Constructed language

This article is about the creation of planned or artificialhuman languages. For information about the linguisticfield of language planning and policy, see language plan-ning.A planned or constructed language (sometimes called

The Conlang Flag, a symbol of language construction createdby subscribers to the CONLANG mailing list which represents theTower of Babel against a rising sun.[1]

a conlang) is a language whose phonology, grammar, andvocabulary have been consciously devised for human orhuman-like communication, instead of having developednaturally. It is also referred to as an artificial or in-vented language.[2] There are many possible reasons tocreate a constructed language, such as: to ease humancommunication (see international auxiliary language andcode), to give fiction or an associated constructed worldan added layer of realism during worldbuilding, for ex-perimentation in the fields of linguistics, cognitive sci-ence, and machine learning, for artistic creation, and forlanguage games.The expression planned language is sometimes used tomean international auxiliary languages and other lan-guages designed for actual use in human communication.Some prefer it to the term “artificial”, as that term mayhave pejorative connotations in some languages. OutsideEsperanto culture, the term language planning means theprescriptions given to a natural language to standardizeit; in this regard, even “natural languages” may be ar-tificial in some respects. Prescriptive grammars, whichdate to ancient times for classical languages such as Latinand Sanskrit, are rule-based codifications of natural lan-guages, such codifications being amiddle ground betweennaive natural selection and development of language andits explicit construction. The term glossopoeia is also usedto mean language construction, particularly constructionof artistic languages.[3]

As a quantitative example of the use of conlangs withina country, the Hungarian census of 2001 found 4570speakers of Esperanto, 10 for Romanid, 4 for Esperan-tido, 2 each for Interlingua and Ido and 1 each for IdiomNeutral and Mundolingue.[4]

1 Planned, constructed, artificial

The terms “planned”, “constructed”, and “artificial” areused differently in some traditions. For example, fewspeakers of Interlingua consider their language artificial,since they assert that it has no invented content: Interlin-gua’s vocabulary is taken from a small set of natural lan-guages, and its grammar is based closely on these sourcelanguages, even including some degree of irregularity; itsproponents prefer to describe its vocabulary and gram-mar as standardized rather than artificial or constructed.Similarly, Latino sine flexione (LsF) is a simplificationof Latin from which the inflections have been removed.As with Interlingua, some prefer to describe its devel-opment as “planning” rather than “constructing”. Somespeakers of Esperanto and Esperantidos also avoid theterm “artificial language” because they deny that there isanything “unnatural” about the use of their language inhuman communication.By contrast, some philosophers have argued that all hu-man languages are conventional or artificial. François Ra-belais, for instance, stated: “C'est abus de dire que nousavons une langue naturelle; les langues sont par institu-tion arbitraires et conventions des peuples.” (It’s misuseto say that we have a natural language; languages are byinstitution arbitrary and conventions of peoples.)[5]

An artificial language can also refer to languages whichemerge naturally out of experimental studies within theframework of artificial language evolution.Further, fictional and experimental languages can be nat-uralistic in that they are meant to sound natural, have re-alistic amounts of irregularity, and, if derived a posteriorifrom a real-world natural language or real-world recon-structed proto-language (such as Vulgar Latin or Proto-Indo-European) or from a fictional proto-language, theytry to imitate natural processes of phonological, lexicaland grammatical change. In contrast with Interlingua,these languages are not usually intended for easy learningor communication, and most artlangers would not con-sider Interlingua to be naturalistic in the sense in whichthis term is used in artlang criticism.[6] Thus, a naturalis-

1

2 3 A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI LANGUAGES

tic fictional language tends to be more difficult and com-plex. While Interlingua has simpler grammar, syntax, andorthography than its source languages (though more com-plex and irregular than Esperanto or its descendants), nat-uralistic fictional languages typically mimic behaviors ofnatural languages like irregular verbs and nouns and com-plicated phonological processes.

