Contemporary Assignment

8/10/2019 Contemporary Assignment

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Definition of TermsContemporary Development - an aspect in which state and non-state actors are expected to

provide factors of development to the society the factors may include; micro-credits, participatory land-use planning, enterprise development, community health programs, andgender practice.

Contemporary Society - according to social and political scientists is characterised by at leastthree fundamental directions:

increasing human interconnection through a network of relationships that is progressivelycovering the whole planet;

the pace and depth of the evolution of human ways of life determined by technologicalinnovation represent an absolute novelty in human history;

the scale of anthropological and ecological transformation due to the interaction betweenevolutionary factors (social, cultural, economic, and technological) has no historical

precedent.

Community Development Defined common definition of community development is not simple to attain, nor is it universallyagreed upon. !art of the confusion rests with the fact that community development is both

process and product. "he practice of community development is not one focused solely onmaterial resource development, nor is it devoted exclusively to systems for addressingcommunity needs. #ones and $ilva (%&&%) consider an integrated model of communitydevelopment that includes problem solving, community building, and systems interaction. $tatedanother way, they posit that a truly integrated approach assesses the problem, goes on to buildcommunity capacity, and importantly, addresses the problem.

'ommunity refers to the focus of the interest at uestion. n fact, community of interest is a

useful characteri*ation of the term. t implies more than merely a physical place, although it can,and often does include a geographic element. t may, however, reference a discrete collection of persons about which a common interest is shared, yet they may be collected from far different places, not necessarily even corresponding about their shared interest. "he community of interestneed not be made up of similar perspectives. ndeed, it often is made up of diverse perspectivessurrounding a common issue.

s difficult as community is to define, finding a common definition of development may bemore problematic. "he field of community development grew in large part out of theindustriali*ation model of the mid-%&++s. et, the term development in contemporary communitydevelopment means far more than industrial or economic development. "he best substitute for

the word development, in this context, is terms that are more supportive of process conceptssuch as advancement; betterment; capacity building; empowerment; enhancement; and nurturing.

TABLE OF CONTENTS


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/efinition of "erms000000000000000000000000000.ii"able of 'ontents000000000000000000000000000....iii1ist of bbreviations00000000000000000000000000...v2eferences


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LIST OF ABBRE IATIONSAATF frican gricultural "echnology 3oundationADRA! dventist /evelopment and 2elief gency 4enyaAN""CAN frican 5etwork for the !revention and !rotection against 'hild buse and

5eglect6s

B#I 7ody 8ass ndexB#R 7asal 8etabolic 2ateCBOs 'ommunity 7ased 9rgani*ationsCC$ 'entre for 'orporate overnanceCC! 'hristian 'ouncil of 4enyaCSOs 'ivil $ociety 9rgani*ationsCSR 'orporate $ocial 2esponsibility$B reat 7ritainICFE# nter-/enominational 'hristian 3ellowship 8inistriesICS nternational 'hristian $upport 3und#%&O 8aendeleo a anawake 9rgani*ation

#%&O! 8aendeleo a anawake 9rgani*ation in 4enyaN$Os 5on- overnmental 9rganiastions"Os !eoples6 9rgani*ations"TA !arents-"eachers ssociationSA"s $tructural d


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T(E CONTE#"ORAR% ISS'ES IN CO##'NIT% DE ELO"#ENT)*+ Introduction"he government of 4enya has faced many challenges of governance of development sinceindependence leading to poor economic performance and hence negative conse uences on thecountry (8wen*wa, >++?). 9ne area in particular focus is planning that largely left grassroots

leaders and local communities playing an insignificant role in decision-making andimplementation of planned development pro


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progress. hile the country has managed to forge a coalition government and is attempting toright its course, issues that had been kept beneath the surface, such as corruption and ethnicrivalries, have come to the fore. "hat means that the political future of 4enya hinged on thegovernment6s active support for institutional reforms.

"he challenges affecting contemporary community development falls within: political,economic, and social challenges currently affecting 4enya6s development. "he state expects tovigorously focus particularly on economic reforms, corruption, constitutional reform and theissue concerning the prosecution of politically correct individuals who commit crimes and goscotch free.

