CONTEMPORARY SURVEY OF CINEMA DIRECTING METHODS

A T hesis

P re sen ted to

th e F a c u lty o f th e G raduate schoo l

The U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia

In P a r t i a l F u lf i l lm e n t

o f th e Requirem ents fo r th e Degree

M aster o f A rts

byA sit Randan Ghosh

F ebruary 1943

UMI Number: EP42668

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..........................A8IT...R*....GHQjSH................................under the direction of h...... Faculty Commit tee ,a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l i ts m e m b e r s , has been presented to and accepted by the Counci l on Graduate S tu dy and Research in partia l fulfi l l­m e n t of the r e q u i re m e n ts f o r the d e g r e e o f

MASTER OF ARTS

Secretary

Date J a n u ^ y 3 1 , 1 9 4 3

Faculty Committee

Chairman

TABLE OF CONTENTS

C hapter Page

I . INTRODUCTION..................* ................................................ 1

The p r o b l e m .......................* ....................................... 1

S tatem ent o f th e p ro b le m .................................... 1

S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e s tudy * ........................... 1

The method S

Method o f r e s e a r c h ........................................ . . . 3

O rgan iza tion o f th e r e p o r t . . . . . . . . 3

B eference to sou rces . . . . . 4

I I . HISTORICAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Emergence o f th e d i r e c to r . . . . . . . . . 6

Edwin S . P o r te r 7

D. W. G r i f f i th . . . . . . . . . .................. ?

The s i l e n t p e r io d ................................... 8

W illiam C. deM ille ........................... 9

C e c il B. d e M i l l e ..................................................... 10

E rich von S t r o h e im ................................................. 11

E rnst L u b itsch . . . . . . . . . .................. 11

Fred M u r n a u ........................................... 12

The sound era ............................... 12

King Vidor .................................. 13

F r i t z L a n g ........................................... 13

Rouben Mamoulian . . . . . . . . .................. 14

i i i

CHAPTER PAGE

Prank Capra . . . . . . . . . ........................... 15

Jolan Ford . . 16

Mervyn LeRoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

M ichael C u rtiz . . . . . . . .................. . . 16

W illiam K eighley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

I I I . THE. DIRECTOR AND THE SCREENPLAY . . . . . . . . 20

Sources o f sc re en p lay m a te r ia l .................. 21

S to ry v a lu es f o r th e sc reen . . . . . . . . . 22

A dap ta tion o f s to ry m a te r ia ls . . . . . . . . 24

Working p o l ic ie s . . . . . . . 26

IY. THE DIRECTOR AM) THE SETS, COSTUMES

AND MAKE-UP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Design o f s e t t in g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Design o f costumes ........................................ 34

Design o f make-up . . . . . . . . . .................. 35

Y. THE DIRECTOR AND THE PLAYERS.................................... 3?

P rocedures fo r s e le c t io n o f p la y e rs . . . . . 37

B asic p r i n c i p l e s .......................... 38

T y p e-castin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

R e s p o n s ib i l i ty o f th e d i r e c to r .................. 41

I n te r p r e ta t io n o f r o l e s . .................................... 42

I n t e g r i t y o f in te r p r e ta t io n . . . . . . . . 43

R eh ea rsa l tech n iq u es 45

The problem o f th e a t r ic a l is m . . . . . . . 50

CHAPTER' PAGE

Tempo and rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

VI. THE DIRECTOR AND THE PHOTOGRAPHY . . . . . . . 55

Comparison of s ta g e and screen

tech n iq u es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

G eneral c o n s id e ra tio n s . . . . ...................... 55

S p e c if ic c o n s id e ra tio n s . . . . . . . . . 58

P r in c ip le s o f v is u a l iz a t io n . . . .................. 59

To e s ta b l i s h lo c a le , mood, and

atm osphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

To in c re a se o r d ec rease tempo . . . . . . 63

To make scenes more r e a l i s t i c

o r rom antic . . . . . . . . .................. . 65

To avo id monotony . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

To g iv e movement ........................................... 67

To h e ig h ten suspense ........................................ 68

To make use o f sy m b o lism .......................... 70

O p era tio n a l f a c to r s .......................... 71

V II. THE DIRECTOR AND PRODUCTION OPERATIONS . . . . 76

On t he s e t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Sound e f f e c ts and music 79

E d itin g th e f i lm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

V III . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................... . 87

Summary. . . . . ...................... . . . . . . . . 87

The d i r e c to r and th e sc reen p lay . . . . . 89

V

CHAPTER PACE

The d i r e c to r and th e s e t s , costum es,

and make-up ........................................... 90

The d i r e c to r and th e p l a y e r s .......... 90

The d i r e c to r and th e photography . . . . . 91

The d i r e c to r and p ro d u c tio n

o p e r a t i o n s .............................................. 91

C onclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................. 99

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I . THE PROBLEM

Statem ent o f th e problem * This survey o f contempo­

r a r y cinema d ir e c t in g p rocedures i s in ten d ed : (1) to docu­

ment th e fu n c tio n s of th e motion p ic tu r e d i r e c to r in r e l a t i o n

to th e v a rio u s departm ents o f a f i lm s tu d io ; (2) to re v e a l

how he guides th e d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s and p ro c e sse s in ­

volved in th e making o f an en te rta in m en t p ic tu r e ; (3) to

in d ic a te th e q u a l i f ic a t io n s one should have to c a rry on

th e s e fu n c tio n s e f f e c t iv e ly ; and (4) to summarize th e s e

p rocedu res in term s o f th e fu n c tio n s th ey f u l f i l l .