2 Overview

In terms of purpose, most constructed languages canbroadly be divided into:

• Engineered languages (engelangs /ˈɛnd͡ʒlæŋz/), fur-ther subdivided into logical languages (loglangs),philosophical languages and experimental lan-guages; devised for the purpose of experimentationin logic, philosophy, or linguistics;

• Auxiliary languages (auxlangs) devised for interna-tional communication (also IALs, for InternationalAuxiliary Language);

• Artistic languages (artlangs) devised to create aes-thetic pleasure or humorous effect, just for fun;usually secret languages and mystical languages areclassified as artlangs

The boundaries between these categories are by no meansclear.[7] A constructed language could easily fall intomore than one of the above categories. A logical languagecreated for aesthetic reasons would also be classifiable asan artistic language, which might be created by someonewith philosophical motives intending for said conlang tobe used as an auxiliary language. There are no rules, ei-ther inherent in the process of language construction orexternally imposed, that would limit a constructed lan-guage to fitting only one of the above categories.A constructed language can have native speakers if youngchildren learn it from parents who speak it fluently. Ac-cording to Ethnologue, there are “200–2000 who speakEsperanto as a first language" (most famously GeorgeSoros).[8] A member of the Klingon Language Institute,d'Armond Speers, attempted to raise his son as a native(bilingual with English) Klingon speaker.[9]

As soon as a constructed language has a communityof fluent speakers, especially if it has numerous na-tive speakers, it begins to evolve and hence loses itsconstructed status. For example, Modern Hebrew wasmodeled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineeredfrom scratch, and has undergone considerable changessince the state of Israel was founded in 1948 (Hetzron1990:693). However, linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann ar-gues that Modern Hebrew, which he terms “Israeli”,is a Semito-European hybrid based not only on He-brew but also on Yiddish and other languages spoken by

revivalists.[10] Zuckermann therefore endorses the trans-lation of the Hebrew Bible into what he calls “Israeli”.[11]Esperanto as a living spoken language has evolved signif-icantly from the prescriptive blueprint published in 1887,so that modern editions of the Fundamenta Krestomatio,a 1903 collection of early texts in the language, requiremany footnotes on the syntactic and lexical differencesbetween early and modern Esperanto.[12]

Proponents of constructed languages often have manyreasons for using them. The famous but disputed Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is sometimes cited; this claims that thelanguage one speaks influences the way one thinks. Thus,a “better” language should allow the speaker to thinkmoreclearly or intelligently or to encompass more points ofview; this was the intention of Suzette Haden Elgin increating Láadan, a feminist language[13] embodied in herfeminist science fiction series Native Tongue.[14] A con-structed language could also be used to restrict thought, asin GeorgeOrwell's Newspeak, or to simplify thought, as inToki Pona. In contrast, linguists such as Steven Pinker ar-gue that ideas exist independently of language. For exam-ple, in the book The Language Instinct, Pinker states thatchildren spontaneously re-invent slang and even grammarwith each generation. These linguists argue that attemptsto control the range of human thought through the reformof language would fail, as concepts like “freedom” willreappear in new words if the old words vanish.Proponents claim a particular language makes it easier toexpress and understand concepts in one area, and moredifficult in others. An example can be taken from the wayvarious programming languages make it easier to writecertain kinds of programs and harder to write others.Another reason cited for using a constructed language isthe telescope rule; this claims that it takes less time tofirst learn a simple constructed language and then a natu-ral language, than to learn only a natural language. Thus,if someone wants to learn English, some suggest learn-ing Basic English first. Constructed languages like Es-peranto and Intelingua are in fact often simpler due tothe typical lack of irregular verbs and other grammaticalquirks. Some studies have found that learning Esperantohelps in learning a non-constructed language later (seepropaedeutic value of Esperanto).Codes for constructed languages include the ISO 639-2"art" for conlangs; however, some constructed languageshave their own ISO 639 language codes (e.g. “eo” and“epo” for Esperanto, “jbo” for Lojban, “ia” and “ina” forInterlingua, “tlh” for Klingon and “io” and “ido” for Ido).

3 A priori and a posteriori lan-guages

Main articles: A priori (languages) and A posteriori(languages)

4.3 Perfecting language 3

An a priori language is a language whose vocabulary isnot based on an existing language. An a posteriori lan-guage is the opposite. An example of an a priori languagecould be lojban. An example of an a posteriori languagecould be Esperanto or Interlingua.

