USA EVSEData Mostchargingoccursathome,followedbywork,thenDCfastandpubliclocations
CaperelloandKurani 2013 USA Interviews AwayfromhomechargingisneededtogrowPEVmarkets.Driversneedtobemadeawareofinfrastructure.Rulesorpricingisneededtopreventchargepointcongestion.
Dongetal. 2014 USA GPSData(ICEVs) eVMTcanbeincreasedbypublicinfrastructure.Inmostlocationslevel1infrastructureispreferableduetoitslowcosts.DCwillbeneededontravelcorridors.
DunckleyandTal 2016 USA QuestionnaireSurvey MostPEVdriverschargeonlyathome,withsomechargingathomeandwork.DriverswhohaveToUtariffsusedelayedchargingtochargetheirPEVs.
Figenbaum 2015 Norway QuestionnaireSurvey 75%ofhouseholdshaveprivateparkingandcharging.BEVchargingonlyadds15%tohouseholdenergyuse.
FigenbaumandKolbenstved
2016 Norway QuestionnaireSurvey BEVownersuseICEVsforlongerjourneys.WorkplacechargingencouragesconsumerstopurchasePEVs.DCfastchargersareneededontravelcorridors.Level2chargersareneededatpubliclocations.
FrankeandKrems 2013 Germany GPSData(PEVs) Driverspluginonaverage3timesperweekanddriveonaverage38kmperday.Homechargingaccountsfor83.7%ofchargingevents.PublicchargingisindispensableforPEVdrivers.
FunkeandPlötz 2017 Germany Modelling 500optimallylocatedfastchargerscouldsupport500,000PEVsinGermany.
Garcia-Villalobosatal.
2014 LiteratureReview Uncontrolledchargingwillputstrainonthegridduetochargingoccurringatexistingpeaks.Offpeakortimeofusechargingispreferentialbutcouldcreateapeakatthebeginningoftheoff-peaktime.Smartchargingisthemosteffectivewaytocontrolcharging.
Gnannetal. 2016 Germany DrivingDiaries 10fastchargersareneededforevery1000PEVsinGermany.MostDCfastchargingwilloccur
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from4pm-7pmwhichisduringtheeveningpeakdemand.Thiscouldcauselocalgridissues.
Goebel 2013 USA QuestionnaireSurvey SmartchargingvoidstheproblemsofchargingPEVsduringeveningpeak.
Graham-Roweetal. 2012 UK QuestionnaireSurvey InfrastructureinvestmentisneededtoconvinceconsumerstopurchasePEVs.
Heetal. 2016 China Modelling Chargingstationsshouldasconvenienttoaccessaspossible.
IdahoNationalLaboratory
2015 USA EVSEData Mostchargingoccursathome.AwayfromhomechargingcanincreaseeVMT.TOUtariffsareeffectiveinshiftingchargetimetooffpeakhours.
Jakobssonetal. 2016 Sweden GPSData(PEVs) MostconsumerscanusePEVsonmostsays.PEVdriversneedtoadopttheirtravelon0-3.6dayspermonth.
Jakobssonetal. 2014 GermanyandSweden
GPSData(ICEVs) TwocarhouseholdsmaybebettersuitedtoPEVadoptionasICEcanbeusedforlongertrips.
Jietal. 2015 USA Modelling LowrangeBEVchargingdemandismainlywithintheregionandmetroareas.LongrangeBEVswouldshiftchargingtolongdistancetravelcorridors.
Jochemetal. 2015 Germany Modelling 77optimallylocatedchargingstationscouldcover3569kmofautobahnfor100kmrangeBEVs
Kellyetal. 2012 USA QuestionnaireSurvey Chargingeventsmayoccurattimesthatarealreadytimesofpeakpowerdemand.Thiscouldhavenegativeimpactsonthegrid.
Kullingsjoetal. 2013 Sweden GPSData(ICEVs) OEMsshouldintroduceBEVsandPHEVswithseveraldifferentbatterysizes.PHEVsshouldbepromotedbeforegridsaredecarbonized,BEVsshouldbepromotedwhengridsaredecarbonized.
Morrisseyetal. 2016 Ireland EVSEData Mostconsumersprefertochargeathomeduringtheexitingpeakperiod.Carparksandparkinggarageswerethemostpopularpubliccharginglocations.Fastchargersreceivedthehighestusefrequencies.