S ig n if ic a n c e o f th e s tu d y . A s tu d y such as t h i s i s

im portan t because to d a te , no com prehensive book, devoted

e x c lu s iv e ly to cinema d i r e c t in g , has been p u b lish e d . Some

knowledge can be gained by read in g s e c tio n s of c e r ta in

r a th e r g e n e ra l books on f i lm p ro d u c tio n , bu t very few a re

a v a i l a b le . Even th e s e a re w r i t te n , fo r th e most p a r t , by

c r i t i c s and o th e rs who have a l im ite d id ea o f bo th d i r e c t ­

ing and th e ex p lan a tio n o f d i r e c t in g p ro ced u res . Some

a d d i t io n a l knowledge may be gained from magazines and news­

paper a r t i c l e s , bu t th e s e d a ta a re a ls o fragm entary and

d i f f i c u l t to u s e . T h ere fo re , a s tu d y o f t h i s k ind i s very

2

much in order*

Another f a c to r which makes t h i s s tu d y im portan t i s th e

g e n e ra l la c k o f orthodoxy in d i r e c t in g m ethods. Most o f th e

better-know n d i r e c to r s have been r e c ru i te d from th e s ta g e or

one of th e te c h n ic a l departm ents o f th e m otion p ic tu r e indus­

t r y . These men, th rough t h e i r experience and t h e i r in d iv id u a l

a b i l i t i e s , have tended to e s ta b l i s h t h e i r own methods of

d i r e c t in g . Each has had h is own p a r t i c u l a r g en iu s , and h is

method has seldom i f ever been ex p la in ed . This s tu d y , as an

i n i t i a l e f f o r t a t comparison o f th e p r a c t i c a l working p ro ­

cedures o f s e v e ra l prom inent d i r e c to r s in Hollywood, th e r e ­

fo re , p ro v id es somewhat of a sy n th e s is o f p re se n t-d a y p ra c ­

t i c e .

In a d d it io n , t h i s s tu d y has a p e rso n a l s ig n if ic a n c e

because o f i t s r e la t io n s h ip to cinema developm ents in In d ia .

G reat numbers of p ic tu r e s a re produced in In d ia every year

b u t , m ostly because of a la c k o f good d i r e c to r s , th e f ilm s

a re below American s ta n d a rd s . Many o f th e Ind ian d i r e c to r s

have had only l im ite d s ta g e experience and do no t r e a l iz e

th a t a m otion p ie tu r e i s som ething more th a n a photographed

s ta g e p la y . The Hollywood tech n iq u e o f s to r y - t e l l i n g by

c inem atic methods has trem endous p o te n t ia l s ig n if ic a n c e fo r

th e fu tu re o f th e f ilm in d u s try in In d ia , and t h i s s tudy may

be a s te p in th e d i r e c t io n o f making i t known th e r e .

3

I I . THE METHOD

Method of r e s e a rc h . The method fo r t h i s s tu d y has

been to g a th e r m a te r ia l from a l l p o s s ib le so u rces , c o l l a t e

i t , and a rran g e i t in to ch ap te rs based upon th e v a rio u s

a sp e c ts o f a cinema d ire c to r* s work* Much of th e m a te r ia l

and many o f th e id ea s fo r t h i s phase o f th e work were gained

from c la s s e s in cinema d i r e c t in g conducted by W illiam Keigh­

le y a t The U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia . A d d itio n a l

m a te r ia l has been found In books and p e r io d ic a l l i t e r a t u r e ,

p e rso n a l in te rv iew s w ith o th e r d i r e c to r s , and from observa­

t io n o f d i r e c to r s a t work in th e s tu d io s .

O rgan ization of th e r e p o r t . In p lann ing th e p re se n ­

t a t i o n o f t h i s su b je c t m a tte r , i t seemed a d v isa b le to d i s ­

cuss th e d i r e c to r 's a c t i v i t i e s in term s o f h is r e la t io n s h ip

to th e v a rio u s p e r s o n a l i t i e s and departm ents in v o lv ed . They

a re considered h e re in th e o rd e r in which th e y a re g e n e ra l ly

a c t iv a te d in th e course of p ro d u c tio n :

1 . P re p a ra tio n of th e sc re e n p la y .

E. S e le c tio n and desig n o f s e t s , costum es, and make-up.

3 . S e lec tio n s o f p la y e r s , and in te r p r e ta t io n of t h e i r

r o l e s .

4* Lay-out of scenes fo r cinem atographic e f f e c t iv e n e s s .

5 . C oord ination of p rodu c tio n o p e ra tio n s .

6. Recording of sound e f f e c ts and m usic; and

4

7, E d itin g of th e film ..

Ih e conc lusions th en summarize th e s e p rocedures in term s o f

th e fu n c tio n s th e y f u l f i l l .

R eference to so u rc e s . In view o f th e e s ta b lish e d

n a tu re o f th e p u b lish ed souree m a te r ia ls , which have p ro ­

v ided background fo r t h i s r e p o r t , comment on t h e i r au then­

t i c i t y i s h a rd ly n e c e ssa ry . I f any q u estio n should a r i s e

on th e backgrounds o f th e in d iv id u a l d i r e c to r s , who a re

quoted r a th e r f r e e ly in th e succeeding c h a p te rs , th ey w i l l

be found documented in th e pages o f th e Film D aily Tear

Book (New York: F ilm B a ily , 1941), and f u r th e r d a ta may be

found by checking w ith th e Screen D ir e c to r 's G uild , H olly­

wood,

CHAPTER I I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND1

From a Peep Show in a fenny Arcade to a g ia n t world in ­

d u s try in l e s s th an f i f t y y ea rs i s th e amazing s to r y o f th e

m otion p ic tu r e in d u s try . Peep shows were p o p u la r a t f i r s t a s

a n o v e lty ; h u t th e y were poor in q u a l i ty and humor and, s in c e

o n ly one person could be e n te r ta in e d a t a tim e , th e y d id l i t t l e