4 History

4.1 Ancient linguistic experiments

Grammatical speculation dates from Classical Antiquity,appearing for instance in Plato's Cratylus in Hermo-genes’s contention that words are not inherently linkedto what they refer to; that people apply “a piece of theirown voice...to the thing.” Athenaeus of Naucratis, inBook III of Deipnosophistae, tells the story of two fig-ures: Dionysius of Sicily and Alexarchus. Dionysius ofSicily created neologisms like menandros “virgin” (frommenei “waiting” and andra “husband”), menekratēs “pil-lar” (from menei “it remains in one place” and kratei “itis strong”), and ballantion “javelin” (from balletai enan-tion “thrown against someone”). Incidentally, the morecommon Greek words for those three are parthenos, stu-los, and akon. Alexarchus of Macedon, the brother ofKing Cassander of Macedon, was the founder of the cityof Ouranopolis. Athenaeus recounts a story told by Her-acleides of Lembos that Alexarchus “introduced a pecu-liar vocabulary, referring to a rooster as a “dawn-crier,”a barber as a “mortal-shaver,” a drachma as “workedsilver”...and a herald as an aputēs [from ēputa “loud-voiced”]. “He once wrote something...to the public au-thorities in Casandreia...As for what this letter says, inmy opinion not even the Pythian god could make senseof it.” While the mechanisms of grammar suggested byclassical philosophers were designed to explain existinglanguages (Latin, Greek, Sanskrit), they were not usedto construct new grammars. Roughly contemporary toPlato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, Pāṇini con-structed a set of rules for explaining language, so that thetext of his grammar may be considered a mixture of nat-ural and constructed language.

4.2 Early constructed languages

The earliest non-natural languages were considered less“constructed” than “super-natural”, mystical, or divinelyinspired. The Lingua Ignota, recorded in the 12th cen-tury by St. Hildegard of Bingen is an example, andapparently the first entirely artificial language.[13] It isa form of private mystical cant (see also language ofangels). An important example from Middle-Easternculture is Balaibalan, invented in the 16th century.[3]Kabbalistic grammatical speculation was directed at re-covering the original language spoken by Adam and

Page 68r of the Voynich manuscript. This three-page foldoutfrom the manuscript includes a chart that appears astronomical.

Eve in Paradise, lost in the confusion of tongues. Thefirst Christian project for an ideal language is outlinedin Dante Alighieri's De vulgari eloquentia, where hesearches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for lit-erature. Ramon Llull's Ars Magna was a project of aperfect language with which the infidels could be con-vinced of the truth of the Christian faith. It was basi-cally an application of combinatorics on a given set ofconcepts. During the Renaissance, Lullian and Kabbalis-tic ideas were drawn upon in a magical context, resultingin cryptographic applications. The Voynich manuscriptmay be an example of this.

4.3 Perfecting language

Renaissance interest in Ancient Egypt, notably the dis-covery of the Hieroglyphica of Horapollo, and first en-counters with the Chinese script directed efforts to-wards a perfect written language. Johannes Trithemius,in Steganographia and Polygraphia, attempted to showhow all languages can be reduced to one. In the 17thcentury, interest in magical languages was continued bythe Rosicrucians and Alchemists (like John Dee and hisEnochian). Jakob Boehme in 1623 spoke of a “naturallanguage” (Natursprache) of the senses.Musical languages from the Renaissance were tied upwith mysticism, magic and alchemy, sometimes also re-ferred to as the language of the birds. The Solresol projectof 1817 re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic con-text.

4.4 17th and 18th century: advent ofphilosophical languages

The 17th century saw the rise of projects for “philosoph-ical” or “a priori” languages, such as:

• Francis Lodwick's A Common Writing (1647) andTheGroundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended)for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and aUniversal Common Writing (1652)

• Sir Thomas Urquhart's Ekskybalauron (1651) andLogopandecteision[15] (1652)

4 4 HISTORY

• George Dalgarno's Ars signorum, 1661

• John Wilkins' Essay towards a Real Character, anda Philosophical Language, 1668

These early taxonomic conlangs produced systems of hi-erarchical classification that were intended to result inboth spoken and written expression. Leibniz had a simi-lar purpose for his lingua generalis of 1678, aiming at alexicon of characters upon which the user might performcalculations that would yield true propositions automati-cally, as a side-effect developing binary calculus. Theseprojects were not only occupied with reducing or mod-elling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all hu-man knowledge into “characters” or hierarchies, an ideathat with the Enlightenment would ultimately lead to theEncyclopédie. Many of these 17th−18th centuries con-langs were pasigraphies, or purely written languages withno spoken form or a spoken form that would vary greatlyaccording to the native language of the reader.[16]

Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossi-ble to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a treediagram, and consequently to construct an a priori lan-guage based on such a classification of concepts. Underthe entry Charactère, D'Alembert critically reviewed theprojects of philosophical languages of the preceding cen-tury. After the Encyclopédie, projects for a priori lan-guages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe. In-dividual authors, typically unaware of the history of theidea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical lan-guages until the early 20th century (e.g. Ro), but most re-cent engineered languages have had more modest goals;some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical for-malism or calculus (e.g. Lincos and programming lan-guages), others are designed for eliminating syntacticalambiguity (e.g., Loglan and Lojban) or maximizing con-ciseness (e.g., Ithkuil[13]).