Neaimehetal. 2015 UK EVSEData HavingamextensivenetworkofPEVcharginglocationscanalleviategridimpactsbyensuringPEVchargingisspatialandtemporallydiverse.
Nicholasetal. 2017 USA EVSEData DCFastchargingoccursclosertohomethanpreviouslyexpected,especiallywhenitisfree.FreeDCfastchargingmayshiftchargingfromhometoDCfastchargers.DCfastchargingshouldbepaid.
Nicholasetal. 2011 California GPSData(ICEVs) Publicinfrastructurewillbeneededfor3.4%-8.3%ofPEVjourneys.Thisrepresentbetween30%and45%ofVMTthough,duetothesebeinglongdistancetrips.
Nicholasetal. 2016 California GPSData(PEVs) PHEVswithc.40milesofrangeachievesimilareVMTasNissanLeafs.ForallPEVsmostchargingeventsoccurathomeforall.Level2publicchargingisalsoneeded.Mostchargingoccursat5pm-12amwithoutTOU.TOUtariffsshiftthisfrom12am-8am.
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Nicholasetal. 2013 California QuestionnaireSurvey 300milerangeBEVscancompletealmostalltravel.100mileBEVswillneedlocalinfrastructure.200mileBEVswillneedinterurbancharging.
Nicholasetal. 2014 California QuestionnaireSurvey Freechargingatworkcanresultinunnecessarychargingandchargepointcongestion.Thiscanhaveanegativeimpactonpurchaseintentions.Workchargingshouldbepaid.
Nicholasetal. 2017 USA GPSData(PEVs) NissanLeafdriversdon'tdolongtrips(overtherangeoftheirvehicle)awayfromhome.Tesladriversdolongtripsawayfromhome.MorepublicDCfastchargingisneeded.
Pearreetal. 2011 USA GPSData(ICEVs) Increasedelectricitydemandislessproblematictogridsthanpreviouslythought.Thisisduetodriversgraduallyplugging-inintheeveningbetween5pm-12am.Howeversmartchargingispreferableasitwouldshiftchargingtooffpeaktime.
PlötzandFunke 2017 Germany QuestionnaireSurvey DevelopmentofpubliccharginginfrastructurecanincreaseeVMTofPHEVsandBEVs.WithhomechargingandpublicinfrastructurefleeteVMTcouldbe95%.
Plötzetal. 2014 Germany,Sweden,andCanada
GPSData(ICEVs)andQuestionnaireSurveys
Thenumberofdays’driverstravelmorethan100kmisfarlowerthandriversperceive.
Santinietal. 2014 USA GPSData(ICEVs) Infrastructureathomeandworkplacesshouldbedevelopedfirst.DCfastchargingshouldfollowthis.IntercityfastchargingmaybeneededbutitwouldbeunderutilizedbyshortrangeBEVs.
Schäubleetal. 2017 Germany GPSData(PEVs) UncontrolledPEVchargingcouldcauseanearlymorningpeak(7am-8am),latemorningpeak10am-11am,afternoonpeak1pm-2pm,andaneveningpeak5-6pm.
Scheyetal. 2012 USA EVSEData TOUtariffsareeffectinginchangingchargingbehaviour.
Shahrakietal. 2015 China GPSData(ICEVs) OptimallocationselectionofchargingpointscanincreasefleeteVMTby88%.
SkipponandGarwood
2011 UK QuestionnaireSurvey MorecharginginfrastructurewouldmakeconsumersmorewillingtopurchaseaPEV.Afterhomechargingworkplacechargingwasrankedthemostlikelytoinfluencepurchasedecisions.
Taletal. 2014 California QuestionnaireSurvey LowrangePHEVsachievelesseVMTduetotheshortrangeandbecausedriversdonotplugin.AdditionofworkchargingcanhavesignificantimpactoneVMT.
Taletal. 2013 California QuestionnaireSurvey BEVsdrivelowermilesperyearthanICEVs.AreasonforthisisbecauseofthelackofDCFastcharginginfrastructure
Weiller 2011 USA Modelling PHEVchargingwillonlyputmodestpressureongrids.ChargingawayfromhomeisneededtoincreasetheeVMTofPHEVs.ThismayincludehavingtochargePHEVsduringpeaktimes.
Xydasetal. 2016 UK EVSEData Mostchargingoccursbetween9am-3pmatthestationsconsideredinthestudy
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Yangetal. 2015 China QuestionnaireSurvey Chargingstationlocationandchargetimehaveasignificantimpactonconsumerdecisionprocesses.Consumersselectstationswiththeshortestchargetimethanareclosetotheiroriginandalongtherouteoftravel.