to s a t i s f y th e g re g a rio u s u rges o f th e p u b lic* consequen tly ,

a s soon a s i t was p o s s ib le t o p ro je c t p ic tu r e s on sc re en s In

t h e a t r e s , th e crowds d e se r te d th e peep shows and responded

h e a r t i l y to th e c a l l o f th e p ic tu r e houses*

The f i r s t m otion p ic tu r e showing in an American th e a t r e

took p la c e in New York du rin g th e month o f A p r il , 1896, a t

K oster and B ia l* s music h a l l* This f i lm p ic tu re d a boxing

match between a t a l l t h in comedian and a s h o r t f a t one, and

inc luded a dance by a t a l l b londe g i r l* I t was an immediate

su ccess and s ta r te d th e commercial c a re e r o f th e American mo­

t io n p ic tu r e in d u stry * S ince th e n , th e r e has never been any

s e r io u s doubt about th e e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f m otion p ic tu r e s as a

1.................. The d a ta f o r t h i s ch ap te r a r e tak en from Lewis Jacob*sThe R ise o f th e American F ilm , u n le s s o th e rw ise in d ic a te d ,(New York: H arcou rt, Brace and Company, 1939). Only th e Amer­ic a n background i s covered, bu t t h i s i s deemed s u f f i c ie n t to th e purposes o f t h i s study*

6

prim ary so u rce o f mass en terta inm en t*

During th e e a r ly y ea rs th e d i r e c to r began to emerge as

a hey f ig u re in f i lm p ro d u c tio n , and du ring th e in te rv e n in g

S i le n t P e rio d and th e e a r ly y ea rs o f th e sound E ra , h is func­

t io n s have become recogn ized in c re a s in g ly as o f c r i t i c a l im­

portance* As t h i s tre n d has had c o n s id e rab le in f lu e n c e on

b o th th e fu n c tio n s and th e p rocedu res th rough which th e y a re

f u l f i l l e d , a b r i e f rev iew o f i t s development i s in order*

I . EMERGENCE OF THE DIRECTOR

Thomas Edison and h is a s s o c ia te s were among th e f i r s t

t o m anufacture and s e l l o r le a s e th e p ro je c to r s and cameras*

In th e s e e a r ly days, th e cameraman used to go out and ta k e

sh o ts o f busy s t r e e t s , moving t r a i n s , and th e l i k e w ithou t

b e n e f i t o f complex p ro d u c tio n o rg a n iz a tio n . G radually th e y

s ta r te d to make sh o rt p ic tu r e s o f c u rre n t ev e n ts , and by 1898

th e f i r s t d ram atic p ic tu r e s had evolved . "The G reat T ra in

R obbery," one o f th e lo n g e s t o f th e s e experim en ta l d ram atic

p la y s , t o t a l l i n g about 2,000 f e e t , was shown fo r th e f i r s t tim e

in 1903. During t h i s p e r io d , th e r e was no m otion p ic tu re

d i r e c to r . The cameraman d id , o r su p e rv ised , ev e ry th in g h im se lf

b u t he gave l i t t l e though t to th e p ro cess now c a lle d d i r e c t ­

in g . I t p robab ly d id no t occur to him th a t a d i r e c to r was

n e c e ssa ry ; h is on ly concern was to g e t p ic tu re s*

7

Edwin S . P o r t e r . The man wko was re sp o n s ib le fo r f i r s t

e s ta b l is h in g th e p la c e o f th e f i lm d i r e c to r in America was

Edwin S . P o r te r . He s tu d ie d th e work o f M elies in F rance

and developed many new te c h n iq u e s . He d iscovered th a t sep a r­

a t e sh o ts could be jo in ed to make a f in is h e d p ic tu r e . His

gen iu s to ld him th a t th e s to ry i n t e r e s t la y m ainly in th e con­

t i n u i t y o f camera sc e n e s . So, he inven ted a new way o f e d i t ­

in g . In h is f i r s t p ic tu r e , "The L ife o f an American F irem an,"

he inaugu ra ted new methods in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e s to ry ,

and he developed them in "The Great T ra in R obbery .” He was

th e f i r s t to u se what i s now known a s " c o n tr a s t" and " p a ra l­

l e l " c o n s tru c tio n . These methods o f s to ry c o n s tru c tio n , much

im proved, a r e used s t i l l to d ay . P o r te r a ls o in tro d u ced s to ry

c o n s tru c tio n methods which emphasize th e im portance o f charac­

t e r i z a t i o n , su spense , c r i s i s , and clim ax . In f a c t , i t may be

s a id t h a t Edwin S . P o r te r was th e f i r s t to in tro d u c e dram atic

c o n t in u i ty in to th e m otion p ic tu r e s to ry *

B. W. G r i f f i t h . The next s ig n i f i c a n t improvement in f ilm

p ro d u c tio n was made by D. W, G r i f f i t h . In h is most p opu lar

p ic tu r e , "B ir th o f a N a tio n ," produced in 1915, he showed th a t

he was a man o f keen dram atic i n s t i n c t . Audiences were held

by th a t , p ic tu r e as th e y had been by no o th e r f i lm . G r i f f i th

dem onstrated th a t he knew how a c tio n could be em phasized, how

c h a ra c te rs could be b u i l t up, and how atm osphere could be c r e a t ­

ed fo r th e d ram atic mood o f th e p ic tu r e . He was very p a r t i c u la r