4.5 19th and 20th century: auxiliary lan-guages

Main article: International auxiliary language

Already in the Encyclopédie attention began to focus ona posteriori auxiliary languages. Joachim Faiguet de Vil-leneuve in the article on Langue wrote a short propositionof a “laconic” or regularized grammar of French. Duringthe 19th century, a bewildering variety of such Interna-tional Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so thatLouis Couturat and Leopold Leau inHistoire de la langueuniverselle (1903) reviewed 38 projects.The first of these that made any international impact wasVolapük, proposed in 1879 by Johann Martin Schleyer;within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were countedall over the globe. However, disagreements betweenSchleyer and some prominent users of the language led

to schism, and by the mid-1890s it fell into obscurity,making way for Esperanto, proposed in 1887 by LudwikLejzer Zamenhof, and its descendants. Interlingua, themost recent auxlang to gain a significant number ofspeakers, emerged in 1951, when the International Aux-iliary Language Association published its Interlingua-English Dictionary and an accompanying grammar. Thesuccess of Esperanto did not stop others from trying toconstruct new auxiliary languages, such as Leslie Jones’Eurolengo, whichmixes elements of English and Spanish,or He Yafu’s Mondlango, which introduces more Englishroots instead of Latin ones.Loglan (1955) and its descendants constitute a pragmaticreturn to the aims of the a priori languages, temperedby the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language.Thus far, these modern a priori languages have garneredonly small groups of speakers.Robot Interaction Language (2010) is a spoken languagethat is optimized for communication between machinesand humans. Themajor goals of ROILA are that it shouldbe easily learnable by the human user, and optimized forefficient recognition by computer speech recognition al-gorithms.

4.6 Artlangs

Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment oraesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, beginto appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel, andin Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notabil-ity as serious projects beginning in the 20th century.[3] APrincess of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possiblythe first fiction of that century to feature a constructed lan-guage. J. R. R. Tolkien was the first to develop a familyof related fictional languages and was the first academicto discuss artistic languages publicly, giving a lecture en-titled "A Secret Vice" in 1931 at a congress. (Orwell’sNewspeak is considered a satire of an IAL rather than anartistic language proper.)By the beginning of the first decade of the 21st cen-tury, it had become common for science-fiction and fan-tasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed lan-guages, or more commonly, an extremely limited but de-fined vocabulary which suggests the existence of a com-plete language, and constructed languages are a regu-lar part of the genre, appearing in Star Wars, Star Trek,Lord of the Rings (Elvish), Stargate SG-1, Atlantis: TheLost Empire, Game of Thrones (Dothraki language andValyrian languages), Avatar, Dune and theMyst series ofcomputer adventure games.

4.7 Modern conlang organizations

Various paper zines on constructed languages were pub-lished from the 1970s through the 1990s, such as Glos-

5

sopoeic Quarterly, Taboo Jadoo, and The Journal ofPlanned Languages.[17] The Conlang Mailing List wasfounded in 1991, and later split off an AUXLANG mail-ing list dedicated to international auxiliary languages. Inthe early to mid-1990s a few conlang-related zines werepublished as email or websites, such as Vortpunoj[18] andModel Languages. The Conlang mailing list has devel-oped a community of conlangers with its own customs,such as translation challenges and translation relays,[19]and its own terminology. Sarah Higley reports from re-sults of her surveys that the demographics of the Conlanglist are primarily men from North America and westernEurope, with a smaller number from Oceania, Asia, theMiddle East, and South America, with an age range fromthirteen to over sixty; the number of women participatinghas increased over time. More recently founded onlinecommunities include the Zompist Bulletin Board (ZBB;since 2001) and the Conlanger Bulletin Board. Discus-sion on these forums includes presentation of members’conlangs and feedback from other members, discussionof natural languages, whether particular conlang featureshave natural language precedents, and how interestingfeatures of natural languages can be repurposed for con-langs, posting of interesting short texts as translation chal-lenges, and meta-discussion about the philosophy of con-langing, conlangers’ purposes, and whether conlanging isan art or a hobby.[3] Another 2001 survey by Patrick Jar-rett showed an average age of 30.65, with the averagetime since starting to invent languages 11.83 years.[20] Amore recent thread on the ZBB showed that many con-langers spend a relatively small amount of time on anyone conlang, moving from one project to another; abouta third spend years on developing the same language.[21]