Zhangetal. 2011 USA QuestionnaireSurvey Homechargingcouldresultinapeak6pm-9pm.PEVchargingshouldbedelayedtooffpeaktimes.
2.1. ChargingLevelsDependingonthecharginglevelitispossibletochargeaPEVatdifferentspeeds(Table2).Theslowestchargeisfromlevel1chargers.Level1chargingisonlydoneinnationswith110-120vgridpower(e.gUSA).UsingstandardplugsocketsthesechargeaPEVwith100milesofrangeinaround24hoursandaremostlyusedforovernightchargingathome.Level1canalsobesufficientatworkplacesduetolongdwelltimesofvehicleshere28.Level2(208-240v)charginghasawiderangeofchargingspeedsbasedonthechargingequipmentusedandthevehiclecapability.Level2 infrastructurecanchargeaPEVwith100milesof range in4-12hours.Dedicatedchargepointsaretypicallyneededforlevel2chargersinUSA.InEurope,Australia,mostofAsia,andmostofSouthAmerica,level2chargingisthestandardlevelfromdomesticplugsockets.Level2chargersareofteninstalledathomes,workplaces,andinpubliclocations 45. DC fast chargers charge PEVs in the fastest possible time. They are alsoconsiderablymoreexpensivethanlevel2chargers(sometimestentimesmore)38.Theyhaveveryhighpowerdemands,duetothehighkWpoweroutputsofthechargepoints,thereforeitmaynotbewisetoconsider theseas themainchargingoption formostPEVs46.ThesechargersshouldbeinstalledinlocationswhereconsumersneedtorechargetheirPEVquickly,such as on travel corridors. In Europe chargers are also designated based on theircommunicationprotocol.Eithermode1,2,3,or4charging ispossible47.Thistopic isnotconsideredinthispaper.
Therearealsoseveraltypesofchargepointconnectors.MostPEVsuseastandardizedconnectorforlevel2charging(J1772).ForDCfastcharging,severaldifferentconnectorsarecurrentlyinuse(e.gCHAdeMO,CCS).MostPEVscanusethesechargers(sometimeswithanadapter)butTeslafastchargers(alsoknownasSuperchargers)areonlyaccessiblebyTeslavehicles.Anylackofcompatibilitypreventsconsumersfromaccessingallcharginglocations.InSpain,allchargepointsarerequiredbylawtohavemultiplechargepointconnectortypes.EvenwhenOEMsinstalltheirownchargepoints,theymustinstallchargeconnectorsforallPEVsfromallotherOEMs.
Table2:Differentlevelsofcharging,thepowerassociatedwiththeselevels,typicallocationsandthetimetocharge100miles.Level Voltage,Amps Typicallocation Timetocharge100miles
Level1 110v,20A, Home 24hours
Level2 240v,20A Home,Work,Public 10hours
Level2 240v,100A Work,Public 2hours
DCFast 240v-480v,2or3phase20A-200AAC
Corridor <15minutes
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2.2. ChargepointactivityandlocationsChargingopportunitiesarederivedfromPEVowners’ travelpatterns.Therearefourmainlocationsatwhichchargingoccurs;1)atornearhome(usuallyovernight),2)atworkplacesorcommutelocations(e.g.atransithub),3)atpubliclyaccessiblelocationsotherthanwork(e.ggrocerystores,shoppingmalls),and4)ontravelcorridorswheredriversstopbetweenthetriporiginanddestinationduringlong-distancetravel19,36–38.Thelocationofachargingeventisoftencorrelatedwithasingleusecase.However,inmanycasesthesamechargingstation is used formanydifferent uses. A chargermaybe a public charger for somePEVdrivers,whileforothersitisatravelcorridorcharger,oraworkplacecharger33,46.