8

about c h a ra c te r iz a tio n *

G r i f f i th in s i s te d always on having h is p ic tu re s b e a u t i ­

f u l . In g e t t in g t h i s he d iscovered th a t l ig h t in g was v e ry im­

p o r ta n t , and he was p robab ly th e f i r s t m otion p ic tu r e d i r e c to r

t o r e a l i z e t h a t th e a r t i s t r y o f cinem atography i s la r g e ly in

th e p la y o f l i g h t and shadow. Seeing th a t th e camera should

no t rem ain s t a t i c in one p o s i t io n , he in tro d u ced th e method of

u s in g d i f f e r e n t camera an g les to t e l l th e s to ry e f f e c t iv e ly ,

l a b e l l in g them " f u l l - s h o t ," "medium-shot," " c lo se -u p ," "Pan­

s h o t ," e t ce te ra* He r e a l iz e d th a t motion p ic tu r e s needed to

move em p tio n a lly as w e ll as p h y s ic a l ly , and he d isco v ered th a t

f a s t tempo could be a t ta in e d by e d i t in g ; consequen tly , he de­

v ise d a system f o r runn ing th re a d s o f th e s to ry in w e l l -k n i t

sequence and c u t t in g back and f o r th from one to th e o th e r .

I t was G r i f f i th who, more th an any o th e r , p e r fe c te d th e

d i r e c t io n a l tech n iq u es o f cinema s to r y - t e l l i n g and th u s became

th e f i r s t American to be u n iv e r s a l ly recognized as a g re a t f i lm

d i r e c to r .

Three o th e r men o f t h i s p e r io d , whose names shou ld a lso

be m entioned as im portan t d i r e c to r s , a r e S idney A lc o tt , George

D. B aker, and J . S ea rle y Dawley. They added f u r th e r improve­

ments in com position , atm osphere, and a c t in g , and th e s ta g in g

o f scenes w ith smooth development and c a re fu l p lan n in g .

I I . TH1 S H U T PERIOD

In th e y ea rs im m ediately fo llo w in g , th e d i r e c to r gained

9

more im portance th a n th e cameraman, and b e fo re long he became

th e dominant f ig u re in f i lm p ro d u c tio n , su p e rv is in g and co­

o rd in a tin g a l l th e elem ents fo r th e making o f p i c tu r e s . In

f a c t , th e m otion p ic tu r e d i r e c to r now i s comparable to th e

conductor o f an o rc h e s tra ; he must ta k e t h i s mass o f com plic­

a te d a c t i v i t y and pu t i t to g e th e r in to one harmonious ensem­

b le , a v a s t symphony o f a c t io n , id ea s and em otions.

W illiam 0 . d eM ille . Two d i r e c to r s who fo s te re d t h i s

growth and e s ta b lis h e d them selves in th e in d u s try as exce l­

le n t c r e a t iv e a r t i s t s were W illiam C. deM ille and C ec il B.

d eM ille . W illiam deM ille*s tech n iq u e o f d i r e c t in g c lo s e ly

resem bled s ta g e d i r e c t io n , y e t acco rd ing to P e te r M ilne, h is

new methods c re a te d a s e n sa tio n among th e d i r e c to r s a t th a t, J

t im e . H is knowledge o f p la y w ritin g gave him keen in s ig h t in ­

to th e s u b t le , p sy c h o lo g ic a l b ases fo r c h a ra c te r developm ent.

His id e a was th a t c h a ra c te rs should be developed so lo g ic a l ly

t h a t aud iences would im m ediately accep t t h e i r m o tiv a tio n s . He

r e a l iz e d th a t t h i s should be planned in th e w r i t in g and was

p robab ly one o f th e f i r s t d i r e c to r s to c o lla b o ra te w ith h is

w r i t e r s .

At t h a t tim e d i r e c to r s used to shoot th e scenes from

lo n g -sh o t to c lo se -u p , bu t W illiam deM ille thought t h a t t h i s

method tended to i n t e r f e r e w ith th e em otional re sp o n ses o f th e

a c to r s . He f e l t t h a t each scene should be sho t in seq u e n c ia l

o rd e r , so th e a c to r s could fo llo w more e a s i ly th e changes o f

10

mood and tempo o f th e s to r y , T h e re fo re , h is s e t s were b u i l t

so sp a c io u s ly t h a t by u sin g th r e e cameras, lo n g -sh o t, medium-

s h o t , and c lo se -u p , could be tak en a t th e same tim e*

C ec il B. d eM ille . When W illiam deM ille in d ic a te d th a t

p ic tu r e s should be sho t in a seq u en o ia l o rd e r , h is b ro th e r ,

C ec il B. d eM ille , fo llow ed th e su g g estio n and became th e f i r s t

d i r e c to r to make a com plete p ic tu r e in t h i s m anner. His most

w ide ly recognized a b i l i t y , however, was in th e h an d lin g o f ac ­

t o r s . He would never show h is a c to r s what to do by a c tin g out

scen es , bu t would t e l l them what to do . He has s a id :

One o f th e v i t a l th in g s f o r a d i r e c to r to remember i s th a t he should no t te a c h th e a c to r s how to ac t*This i s no t th e b u s in e ss o f a d i r e c to r , fo r i t means th e in s e r t in g o f h i s own p e r s o n a l i ty in to th e a c to r s , in s te a d o f b r in g in g out what th e y have in them . Thus, in s te a d o f having E rnest T orrence and G lo ria Swanson and B e a tr ic e Joy and Rod LaRoque p la y th e scen es , i f I were to o b lig e each one to do i t my way, you would m erely have s ix o r seven C ec il deM illes runn ing around .

This i s a v ery im portan t f a c to r in d i r e c t in g and i s now fo llo w ­

ed by most o f th e better-know n d i r e c to r s .