5 Collaborative constructed lan-guages

The Talossan language, a cultural base for themicronation known as Talossa, was created by asingle person in 1979. However, as interest in Talossangrew, guidance of the language became (in 1983) theprovince of a recommending body, the Comità perl'Útzil del Glheþ, and other independent organizationsof enthusiasts. Villnian draws on Latin, Greek and theScandinavian languages. In its syntax and grammar it isreminiscent of Chinese. The core elements were createdby a single person and its vocabulary is now enlarged bysuggestions from the internet community.While most constructed languages begin as did Talossan,having been created by a single person, a few are createdby group collaborations; examples of these are Interlin-gua, which was developed by the International AuxiliaryLanguage Association, and Lojban, which was developedby a breakaway group of Loglanists.Group collaboration has apparently become more com-

mon in recent years, as constructed language designershave started using Internet tools to coordinate design ef-forts. NGL/Tokcir[22] was an early Internet collaborativeengineered language whose designers used a mailing listto discuss and vote on grammatical and lexical design is-sues. More recently, The Demos IAL Project[23] was de-veloping an international auxiliary language with similarcollaborative methods. The Voksigid and Novial 98 lan-guages were both worked on by mailing lists, though nei-ther was issued in final form.Several artistic languages have been developed on differ-ent constructed language wikis, usually involving discus-sion and voting on phonology, grammatical rules and soforth. An interesting variation is the corpus approach,exemplified by Madjal[24] (late 2004) and Kalusa (mid-2006),[25] where contributors simply read the corpus ofexisting sentences and add their own sentences, perhapsreinforcing existing trends or adding newwords and struc-tures. The Kalusa engine adds the ability for visitors torate sentences as acceptable or unacceptable. There is noexplicit statement of grammatical rules or explicit defi-nition of words in this corpus approach; the meaning ofwords is inferred from their use in various sentences ofthe corpus, perhaps in different ways by different readersand contributors, and the grammatical rules can be in-ferred from the structures of the sentences that have beenrated highest by the contributors and other visitors.

6 See also

• List of constructed languages

• Aboriginal constructed languages: Damin, Eskayan

• Idioglossia

• ISO, SIL, and BCP language codes for constructedlanguages

• Language Creation Conference

• Language construction

• Artificial script• Langmaker• Language Construction Kit• Language game• Language regulator• List of language inventors

• Language modelling and translation

• Knowledge representation• Language translation• Metalanguage• Universal grammar

6 7 NOTES

• Mystical languages

• Glossolalia• Language of the birds

• Spontaneous emergence of grammar

• Artificial language• June and Jennifer Gibbons• Nicaraguan Sign Language• Origin of language• Pidgin• Poto and Cabengo

• Linguistic determinism

• Linguistic relativity

• Pasigraphy

• Universal language

• Basic English

7 Notes[1] Adrian Morgan. “Conlanging and phonetics”. The Outer

Hoard. “The colours represent creative energy, and thelayers of the tower imply that a conlang is built piece bypiece, never completed. The tower itself also alludes to theTower of Babel, as it has long been a tradition to demon-strate a constructed language by translating the Babel leg-end. The Conlang flag was decided on by a vote betweenmany competing designs, and one of my own contribu-tions to the conlanging world is that I was the person whofacilitated this election. The winning design was drawn byChristian Thalmann, who introduced the layers. The ideaof including the Tower of Babel on the flag had been in-troduced by Jan van Steenbergen, and the idea of placingthe sun on the horizon behind it by Leland Paul. The ideaof having the rising sun on the flag had been introducedby David Peterson, who saw it as representing the rise ofconlanging from obscurity to popularity and notoriety.”

[2] “Ishtar for Belgium to Belgrade”. European BroadcastingUnion. Retrieved 19 May 2013.

[3] Sarah L. Higley: Hildegard of Bingen’s Unknown Lan-guage. Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.

[4] Ethnic affiliation, attachment of cultures, languages andlanguage systemsHungarian statistical office. The Russiancensus (2010) found 992 speakers of Esperanto, 9 of Ido,1 of Edo and no speakers of Slovio and Intelingua.