Around 75-85% of all PEV charging occurs overnight at home 34,39. Having access tochargingathomehasbeenfoundtobethemostinfluentialchargelocationinencouragingconsumers to purchase PEVs 20,23,33,48. Home location charging can include private chargepoints and public charging infrastructure in residential areas.Work or commute locationcharging is the most frequently used infrastructure after home charging 19,20,22,27. WhenpeoplecommuteintheirPEVaround15-25%ofchargingoccursatwork.WorkcharginghasbeenshowntoincreaseeVMTandcanencouragemoreconsumerstopurchasePEVs19,20,22.Public and corridor charging stations are the least used infrastructure type. Single digitpercentages (around 5%) of charging events occur at these locations. However, thesechargingeventsarestillimportantbecausetheyareusedforlongerjourneysandasasafetynetforotherchargingoptions23,28,46,49,50.IntheearlystageofPEVmarketentrypolicymakersmayhavetosupporttherolloutofpublicandcorridorcharginginfrastructureas,duetothelow number of PEVs, theremay not be a viable business case. Chargers should becomeprofitableasPEVsincreasemarketsharesandusetheinfrastructure.
Publicandcorridorchargepointsshouldbesituatedatlocationswheredriversalreadystop:nearrestareas,cafés,restaurants,shoppingmalls,etc.Inadditiontothesebeingareaspeoplevisittheyarelikelytobelocationsthatarecorrelatedwithexistinggridinfrastructurethatcouldsupportcharging.PlacementofDCfastcharginglocationsisdependentonwhichPEVsusetheinfrastructure.ForshortrangePEVsDCfastchargepointswillbeneededmostlyat intraurbanlocations.For longerrangePEVs(200milesandmore)chargepointswillbeneededmostlyatinterurbanlocations24,37,51.
WhenstakeholdersareconsideringthelocationofDCfastchargersdatacanbetakenfromseveralsourcesincludingGPStravelbehaviordata28,52,questionnairesurveydata42,48,andfromusedatafromDCfastchargers37.Dependingonthesourceofdatadifferentresultsforinfrastructureplanningmayemerge.Figure1showssignificantvariationinchargepointlocationdependingonthesourceofdata.ThisstudyuseddatafromGPStrackedICEVstomodeloptimalchargepointlocations,fromsurveydataofPEVbuyerswhowereaskedwhereatwhichlocationstheywoulddesireDCfastchargers,andfromEVSEdatawhichshowsactualusebehaviorofDCfastchargers.Thestudyshowsthatdesiredlocationsarethefurthestfromhome,optimallocations(basedonGPSdata)areslightlyclosertohome,andactualuseofDCfastchargersoccursfarclosertohomethanisdesiredorhasbeenmodelled.Forthisreason,stakeholders should use several sources of data if theywant tomake themost effectiveinfrastructureplanningdecisions.
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Figure1:Datafrom46showingthatthewayinwhichDCfastcharginginfrastructureisbeingusedisdifferentfromwhatwaspreviouslysuggestedbasedonstatedpreferencedataandfrommodels.
2.3. PricingandinteroperabilityConsumers typically need to use a membership card to access public charging stations.Currently,thereareseveraldifferentcharginginfrastructureproviders(sometimesmorethan20 different providers) in a region. If consumerswish to access all stations, theymay berequiredtoholdamembershipcardforeachcompany.Thissituationcancausesdifficultiesfor consumers and can be a barrier to purchasing a PEV 53. To reduce complexity forconsumerspolicymakersandcharginginfrastructurecompaniesshouldfindwaystoensurePEVowners canaccessanycharging station, regardlessofmembership status 54. ThishasbeendoneintheNetherlandsandPortugal,isarequisiteforpubliccharginginGermany,andhasbeenproposedasalegislationintheUK.PEVdriverswhodonothaveanymembershipstatus shouldalsobeable toaccess charge stations.This canbedonewith chargepointshavingphoneidentification(e.gAndroidPay,ApplePay,GoogleWallet)orcredit/debitcardreaders55.
Anothermajorbarrierforconsumersisthelackofclearinformationonhowpaymentswork 56. Payments for charging usually include one or more components: a onetimeconnectionfee,chargetimebasedpayments,kWhbasedpayments,orchargingcostbasedonparking cost. This is significantlydifferent from refuelinga conventional vehiclewhereconsumersareawareofexactlywhattheyarepaying,andhowmucheachunitoffuelcosts.AclearsystemthathelpsdriverstounderstandthecostperkWhandthederivedcostpermilewillhelpusersmakethebesteconomicdecisionregardingthetimeandlocationoftheirchargingevents.Finally,chargingspeed(level1,2,DCfast)isnotusuallyguaranteedandinmany cases not clearly marked. Charging stations should indicate this information toconsumers.2.4. CosttochargeAcommonpurchasemotivationandbenefit of owningaPEV is their lowoperating costscomparedtoICEVs57–63.ForPEVstoretainthisbenefitthecosttochargeaPEV,orcostper
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mile to drive a PEV, should be lower than that of an ICEV. Time of use (TOU) and smartchargingtariffscanbeusedtofurtherlowerthecosttochargeaPEV(exploredin2.7Chargemanagement). Inmany cases free charging is offered to consumers,while this canbe anincentivetopurchasethevehicles,itcanhavenegativeconsequences19,64.