DeM ille was a ls o very p a r t i c u l a r about d e t a i l s in h is

p ic tu r e s , e s p e c ia l ly as to costum es, p r o p e r t ie s , s e t t i n g s , and

make-up. . This a t t e n t io n to d e t a i l s has c o n tr ib u te d to h is be­

coming one o f th e f i n e s t and b e s t known p ic tu r e d i r e c to r s in

C ec il B. deM ille , "B u ild ing a P h o to p la y ,” from The S to ry o f F ilm , e d ite d by J . ‘.p. Kennedy, (Chicago and Hew "York: A. W* Sfflaw Company, 1927} p . 141.

11

th e w orld , a d i s t in c t io n which he h o ld s s t i l l to d a y . I t i s

h i s custom, never to undertake a p ic tu r e s to ry u n le s s i t has

a s tro n g dram atic v a lu e . I f th e f i lm i s in te c h n ic o lo r , th e

aud ience i s t h r i l l e d w ith th e c o lo r o f gorgeous costumes and

s e t t in g s , as w e ll as i t s d ram atic f e rv o r . His p ro d u c tio n s

a r e sp e c ta c u la r and re q u ire la rg e b u d g e ts .

E rich von S troheim . A nother s i l e n t p ic tu r e d i r e c to r ,

who became p o p u la r in th e f i lm w orld because o f h is aw areness

o f r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l and v iv id c h a ra c te r iz a t io n , i s E rich von

S troheim . He was known fo r very e f f e c t iv e l ig h t in g and compo­

s i t i o n and used o th e r s p e c ia l e f f e c t s w ith th e cam era. His

main c o n tr ib u tio n t o th e developm ent o f m otion p ic tu r e d i r e c ­

t o r i a l te ch n iq u e , however, was t h a t o f v iv id c h a ra c te r iz a t io n

and a c e r ta in e f f e c t iv e s ty le o f a e t in g which h is d i r e c t io n

seemed to b r in g f o r th .

E rnst L u b itsc h . About t h i s tim e , an o th er n o ta b le d i r ­

e c to r , E rnst L u b itsch , was im ported from Europe.

H is e x q u is i te t a s t e fo r d e t a i l and atm osphere, h is f e e l in g and e la b o ra te n e ss and d e c o ra tio n , s e t o f f th e comedy o f manners w ith new b r i l l i a n c e . 1

His camera moved w ith f l u i d i t y in i t s smooth s t o r y - t e l l i n g .

Being a somewhat rom antic a e s th e te , he was no t in fa v o r o f

showing s ta r k re a l is m in h is p ic tu r e s bu t used su g g es tio n to

^ Lewis Jacobs, op. c i t . , p . 357.

IE

in f lu e n c e th e s p e c ta to r s . He s a id :

I p r e f e r to suggest id ea s and s i tu a t io n s in my p ic tu r e s , r a th e r th a n to load down a scene w ith n o th ­ing hu t th e s t a r k ly r e a l i s t i c . I p r e f e r my a c to r s , to o , t o su g g est an a c tio n r a th e r th a n to r e g i s t e r i t o bv io u sly on th e s c re e n .

Fre d Murnau. Another o u ts tan d in g d i r e c to r im ported

from Europe was F red Murnanau. He was e s p e c ia l ly in te r e s te d

in c re a tin g mood and atm osphere. He used s ty l iz e d s e t s and

dem onstrated e x c e p tio n a lly th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e camera as

a s t o r y - t e l l i n g medium. He a ls o had a g re a t f l a i r f o r th e

sim ple and n a tu r a l , a s evidenced most c le a r ly by h is l a s t and

most n o ta b le f ilm , "Tabu."

There were many o th e r n o ta b le d i r e c to r s in t h i s p e rio d

o f ra p id m a tu ra tio n o f th e American cinem a. Among th o se who

c o n tr ib u te d most ta n g ib ly tow ard th e development o f cinema

d i r e c t in g ‘tech n iq u es w ere Y ic to r Seastrom , Robert F la h e r ty ,

John R obertson, Henry K ing, James Cruze, Rex Ingram, and

Frank L loyd. These men, and t h e i r a s s o c ia te s , s e t th e b a s ic

p o l i c i e s and p rocedu res o f cinema d i r e c t in g , e s ta b l is h in g th e

u n d e rly in g p a t te r n fo r a l l p re se n t-d a y p rocedures ex cep t, pos­

s ib ly , c e r ta in item s r e la t i n g to th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f d ia ­

lo g u e .

I I . THE SOUND ERA

Then came sound p i c tu r e s . Many o f th e s i l e n t - p i c tu r e

^ P e te r M ilne, "Motion P ic tu re D ire c t in g ." (New York:F a lk P u b lish in g Company, I n c . , 145 West 36 S t r e e t , 19SS), P . SOS.

13

d ir e c to r s l e f t th e in d u s try ; th o se who stayed had to a d ju s t

t o th e g re a te r demands o f th e changed medium. The work o f th e ,

d i r e c to r became in c re a s in g ly d i f f i c u l t ; bu t a t th e same tim ef

i t was p o s s ib le to make more e f f e c t iv e f i lm s by th e e lim in a­

t io n o f th e clumsy t i t l e s , which had never been an a l to g e th e r

s a t i s f a c to r y convension o f th e s i l e n t s c re e n . How, w ith th e

use o f d ia lo g u e , a new and more e f f e c t iv e method o f s t o r y - t e l l i n g

was p o s s ib le .

King V idor. Among th e d i r e c to r s who achieved eminence

in th e f i r s t y ea rs o f th e soun d -film i s King V idor, who has

c o n tr ib u te d much to th e tech n iq u e o f th e cinema. He a ls o t r i e d

to t e l l th e s to ry w ith th e camera p r im a r i ly , d e s p ite th e cramp­

ing r e s t r i c t i o n s o f e a r ly re c o rd in g f a c i l i t i e s . According to

some a u th o r i t i e s , he used h is camera " su b je c tiv e ly " - fu n c tio n ­

ing co n sc io u s ly as th e eye o f th e au d ien ce , i t s e l f " re a c tin g "

to th e a c t io n . In o rd e r to produce som ething more th a n a

photographed s ta g e p la y , w ith long ta lk y scen es, Mr. Vidor

a ls o used sound im ag in a tiv e ly o r sy m b o lica lly r a th e r th a n

r e a l i s t i e a l l y .