4enya6s economy must be transformed to rely on industry and services, and that thistransformation must also incorporate the needs of millions of unskilled poor people. "o beginthis transformation, investment is necessary, particularly in infrastructure. 3or example, theconstruction of railroads along new routes will bring previously underdeveloped regions of thecountry into connection with the ma


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"he state has failed to provide such basic healthcare leaving the sick in a hopeless state. "he poor ma


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and fetching water, and the pastoral communities now spend the time saved to engage in incomegenerating activities. 7esides, availing water within the reach of families makes female childrenhitherto involved in long distance water-fetching to find time to concentrate on schooling.7esides the above, /asapei ater and @nvironmental !ro,+++

boreholes in estern !rovince.

,*,*2 En-ancin1 Access to Educationithin the education sector, it is possible to sketch out some principal 5 9 activities. "hey have

traditionally taken on the role of gap filling; that is, taking on activities of basic education provision where the government lacks the capacity to do so or does not consider it a priority. 5 9s focus in education include constructing schools, constructing and e uipping laboratoriesand libraries, providing fees for orphans, paying pre-primary school teachers, instituting feeding

programmes in schools, provision of sanitary pads,


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to the reform process (indeed, these organi*ations might have been the prime movers in putting pressure on governments to enact land reform legislation in the first place).

,*,*4 Advocacy and Lo//yin1 A1ainst $ender Discrimination"he enhancement of womenEs access to land and to all productive resources in 4enya is a

challenge. s a result of factors as varied as population pressure, economic development, privati*ation, legal impediments, or separation from their husbands, many women have beenlosing whatever access to land they had. 9ften these women are heads of households: loss of land dooms them and their children to extreme poverty. iven the patriarchal nature of mostsocieties and of most governments, aid agencies, churches and 5 9s any change in this situationwill in all likelihood come about only as the result of organi*ed pressure from womenthemselves.

,*,*5 Emer1ence of Tec-nolo1ical Crime9ne of the ma


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$ustainable peace and tran uility has eluded the region for a long time and conflict and civilstrife has been seen to escalate in the last two decades with the fall of the $iad 7arre regime inthe former 2epublic of $omalia. ndeed, disarmament of the pastoral communities while theinternational borders remain porous is unlikely to achieve much.

,*. Facilitatin1 Communication 5 9s use interpersonal methods of communication, and study the right entry points wherebythey gain the trust of the community they seek to benefit. "hey would also have a good idea of the feasibility of the pro


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this idea that creates the impetus to achieve social change and to fight against poverty and socialexclusion.

n understanding of and a commitment to community empowerment and participation are at thecore of community development in the contemporary society. 'ombat poverty agency in the role

of community development in tackling poverty defines community development as: enabling or empowering people to actively work for social change which will improve the uality of their lives, the communities in which they live andBor the society of which they are a part. "his is acollective process that recogni*es the interdependence of people to fully walk the same pathtogether. t helps people to identify and articulate their needs, and influence the decision-making

processes and structures that affect them, their communities and wider society.

,*3 Summary of t-e Discussionn the 7ible we learn that there are those times of severe famine and hunger could strike forcing

people to source for food from long distance travels. $ocieties in the 7ible were also not all thesame, there were those blessed with a lot of wealth and those without. 5 9s act as

implementers, catalysts and partners. "he implementer role is concerned with the mobili*ation of resources to provide goods and services to people who need them. "he service delivery roleembodies a very wide range of activities carried out by 5 9s in fields as diverse as healthcare,microfinance, agricultural extension, emergency relief and human rights. $ervice delivery work has increased as 5 9s have been increasingly Gcontracted6 by governments and donors withinthe last two decades of governance reform and privati*ation to carry out specific tasks in returnfor payment; it has also become more prominent as increasing emphasis

5ongovernmental organi*ations bridge the gap between government and the community.'ommunity-based organi*ations are essential in organi*ing poor people, taking collective action,fighting for their rights, and representing the interests of their members in dialogue with 5 9sand government. 5 9s, on the other hand, are better at facilitating the supply of inputs into themanagement process, mediating between people and the wider political party, networking,information dissemination and policy reform.