BEVownersarelesslikelytousetheircariftheycannotdependonpubliccharging.Thisisparticularlyproblematicwhenchargepointsbecomecongested19.Inthesecases,theonlyPEVdrivers thatusethe infrastructureareoneswhocancompletetheirdaysdrivingwithout recharging. 19,51.According toNicholasetal. 19,51PEVownerswhowouldneedtochargetocompletetheirdailytraveldonotriskdrivingtheirPEViftheyperceivechargepointcongestiontobean issueor if theythinkchargepointscouldbe inoperable.Accordingtothosestudiesmostcasesoflowdependabilityareduetocongestionatthechargers,thoughlowdependabilitycanstemfrommissinginfrastructureorlowtechnicalreliability.Investinginmore infrastructuretoeliminatechargepointcongestioncanbecostlyandmaynotbepractical especiallywith DC Fast chargers. Pricing and policies that limit shifting of homechargingwithpublicchargingcouldbepartofthesolution.
Workplacechargingisoftenprovidedforfreeforreasonsincludingthedesiretoofferanemployeeperk, the lowbusinessvalueof charging, thehighcostofadministratingapaidsystem,andbecause itcanencouragePEVsales19,36,65.Freeworkchargingcanencourageconsumerstorechargeevenwhentheydonotneedtodoso.Thismaycausechargerstobecongested(meaningtherearemorePEVswantingtochargethantherearechargepoints),which shifts night charging to the daytime peak and causes businesses to install morechargers.Studieshaveshownthatpricingworkplacechargingtoasimilaramountashomechargingcanalleviatecongestionandpreventpeoplefromchargingwhentheydon’tneedto19,66.FreeDCfastchargingmayalsoencourageconsumerstochargewhentheydonotneedto. Consumersmay substitute overnight home charging for freeDC fast charging at peakpowerdemandtimes.ChargepointcongestioncanbeproblematicforPEVdrierswhoneedtousethefastchargers.DCfastchargingshouldonlybeusedbyconsumerswhentheyneedtochargetheirvehiclequickly33.Pricingcouldbeusedtomanagewhenconsumersusethesechargers.2.5. HouseholdswithoutoffstreetparkingInsomeregions,mosthouseholdshavetheirowndedicatedoff-streetparkingspaceonadrivewayorinagarage.ThisisthecaseinNorwaywhere75%ofhouseholdshavetheirowndedicatedparking67andinCaliforniawhereover80%ofnewcarbuyerscanparktheircarintheir garage or driveway 16,56. However, in many other regions (e.g China, Netherlands),driversareunabletodothis:theyparktheirvehiclesonthestreet,inoffstreetpublicparking,orinprivateparkinglots.Infrastructurewillbeneededfortheseconsumers,thisincludesonstreetcharging,charginginpublicparkingspaces,andcharginginprivateparkingspaces.IfinfrastructureisnotdevelopedfortheseconsumersthePEVmarketmaybeunabletogrowbeyondacertainsize,astheseconsumersmayperceivelackofchargingasasignificantbarriertothempurchasingaPEV5,21,68.2.6. NumberofpublicchargingstationsThe number of public charging stations required to support PEV charging depends uponfactorssuchasthenumberofworkplacechargers,accesstohomecharging(oftendictatedbyhousingtype),travelpatterns,andthemarketshareofPHEVsandBEVs.Figure2showsPEVstock,numberofslowchargers,andnumberofDCfastchargersinthetop10PEVnations.
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InNorway,anationwheremostconsumershavehomecharging,thereare61chargersper1000PEVs.TheUnitedStateshasasimilarnumberofconsumerswithoffstreetparking,andhas72chargersper1000PEVs.InChinaandtheNetherlandsmostconsumersdonothavehome charging access. In China, there are 217 charge points per 1000 PEVs and in theNetherlands,thereare239chargerpointsper1000PEVs.Theglobalaverageis153chargersper1000PEVs.This is97slowchargersper1000PEVs,and56fastchargers.StudiesfromGermanyhavesuggestedthatonly10DCfastcharge locationsareneededforevery1000PEVs17,18,69,thoughthisisdependentonoptimalplacementofthechargers.