[5] François Rabelais, Œvres complètes, III, 19 (Paris: Seuil,1973), cited in Claude Piron, Le Defi des Langues(L'Harmattan, 1994) ISBN 2-7384-2432-5.

[6] “Re: “Naturalistic” for auxlangers vs artlangers?"AUXLANG mailing list post by Jörg Rhiemeier, 30 Au-gust 2009

[7] The “Conlang Triangle” by Raymond Brown. Accessed 8August 2008

[8] “Esperanto”. Ethnologue.

[9] Gavin Edwards: Babble On Revisited, Wired Magazine,Issue 7.08, August 1999

[10] Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Formsand Patterns, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Journal of LanguageContact, Varia 2, pp. 40-67 (2009).

[11] Let my people know!, Ghil'ad Zuckermann, JerusalemPost, May 18, 2009.

[12] Fundamenta Krestomatio, ed. L. L. Zamenhof, 1903;18th edition with footnotes by Gaston Waringhien, UEA1992.

[13] Joshua Foer, “John Quijada and Ithkuil, the Language HeInvented”, The New Yorker, Dec. 24, 2012.

[14] “My hypothesis was that if I constructed a language de-signed specifically to provide a more adequate mecha-nism for expressing women’s perceptions, women would(a) embrace it and begin using it, or (b) embrace the ideabut not the language, say “Elgin, you've got it all wrong!"and construct some other “women’s language” to replaceit.” Glatzer, Jenna (2007). “InterviewWith Suzette HadenElgin”. Archived from the original on 2007-06-12. Re-trieved 2007-03-20.

[15] “Logopandecteision”. uchicago.edu.

[16] Leopold Einstein, “Al la historio de la Provoj deLingvoj Tutmondaj de Leibnitz ĝis la Nuna Tempo”,1884. Reprinted in Fundamenta Krestomatio, UEA 1992[1903].

[17] “How did you find out that there were other conlangers?"Conlang list posting by And Rosta, 14 October 2007

[18] Archives of Vortpunoj at Steve Brewer’s website

[19] Audience, Uglossia, and Conlang: Inventing Languageson the Internet by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal ofMe-dia and Culture 3.1 (2000). (Google cache version of ar-ticle, media-culture.org.au site sometimes has problems.)

[20] “Update mailing list statistics—FINAL”, Conlang listposting by Patrick Jarrett, 13 September 2001

[21] “Average life of a conlang” thread on Zompist BulletinBoard, 15 August 2008; accessed 26 August 2008.“Average life of a conlang” thread on Conlang mailinglist, 27 August 2008 (should be archived more persistentlythan the ZBB thread)

[22] “NGL Central Repository”. geocities.com. Archived fromthe original on 27 October 2009.

[23] “Yahoo! Groups”. yahoo.com.

[24] Fiziwig.com

[25] The 2006 Smiley Award Winner: Kalusa by David J. Pe-terson

7

8 ReferencesEco, Umberto (1995). The searchfor the perfect language. Oxford:Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-17465-6.Comrie, Bernard (1990). TheWorld’s Major Languages. Oxford[Oxfordshire]: Oxford UniversityPress. ISBN 0-19-506511-5.Libert, Alan (2000). A priori arti-ficial languages (Languages of theworld). Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-667-9.Okrent, Arika (2009). In the Landof Invented Languages: EsperantoRock Stars, Klingon Poets, LoglanLovers, and theMadDreamersWhoTried to Build A Perfect Language.Spiegel & Grau. p. 352. ISBN 0-385-52788-8.“Babel’s modern architects”, byAmber Dance. The Los AngelesTimes, 24 August 2007 (Originallypublished as “In their own words --literally”)

9 External links• Constructed language at DMOZ

• Conlang Atlas of Language Structures, a typologicaldatabase of conlangs, based on the World Atlas ofLanguage Structures.

• Blueprints For Babel, focusing on international aux-iliary languages.

• Garrett’s Links to Logical Languages

• Department of Planned Languages Esperanto Mu-seum of the Austrian National Library.