"he role of the various factors, including 5 9s, in social economic development has beenredefined. "he new roles encourage governments to work in partnership with the private sector and with civil society bodies and communities in which they work. "he government-5 9relations in 4enya have varied from cold to warm in different eras and depending on the area of operation of 5 9s. ll 5 9s held that their ma


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,* Discuss t-e follo6in1 Roles of t-e elderly"he age group of IJ years and above is defined by =nited 5ations as the EelderlyE or older

person; this is not globally, accepted definition hence it is sub


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society to ensure the welfare of its members, minimi*ing disparities and avoiding polari*ationand conflict, and it re uires fostering solidarity and reciprocity between generations

9lder persons have gathered substantive experience throughout their lives. "hey should beenabled to capitali*e on this experience, for example by pursuing entrepreneurial activities and


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played a crucial part in structuring the transitions between one stage of the life and the next andin defining maturity and fulfillment.

9lder people have always been more religious than the young. hether elderly people haveregarded od as


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way. $uch an environment is at the root of stable, safe and


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. a7 Define and Discuss Ant-ropometric Nutritional AssessmentDefinition

5utritional anthropometry is a measurement of the variations of the physical dimensions and thegross composition of the human body at different age levels and degrees of nutrition (#elliffe,%&II). "hese nthropometric nutritional assessment measurements are of two types, growth and

body composition. "hey are applied in the assessment of the nutritional status of both childrenand adults. "he selection of the ideal single or a combined use of anthropometric indicatorsdepends upon the sensitivity and specificity of the indicator chosen. $ensitive indices are ideallysuited for nutritional status assessment in screening or surveillance activities as they are capableof detecting even small changes that occur in nutritional status during conditions of foodinade uacy.

"he orld Aealth 9rgani*ation ( A9) cites anthropometric aspects and intake of ade uatenutrients as determinants of fetal growth, demonstrating a close association with these

parameters and weight and gestational age at birth. nthropometric measurements, among themost fre uently applied methods for assessing nutritional status in pregnant women, are

recogni*ed as effective tools in the prevention of perinatal morbi-mortality, the prognosis of child health, and the promotion of womenEs health, and have undergone considerableimprovement over the past five decades. 5utritional anthropometric measurements, indices andindicators are defined, and the commonly used indicators for the diagnosis of under nutritionthroughout the life cycle (infants, children, adolescents, adults and elderly).

n addition, their easy application, low cost, and non-invasive nature reinforce their viability as anutritional assessment method. "he anthropometric nutritional indicators provide a reflection of the nutritional status of the community and hence complement the information obtained by other approaches.

Infants and c-ildrenn infants and children under five years of age, assessment of growth has been the single most

important measurement that best defines their nutritional status. /isturbances in nutrition as aresult of inade uacy of food intake, severe and repeated infections or a combination of both,operating very often as a vicious spiral, invariably affect the growth of a child. "hese adverseconditions are closely linked to the general standard of living and the populationEs ability to meetits basic needs for nutritious food, safe water, good housing, acceptable levels of environmentalsanitation, and ready and easy access to health care.

ssessment of the nutritional status of the child by the use of nutritional anthropometricindicators of growth has thus been used not only to provide information on the nutritional andhealth status of children but also as an indirect measure of the uality of life of the entirecommunity or population, and thereby as an indicator of the nutritional status and ade uacy of food of all members of that community. Aowever, there are growing doubts whether estimates of under-nutrition based on nutritional anthropometric survey data in children alone necessarilyreflect the overall nutritional status and the ade uacy of food availability within the entirecommunity (3 9, %&&F).


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Aeight and weight are the most commonly used indicators of the nutritional status of a child.ccording to a A9 orking roup (%&KI), appropriate height-for-age of a child reflects linear

growth and can measure long- term growth faltering or stunting, while appropriate weight-for-height reflects proper body proportion or the harmony of growth. eight-for-height is

particularly sensitive to acute growth disturbances and is useful to detect the presence of wasting.

eight-for-age represents a convenient synthesis of both linear growth and body proportion andthus can be used for the diagnosis of underweight children.

"he presence of undernutrition in children is assessed using these three anthropometric parameters (weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height) and by comparing them withinternationally accepted reference standards ( A9, %&KD).

Adolescentsdolescents comprise a significant proportion of the worldEs population; some estimates put the

number of youth at over D+ percent of the world population. "he proportion of adolescentswithin a population group is also rising relative to other age groups, and an overwhelming

proportion of young adolescents live in developing countries. ncreases in height as well asweight occur during this period. bout >J percent of an individualEs attained height is achievedduring adolescence as a result of the adolescent growth spurt that marks the end of the growth inheight. Cariations in adolescent body si*e and the timing of maturational events are determinedgenetically in populations whose environment allows full expression of the genotype.

here this is limited by environmental constraints, including nutrition, the observed growth andmaturation during adolescence reflect environmental rather than inherited potential. t is nowclear that growth differences among groups are also related to nutritional status, socio -economicand other factors. rowth in adolescence may be limited by prolonged undernutrition, infectionsand chronic disease. $tunting or short stature in adolescence is not only indicative of pastundernutrition during childhood but also may be a cumulative indicator of nutritional statusduring adolescence.