F r i t z Lang. A nother d i r e c to r of t h i s p e r io d , who was

soon recogn ized f o r h is keen sen se o f d ram atic v a lu e s , i s F r i t z

Lang. He has beeome one o f th e le a d in g D ire c to rs o f Hollywood,

c re a tin g d ram atic e f f e c t s by unusual camera movement. His

camera i s alm ost c o n s ta n t ly moving. In a d d i t io n , h is m eticu lous

14

a t t e n t io n to d e t a i l s o f s e t t in g * e t ce te ra* and h is g re a t ca re

in p lan n in g sound e f fe c ts* have made him a m aster o f c re a tin g

atm osphere, mood, and in te n s e d ram atic scenes* For in s ta n c e ,

in h i s f i lm "Man H unt," t h i s d i r e c to r opens a scene by showing

a man h id in g in th e hush; he has a gun in hand* aimed and read y

to shoot* The s ta r k s i le n c e i s broken by th e in te rm it te n t

ch irp in g o f a b i r d . Then th e camera slow ly pans tow ards th e

window o f a w e l l - f o r t i f i e d house, where a man, H err H i t l e r , i s

s ta n d in g . As th e camera c u ts back and f o r th from th e man in

th e bushes to th e window, a t e r r i f i c suspense i s c re a te d . Sud­

den ly a policem an Jumps from th e bushes and th e r e s u l t in g

f ig h t between th e policem an and th e h u n te r g iv es a f in e f i n i s h

to th e scene and s e t s a t e r r i f i c tempo fo r th e f i lm to m a in ta in .

Rouben Mamoulian. This d i r e c to r had h is e a r ly t r a in in g

in th e t h e a t r e ; co nsequen tly , most o f h is e a r l i e r p ic tu re s were

s im ila r t o s ta g e p la y s , em phasizing d ia lo g u e o f a t h e a t r i c a l

ty p e . His p ic tu re s had a tendency to fo llo w th e R ussian te c h ­

n iq u e , which p la c e s g re a t im portance on symbolism. Mamoulian

i s s a id to u se symbolism more th an any o th e r d ire c to r , in H olly­

wood.^ His d ram atic and p sy ch o lo g ica l u se o f co lo r to express

emotion and c h a ra c te r iz a t io n i s perhaps h i s g re a te s t c o n tr ib u ­

t io n to d i r e c t io n a l te c h n iq u e . E xp la in ing h is u se o f co lo r

in "Blood and Sand ," he s a id th a t he had Linda D a rn e ll d re ssed

Jacobs, op. c i t . , p. 471.

15

in b lu e because o f h e r p o r t r a y a l o f calmness ana c h a s t i ty and

d ev o tio n ; bu t d i f f i c u l t y a ro se when she was to d is p la y anger

w ith R ita Hayworth. So Mamoulian asked Miss D arn e ll to hold a»

red s c a r f in h er hand du ring th o se scenes w ith Miss Hayworth*

crum pling i t when she was calm, l e t t i n g i t lo o se to in d ic a te

h e r tem porary a n g e r . Mamoulian a ls o u ses co lo r " rh y th m ic a lly ,"

and i s r a te d as one o f th e o u ts tan d in g d i r e c to r s in makingg

c o lo r p ic tu r e s .

Frank Capra. The c o n tr ib u tio n s o f Frank Capra t o d i r e c ­

t o r i a l tech n iq u e have p layed an im portan t p a r t in th e H olly­

wood in d u s try . In h is p e rso n a l l i f e , he i s very much i n t e r ­

es ted in p eo p le , in th e common man; and on th e sc re e n , in h is

p ic tu r e s , one n o tic e s t h a t emphasis on human va lues and charac­

t e r i z a t i o n a re more im portan t t o him th an p l o t . In h is own

w ords:

P lo t i s u n im p o rtan t. . .1 am in te r e s te d most in c h a ra c te r iz a t io n . The peop le must be r e a l . . .F i t t i n g th e a c to r to th e c h a ra c te r i s f i f t y p e r cent o f th e b a t t l e in c re a tin g good p ic tu r e s . I f th e y a re no t tw in 5p e r s o n a l i t i e s , th e s to ry i t s e l f lo s e s con­v ic t io n .

Capra i s always c a re fu l to p le a se h is au d ien ce . He does no t

l i k e to make l i g h t of t h e i r sen tim en ts o r in n e r c o n v ic tio n s ,

S tatem ent made in a le c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C a lifo rn ia , May 1941.

gJacobs, Q£. c i t . , p . 472.

3 Jacobs, op. c i t *, p . 474.

16

He f re q u e n tly p o r tra y s r ig h te o u s peop le in t r o u b le , and by

f o rc e fu l c h a ra c te r iz a t io n he reach es th e h e a r ts o f h is au d ien ce ,

John F o rd , The name o f Jofen Ford must a ls o be added to

th e l i s t o f prom inent contem porary d i r e c to r s . S trong s i t u a ­

t i o n , mood, v iv id c h a r a c te r iz a t io n , c o lo r fu l lo c a le , suspense,

a l l th e s e a re to be found in h is p ic tu r e s . He t r i e s as much

as p o s s ib le t o avoid unnecessary d ia lo g u e and b u ild s suspense

by camera an g les and sound e f f e c t s . These can be seen in h is

p ic tu r e s "Long Voyage Home” and "How Green was my V a lle y ."