• The Conlanger’s Library

• Henrik Theiling’s (Con)Language Resources

• Jörg Rhiemeier’s Conlang Page

• Constructed Languages Facebook group

• Constructed Languages group of Reddit

8 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Constructed language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language?oldid=677632739 Contributors: Damian Yerrick,SteveSmith, MichaelTinkler, WojPob, Chuck Smith, Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Uriyan, Bryan Derksen, Timo Honkasalo,Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Mark Ryan, Ed Poor, XJaM, Serge Stinckwich, Scott REDD~enwiki, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Arj, Montrealais,Branko, Olivier, Edward, Tillwe, Michael Hardy, Modster, Cprompt, Alexr, Chuck SMITH, Sam Francis, Lquilter, Zanimum, Jupo42,Cyde, Karada, Plasticlax, Oyd11, Paul A, Eric119, Ams80, Ronz, Samuelsen, Suisui, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Kingturtle,Salsa Shark, Error, Kwekubo, Cimon Avaro, Kaihsu, Rawr, Tobias Conradi, BRG, Nikola Smolenski, Arteitle, Emperorbma, GeShane,Timwi, Dcoetzee, Wikiborg, Dysprosia, Wolfgang Kufner, Mw66, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Wampa Jabba, VeryVerily, EthanL, Ryoho,Ed g2s, Traroth, Cabalamat, Wiwaxia, Optim, AnonMoos, Jerzy, PuzzletChung, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoffer, Branddobbe, Robbot,MrJones, Chealer, Noldoaran, Tomchiukc, Jotomicron, Chocolateboy, M1tk4, Calmypal, P0lyglut, Tualha, Rursus, Hippietrail, Jondel,Rasmus Faber, Ruakh, Jor, Diberri, Guy Peters, Dmn, Nikitadanilov, Tobias Bergemann, Ramir, Pablo-flores, Lady Tenar, Decumanus,Gwalla, Alkaline~enwiki, Geeoharee, ϼ«ï¼©ï¼ºï¼µ, Dissident, Muke, NeoJustin, CyborgTosser, Home Row Keysplurge, DarkFan-tasy, Joe Cetina, Guanaco, Jorge Stolfi, Mboverload, Bluejay Young, Eequor, Pne, Edcolins, Eks~enwiki, Pgan002, Sonjaaa, Quadell,Kvasir, Evertype, Piotrus, Cevlakohn, Jossi, Histrion, Pgreenfinch, Micahbales, Marcos, Oknazevad, MakeRocketGoNow, Grstain, Sysy,Metron, Jim Henry, EugeneZelenko, Noisy, Vincom2, Mrevan, Cacycle, Pjacobi, Rspeer, Wikiacc, HeikoEvermann, Ahkond, Dbach-mann, Byrial, Pavel Vozenilek, Ntennis, Rick MILLER~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Infocidal, Gilward Kukel, ACW, Fire-speaker, Paullaw, Lysdexia, Ogress, Alansohn, Carbon Caryatid, Tabor, Bathrobe, Sl, Arnold S. Truman, Theodore Kloba, SeanDuggan,Wtmitchell, Suruena, Garzo, Annael~enwiki, IJzeren Jan, Ibtuten, Mcsee, Roland2~enwiki, Brunnock, Bellenion, MGTom, Chlewey,Graham87, Chris Weimer, Li-sung, Mayumashu, Amire80, Sbp, Jeffrey Henning, Dewrad, Oo64eva, Gringo300, Mga, Whimemsz,Gurch, Benanhalt, Comiscuous, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, Wavelength, I need a name, Waitak, RussBot, Arado, Red Slash, John QuincyAdding Machine, Lauge, Manop, Mithridates, Pseudomonas, Ravenous, The Hokkaido Crow, NawlinWiki, Jonathan Webley, Yzb, Lar-ryMac, Lockesdonkey, DeadEyeArrow, Maunus, Tlevine, Queezbo, Sandstein, J S Ayer, Open2universe, Aremisasling, S;3.h’s', Nikki-maria, Nathan000000, Saizai, Adso de Fimnu, PeteBleackley, TechBear, Christopher ham22, Sardanaphalus, Locke Cole, SmackBot,Stettlerj, AaronRichard, Elonka, Sesquipedalian1, Ifnord, TheDoctor10, Uxejn, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Oscarthecat, Macduff, Melroch,Atomsprengja, MalafayaBot, Roscelese, LaggedOnUser, Aszev~enwiki, Scwlong, Metallurgist, Chlewbot, Rezecib, Dreadstar, Sigma 7,Mightyfastpig, J.smith, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Nhprman, TenPoundHammer, Paul Willocx~enwiki, Rycanada, JorisvS, Wickethewok, Van-ished user 56po34it12ke, IronGargoyle, Drork, Eivind F Øyangen, BillFlis, Beetstra, Laogeodritt, Norm mit, Toddsschneider, RekishiEJ,Jafet, INkubusse, ShakespeareFan00, CRGreathouse, Kris Schnee, ShelfSkewed, Lazulilasher, Julian Mendez, Christian75, Xie, Head-bomb, Tgok, AntiVandalBot, Manushand, CairoTasogare, Profesoteric, Towelhead, JAnDbot, Patxi lurra, Robina Fox, PubliusFL, TAn-thony, Ophion, .snoopy., VoABot II, Echternacht, Keith H., Hitch42, JLMadrigal, NoychoH, JaGa, Naohiro19, Miskwito, Mattrogers,Idioma-bot, Cal Evans, AlnoktaBOT, Borovic.stefan, TXiKiBoT, Jalwikip, Maximillion Pegasus, Aidepikiwym, Kallesiukola~enwiki,Ctmt, Billinghurst, Synthebot, Cnilep, AlleborgoBot, Mario1952, Ullipurwin, S8333631, SieBot, Froztbyte, Calliopejen1, PeterCanthro-pus, Vodnokon4e, Oxymoron83, Dlidy, Thorrstein, OKBot, Pichismo, StaticGull, Craigadams90, Madzo, Ve4ernik, Heracletus, Pi zero,Knepflerle, Accordion Noir, VandalCruncher, Dadudadu, Jfblanc, Cirt, Alexbot, Rhododendrites, Dmyersturnbull, Sano, Godsmusicisloud,Lwyx, Thingg, Pisceesumsprecan, Tdslk, DumZiBoT, Mheberger, XLinkBot, SilvonenBot, Euyasik, LuWunsch-Rolshoven, Sweyn78, Ad-dbot, Cuaxdon, Gonda Attila, Protonk, HerculeBot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Cyanoa Crylate, Amirobot, Alanguage, Liangnu, Implovi-ous, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Mahmudmasri, Knop92, 19DrPepper91, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Polemyx, GrouchoBot, Humilulo, RibotBOT,Kyng, Tutitkuni, MerlLinkBot, Byalinguist, Sodarayag, Citation bot 1, HRoestBot, USA Linguistics, RedBot, Kibi78704, Rausch, Irbis-greif, Hamaxides, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Duoduoduo, Cowlibob, Stephen MUFC, Alph Bot, EmausBot, Montgolfière, GoingBatty, Hpvpp,Kmoksy, Thecheesykid, ZéroBot, Riittaajo, EmperorZelos, H3llBot, Eniagrom, Mrkrwn, Tijfo098, ClueBot NG, Goose friend, Loginnigol,Metaknowledge, Helpful Pixie Bot, Unnunn12, Lajib, Calabe1992, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Pastaguy12, Snow Rise, Kraŭs, Fylbecatulous,Namheojong, Khazar2, Darkgamma, Dexbot, TheZelos, Cerabot~enwiki, Graphium, Jprpic, Jared.h.wood, Gleki.arxokuna, RotlinkBot,Enoshd, 0alx0, Sofia Koutsouveli, Elmsbye, Jeffer Muse, Sandidge02, Maxwell Verbeek, Marco Antonio González Prendes, DaConnorSM,KasparBot and Anonymous: 279