Figure2:Numberofslow(level1-2)andDCfastchargers,andnumberofPEVsregistered inthetop10PEVmarkets.Thenumberofchargingstationsdiffersbetweenregions,andisrelatedtothenumberofPEVs,travelpatterns,housingtypeandotherfactorsassociatedwithlocalmarketconditions.
2.7. ChargemanagementTheearly introductionofPEVs isunlikely tohavenegative impactsonthegridduetotherelatively low numbers of vehicles being charged 43,70,71. With greater numbers of PEVs,chargingmayneedtobemanagedtoensureitdoesnotnegativelyimpactthelow-voltagegrid18,70orcausepeakpowerdemandevents35,44,50,72.WithuncontrolledchargingconsumersarelikelytochargetheirPEVswhentheyarriveatwork,inpubiclocationsintheevening,andwhentheyarrivehomeintheeveningornighttime.LargenumbersofPEVschargingatthesetimes may cause a demand spike at times when power demand is already high 35,72–74.Chargingcanbemanagedtopreventthisfromoccurring.BEVshavesignificantflexibilityinwhentheychargesincetheyparkedforlongperiodsoftime(particularlyovernight)75.
Amethodofcontrollinghomecharging,andsomethingthatisbeingusedatpresent,isto give consumers TOU domestic electricity tariffs 76. At off-peak hours (often at night),consumerspayalowerelectricityrate.Duringpeaktimes(oftenintheday),theypayahigherelectricity rate.Householdsare therefore incentivized to charge their vehiclesatnight. InCaliforniaTOUrateshaveshiftedchargingtonight times48, suggestingthis isaneffectivemethodtochangeconsumerchangingbehavior.DifferentregionsmayrequiredifferentTOUstructuresdependingonlocalconditions.Utilitiesandpolicymakersmayneedtoassesstheirlocalgridinfrastructure,generationmix,andsupplyanddemandprofilesbeforedefiningon
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andoff-peakperiods.Evenwithineach regiondifferent tariffsmaybeneededdue to thepossibilityofapeakingevent ifmanyPEVsbeginchargingat sameoff-peak time.UtilitiesshouldprovideTOUtariffswiththeoff-peakperiodbeginningoverarangeoftimes(e.gat10pm,11pm,12am,1am,etc.).
Smart charging involves managing PEV charging based on current electricity supply,electricitydemand,anddriverneeds 77,78. Smart chargingcanbemoreeffectiveathome,public,andworkcharginglocations.AtDCfastchargersitmaynotalwaysbepossibletoutilizesmartcharging,duetosomePEVdriverswantingtochargetheirvehiclesquickly.AccordingtodatafromtheNetherlandssmartchargingcanallowexistingelectricitygridstosupporttentimesmorePEVs compared to uncontrolled charging 53,79. The system in theNetherlandslimitschargingthroughcommunicationbetweenthechargepointandbackofofficesoftware.Whenchargingneedstobereducedthecurrent(amps)deliveredtothevehicleisreduced.Ontheotherhand,duringperiodsoflowdemandandhighsupply,PEVscanchargefreely.Smartcharginghasbeenfoundtobebeneficialtothegridandconsumershavebeenwillingtoacceptthismethodofchargemanagement53.IntheNetherlands,along-termstrategyofensuringthatallchargersaresmartchargersisbeingimplemented.SmartchargingiseasiertoimplementthanV2Gandoffersalmostasmanyofthebenefitstotheelectricitygrid53.Atsmartcharginglocationsconsumers,shouldbeabletooptoutofsmartchargingincasetheywanttoimmediatelychargetheirPEV.Thisshouldbeatahighercostthanthecosttochargingusingsmartcharging.Onestrategytopreventpeakingeventsandnegativeimpactstolocalgridsistodevelopmoreinfrastructure.HavingmorecharginginmorelocationsincreasesthespatialandtemporaldistributionofPEVcharging40.2.8. Information,Education,andOutreachInformation,education,andoutreachprogramscanbeusedtoeducateconsumersaboutPEVinfrastructure.ConsumerswillbeencouragedtobuyPEVs if theyaremoreawareoftheircharging options. Education increases the use of charge points by PEV owners, whichincreases the overall electric miles driven by PEVs 56,80,81. The development of