He i s t r u l y an a r t i s t who t e l l s h is s to ry in e s s e n t i a l ly c in ­

em atic te rm s .

Mervyn LeRoy. T his d i r e c to r depends much upon a good

s to ry to produce a su c c e s s fu l p ic tu r e . He u n d erstan d s human

psychology and never m isses an o p p o rtu n ity to p la y upon an

au d ien c e ’s se n tim e n ts . He i s a m aster a t s e t t i n g th e tempo in

p ic tu r e s .

M ichael C u r t iz . Another who knows how to g e t m a s te rfu l

e f f e c ts o f l ig h t in g .a n d com position i s M ichael C u r t iz . He has/

a keen sen se o f p i c t o r i a l beau ty and ta k e s every o p p o rtu n ity

t o in tro d u c e i t in h is p i c tu r e s . The a c tio n o f h is s t o r i e s

moves r a p id ly , f o r he has a m astery o f a c tio n in dram as.

W illiam K eigh ley . I t i s b e lie v e d by W illiam K eighley

t h a t th e su ccess or f a i l u r e o f a p a r t i c u la r f i lm a t th e b o x -o f-

17

f i c e clepends p r im a r i ly upon th e d i r e c to r ’ s d ram atic i n s t i n c t ,

h is und erstan d in g o f th e p r in c ip a l p e rfo rm ers , and h is a b i l ­

i t y t o g e t a c ro ss to th e masses a common em otional a p p e a l.

H is ta s k i s obv iously a s e r io u s and d i f f i c u l t one, r e q u ir in g

a broad knowledge o f l i f e , wide ex p e rien ce , and deep under­

s tan d in g o f human psychology . F u r th e r , he must know th e mo­

t io n p ic tu r e medium th o rough ly i f he i s to succeed in expres­

s in g h is id e a s . In t h i s age, when mass p ro d u c tio n i s s tan d ard

p r a c t ic e , th e re i s n e c e s s a r i ly a premium on a good s c r i p t .

K eighley a ls o b e l ie v e s th a t one o f th e g r e a te s t t e s t s

o f a good d i r e c to r i s w hether he can c o n s is te n t ly tu rn out

w orthy f ilm s w ith th e s to ry m a te r ia l he i s g iven to work w ith .

His own reco rd in c lu d e s such v a rie d f ilm s as "Robin Hood,"

"Green P a s tu re s ," "F ig h tin g 6 9 th ," "Ho Time fo r Comedy," "The

Man Who Came to D in n er," and o th e r b o x -o ff ic e h i t s . His s k i l ­

f u l hand ling o f th e camera, h is d ip lo m a tic way of gu id ing th e

a c to r s , have le n t new im petus to d i r e c to r i a l tech n iq u e and a re

im m inently worthy o f m en tion . He i s , indeed , one o f th e most

capab le men in Hollywood a t p roducing en joyab le f i lm e n te r ­

ta inm ent .

IT . SUMMARY

In t h i s b r i e f resume o f th e development o f cinema

d i r e c t in g in th e U nited S ta te s , i t has been im p o ssib le to men­

t io n a l l d i r e c to r s who by t h e i r p h ilo so p h ie s and methods have

18

c o n tr ib u te d to th e emergence o f eontem porary d i r e c t in g p ro ­

cedures* C e rta in main tre n d s o f th e p a s t f i f t y y e a rs , have

been in d ic a te d , however:

1 . The tendency among e a r l i e r d i r e c to r s to have come

up th rough th e ranks o f th e cinema te c h n ic ia n s —cameramen,

e d i to r s , and l a t e r , w r i te r s ; w h ile th e more re c e n t tendency

has been fo r d i r e c to r s to be drawn from th e a c to r s * and s ta g e

d ire c to r s * g roups.

2 . The re c o g n itio n by key d i r e c to r s , even f o r ty y ea rs

ago , th a t t h e i r f i r s t concern must be t o o b ta in s to r i e s which

a re in h e re n tly f ilm a b le , w h ile t h e i r second concern must be to

adap t th e s e m a te r ia ls f o r sc re e n in g , u sin g th e most s u i ta b le

te ch n iq u es o f c inem atic s t o r y - t e l l i n g .

5 . The subsequent re c o g n itio n by a l l d i r e c to r s o f o u t­

s tan d in g p ic tu r e s th a t th e "mounting” o f t h e i r p ro d u c tio n s—

th e s e le c t io n o f e f f e c t iv e s e t s , costum es, and make-up— i s one

o f th e most im portan t means o f len d in g s ig n if ic a n c e to t h e i r

w orks.

4 . The r e a l iz a t io n th a t c a s tin g o f p la y e rs to g e t th e

" r ig h t” p e r s o n a l i t i e s f o r th e v a r ie d c h a ra c te r s , i s f r e q u e n tly

th e la r g e r p a r t of o b ta in in g p la u s ib le c h a ra c te r iz a t io n s , and

th a t t h i s phase o f th e d ire c to r* s work i s a t l e a s t as im port­

an t as th e hand ling o f p la y e rs on th e s e t ,

5 . The in c re a s in g concern of a l l d i r e c to r s w ith th e

la y -o u t o f scenes fo r c in e -d ram a tic in te r p r e ta t io n , in c lu d in g

19

camera pho tog raph ic d es ig n , a c tio n p a t te r n s , and sound embel­

lish m en ts .

6. The tendency o f n o n -ro u tin e soun d -film d i r e c to r s to

conceive o f t h e i r c o o rd in a tio n o f p la y e r s , photography, sound,

m usic, c o lo r f a c to r s ( i f co lo r i s u se d ) , and th e u se o f

"m ounting ,** as a ty p e o f "co n d u c tin g ," com parable in a sense

to th e s im i la r ly m u ltip le x problem of d i r e c t in g a symphony

o rc h es tra ,,

7 . The emergence o f v a r ie d schoo ls o f thought re g a rd in g

re a lis m , rom anticism , n a tu ra lism , and symbolism, to g e th e r w ith

l e s s academic l in e s o f p o l ic y fo r th e h an d lin g o f th e b a s ic

ty p e s o f f i lm - f a r e : melodramas, com edies, and dramas.