10.2 Images• File:68r.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/68r.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke RareBook & Manuscript Library, Yale University ([1]). Original artist: Unknown

• File:Conlangflag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Conlangflag.svg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: CONLANG mailing list. According to Conlanging and phonetics by Adrian Morgan, “The colours represent creative energy, and thelayers of the tower imply that a conlang is built piece by piece, never completed. The tower itself also alludes to the Tower of Babel, as ithas long been a tradition to demonstrate a constructed language by translating the Babel legend. The Conlang flag was decided on by a votebetween many competing designs, and one of my own contributions to the conlanging world is that I was the person who facilitated thiselection. The winning design was drawn by Christian Thalmann, who introduced the layers. The idea of including the Tower of Babel onthe flag had been introduced by Jan van Steenbergen, and the idea of placing the sun on the horizon behind it by Leland Paul. The idea ofhaving the rising sun on the flag had been introduced by David Peterson, who saw it as representing the rise of conlanging from obscurityto popularity and notoriety”. Original artist: According to the website of Language Creation Society: “The Conlang Flag was designed byChristian Thalmann, Jan van Steenbergen, Leland Paul, David J. Peterson and Adrian Morgan”. Vectorized by Froztbyte

• File:Design_conlang.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Design_conlang.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded bySimon.

10.3 Content license 9

10.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0