$tunting among adolescents reflects increased health risks, particularly among females whowould also tend to have a small pelvis, leading possibly to obstructed labour during childbirth.

ains in weight are also considerable during the adolescent years with increases in both muscleand fat. irls tend to gain relatively more fat, while boys gain relatively more muscle.=ndernutrition in girls during adolescence is characteri*ed by a low weight, which may result in

poor pregnancy outcomes, particularly low birth weight. =ndernutrition also may limit schoolachievement and work productivity in later years. "here is emerging evidence that stuntedindividuals are at increased risk of overweight and obesity when food availability increases andlifestyles change (!opkin, 2ichards and 8ontiero, %&&I).

Adults"he lack of a true definition for the assessment of adult under nutrition is due to the difficulty inestablishing satisfactory reference standards for normality and in delineating cutoffs to helpdistinguish between well -nourished and undernourished adults in population groups. chronicstate of under-nutrition in the adult has its cost in terms of risk to health and impairment of function, which may include a lowered work capacity, a reduced ability to sustain economically


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productive work or even socially desirable physical activities and possibly an impaired immunefunction with a predisposition to repeated infections (3 9, %&&F).

Elderlydults I+ years of age and older represent the fastest-growing segment of the populationthroughout the world. /ecline in height with age is well documented in the elderly, and reductionin weight also occurs with increasing age, although the pattern of change in weight is uitedifferent from that of height and varies with the sex of the individual. "he use of anthropometryis relatively recent in the elderly, and the anthropometric index of choice is the 78 , as in thecase of non-elderly adults.

"hus, height, weight and 78 are good indicators of nutritional status and the risk of morbidityand mortality in the elderly population. Aeight can be difficult to measure in the elderly as aresult of increasing spinal curvature with age; there are no guidelines regarding the degree of

spinal curvature that would invalidate the measurement of height. t can be estimated from kneeheight or from arm span, although A9 (%&&J) recommends knee height as being the moresatisfactory of the two. "he estimated height can then be used to derive 78 , using therecommended cutoff points of M%K.J for underweight and N>J for overweight, the same as thoseused for non-elderly adults.

/7 Discuss Nutritional Life Cycle Interactions8edications have become an integral part of life for many people. 8edicine serves to help

people when they are sick, allowing them to live longer and healthier lives. ith rapidly growingresearch and technology, medications are more beneficial, and new ones continue to bediscovered. /rugs do need to be taken with caution, however. ll medications, whether

prescribed by a doctor or bought over-the-counter, are capable of harmful side effects. "he foods people eat contain nutrients that are used by the body to produce energy. $ometimes, certainmedications may interact with both the food eaten and the nutrients the food gives to the bodyfor proper functioning. hen the body is unable to use a nutrient due to a drug that has beentaken, a nutrient-drug interaction has occurred.

"his provides a detailed view of the nutritional foundations necessary for human growth,development and reproduction, including normal functioning of individuals in each stage of thelife cycle, from preconception to the final stages of life. "he life stages covered are

preconception, pregnancy and lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. 5ormal nutrition for each stage of life is covered followed by some clinical aspects of nutritionalinterventions in each phase of the cycle. 8echanistic principles of nutrition and their applicationin preventive and curative aspects of human health throughout the life cycle are covered. "hisarea additionally covers biological anthropology and human evolution and variation in thecontext of i) nutrient-gene interactions and their role in developmental as well as degenerativeconditions, and ii)the biological implications of a shift away from historicalBnatural dietary

patterns


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0rganised &rime and Traffic ing in astern Africa . (>++&). 5airobi, 4enya: =nited 5ations9ffice on /rugs and 'rime.

2$9 (>+%+). nterview ith 2egional $ecurity 9ffice at =.$. @mbassy. 5airobi, 4enya

$tavrou, . (>++>). &rime in airo!i . 5airobi, 4enya: =nited 5ations Aabitat.

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Contemporary Assignment