charginginfrastructureshouldbeapartofamoregeneralpolicyofpromotingelectricvehicles.Atpresent the only consumers who have a high awareness of charging infrastructure isconsumerswhohavepurchasedaPEV.ConsumerswhohavenotpurchasedaPEVarelessknowledgeableabouttheirpotentialchargingoptions56.Signpostinginfrastructurelocationshasbeenshowntoincreaseconsumerawarenessandknowledgeofinfrastructurelocations.ThiscanincreaseutilizationbyPEVownersandcanleadtomorePEVsales12,65.3. ConclusionTheinformationpresentedinthispaperisdrawnfromalargebodyofliterature.Theresultscanbeusedbypolicymakers,charginginfrastructureproviders,OEMs,andanystakeholdersinvolvedwiththetransitiontoPEVs.Datafrommodellingstudies,casestudies,studiesthatuseGPSdata,questionnairesurveys,anddatafromchargepointsareusedtomakethefollowingconclusionsandrecommendations.Themostimportantpieceofinfrastructureforconsumersishomechargers(orchargersneartoPEVdrivers’homes),thesechargesareusedmostfrequentlyandhavethegreatestimpactonthedecisiontopurchaseaPEV.Workplacechargers,chargersinpubliclocations,andDCfastchargersarealsoimportantinencouragingconsumerstopurchaseandusePEVs.Charginglevel(level1,2,DCfast)shouldbeoptimizedbasedonchargepointlocation.Level1or2shouldbeatlocationswithlongdwelltimes,DCfastshouldbeatlocationswithshortdwelltimes.Access
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andpaymentforchargingshouldbeassimpleaspossibleandshouldbeharmonizedacrossregions.Priortodeterminingthenumberofchargingstationsneededpolicymakersneedtoassesslocalconditions(housingtype,numberofPHEVsandBEVs,etc.).ForconsumerstopurchaseandusePEVstheyneedtobeconfidentthattheycandependonaccessingchargers.Pricingstrategiescanbeyestoensurethatinfrastructureisdependable.ThetimethatconsumerschargeshouldbemanagedwithsmartchargingorTOUtariffs.Thiswillensurechargingdoesnotcoincidewithexistingelectricitydemandpeaks.Finally,moreopportunitiesforPEVdriverstochargeincreasesspatialandtemporaldistributionofchargingevents,thiscanmitigateanynegativeimpactstothegrid.ThedevelopmentofinfrastructurewillencouragemoreconsumerstopurchasePEVs,thusdrivingthemarket.ItwillensureconsumerswhohavepurchasedPEVsusethemasfrequentlyaspossiblewhichwillmaximizetheirproportionofmilesdriventhatareelectricmiles.3.1. LimitationsandfurtherresearchneedsThispaperonlyfocusesoncharginginfrastructurefromaconsumerperceptiveratherthanatechnical(e.gchargepointdesign)orenvironmentalperspective(e.gemissionsfromPEVcharging).ItalsodoesnotconsiderotheraspectsassociatedwithatransitiontoPEVs.Thebenefitoffocusingononetopicisanin-depthlookatoneimportantissue.HoweverothermeasuresareneededtoensurePEVmarketentryissuccessful.ConsumerincentivesmaybeneededtoencouragetheadoptionofPEVs.Theseincludepurchaseincentives,measuresuchasfreeparking,unrestrictedcarpoollaneaccess,tollfeewaivers,etc.
ThisreviewdoesnotconsidertheimpactofV2G(bi-directionalsmartcharging),thisisduetoliteratureinthatareacurrentlylackingempiricaldataonhowconsumersrespondtothistechnology,howtheyuseit,orwhethertheywoulduseit82.
CurrentlymuchoftheliteratureonPEVrechargingisbasedonstudiesofBEVswitharound100milesofdrivingrange.AsthetransitiontoPEVscontinuesmorevehicleswith200milesofrangewillbeavailabletoconsumers.FuturestudieswillneedtoaccessinfrastructureneedsofthesevehiclesasitmaydiffertotheneedsofthecurrentstockofBEVs.
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4. AcknowledgementsTheauthorsonthismanuscriptaremembersoftheInternationalEVPolicyCouncil,aglobalpolicyinitiativecoordinatedbythePlug-inHybrid&ElectricVehicleResearchCenter,oftheInstituteofTransportationStudies,UniversityofCaliforniaDavis.Thecouncil is fundedbyClimateWorksFoundation.
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