This c o n s t i tu te s th e background out o f which th e m ajor

phases o f th e problem for t h i s study have evolved . I t does no t

ta k e in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e myriad o f men who have done jo u r­

neymens* s e rv ic e s to th e in d u s try as d i r e c to r s , nor does i t

ta k e cognizance o f th e d i f f e r in g p o l ic ie s and p rocedures fo r

low -budget f i lm s , F e i th e r do th e ch ap te rs which follow.'*'

Whereas th e p h y s ic a l p rocedures o f d i r e c t in g a r e , in p r in c ip le , s im ila r fo r a l l ty p es o f f i lm s —program p ic tu r e s , s p e c ia ls , o r s u p e r - s p e c ia ls , melodramas, comedies o r dramas—a broad g e n e ra l d i s t in c t io n should be made between th e hand ling o f th o se which a re l im ite d by sm all budgets and th o se which have more leew ay on expenditu res*

In each o f th e s e c tio n s which fo llo w , th e p rocedures and p o l ic ie s in d ic a te d a re vouched fo r by d i r e c to r s o f th e more ad eq u a te ly fin an ced f i lm s . Some o f them a re s u s c e p tib le o f u se on sm all-budget p ic tu r e s ; o th e rs have no re le v a n c y .

CHAPTER I I I

THE DIRECTOR AND THE SCREENPLAY

However m arvelous th e a c tin g may be; however charming

th e photography may b e , however c le v e r th e d i r e c t in g may be,

i f th e s to ry i s poo r, th en th e p ic tu r e as a whole s u f f e r s . A

p ic tu r e depends v ery much upon elem ents in th e s to ry m a te r ia l

which w i l l i n t e r e s t an au d ien ce , and i f th e y a re la c k in g th e

e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e f i lm i s le s se n e d . Andrew Buchanan has sa id

I t i s q u ite p ro b ab le th a t you have re c e n t ly seen a "F ea tu re" f i lm , and p o s s ib ly though t i t r id ic u lo u s . . . . . .I f , however* you w i l l endeavor to re m e m b e r.... you w i l la g re e t h a t th e photography was b e a u t i f u l , th e s e t t in g s were a r t i s t i c , v o ice s were c le a r , music was s o f t , and th e camera work ingenuous. N a tu ra l ly t none o f th e s e a sp e c ts s tru c k you fo r th e d u lln e s s o f th e su b je c t mat­t e r k i l l e d your i n t e r e s t .

This i s th e reaso n why many d i r e c to r s , in s p i t e o f t h e i r

d ram atic g en iu s , f a i l to make s u c c e s s fu l p ic tu r e s . They a re

n o t p a r t i c u la r enough about having good s t o r i e s . As m entioned

in th e p rev io u s c h a p te r , C ec il B. deM ille*s very h igh p e rc e n t­

age o f su c c e s s fu l p ic tu r e s l i e s p a r t ly in th e f a c t th a t he a l ­

ways p e r s i s t s th a t th e s to ry have s tro n g d ram atic v a lu e .

The su sp ic io n roused by th e a s to n ish in g c o n tra s t b e­tween to p -n o tc h and t h i r d - r a t e p ro d u c tio n s from th e same hand i s th a t n in e ty p e r cen t o f th e g re a tn e s s o f th e d i r e c to r r i s e s from th e ex ce llen ce o f h i s m a te r ia l .

Andrew Buchanan, F ilm s. (London: S i r Isaa c Pitm an and Sons, L td . , 1932), p . 12 .

2 G ilb e r t S e ld e , The Movies Came from Am erica. (New York: C harles S c r ib n e r fs Sons; London; B.¥ .B o ts fo rd ,L td . , 1937 ),p .7 3 .

2 1

The im portance of good s to ry m a te r ia l and th e r e a l i z a ­

t i o n th a t i t i s p o s s ib le f o r a d i r e c to r to f a i l because o f

poor s to ry m a te r ia l , has le d most d i r e c to r s t o devote a g re a t

d e a l of e f f o r t to th e p re p a ra tio n o f th e sc reen p lay s th e y a re

to se rv ice* S ince much of t h e i r o a e t i v i t y depends upon th e

s;ource from which s to ry m a te r ia l i s g a th e red , i t i s e s s e n t ia l

to co n sid e r t h i s item f i r s t *

I . SOURCES OF SCREENPLAY MATERIAL

F req u e n tly , th e s to ry m a te r ia l i s tak en e i th e r from a

famous novel o r from a s ta g e p la y . S tu d io s a lso buy sh o rt

s t o r i e s p u b lish ed in c u rre n t m agazines; and , in a d d it io n , th e

s tu d io s have t h e i r own w r i te r s who supp ly new id eas and » o rig -

i n a l s . " Thousand o f s to r i e s a ls o come to th e s tu d io s from th e

o u ts id e , se n t by a s p ir in g w r i t e r s , b u t few of th e s e s to r i e s can

be used because most o f th e w r i te r s have l i t t l e knowledge o f

m otion p ic tu r e s to ry c o n s tru c tio n . Such w r i te r s may have beau­

t i f u l l i t e r a r y s t y l e , and th ey may c re a te in te r e s t in g read in g

m a te r ia l , b u t t h e i r s t o r i e s seldom have th e q u a l i t i e s e s s e n t ia l

to t h e i r being e f f e c t iv e s to r i e s on th e s c re e n . Many w r i te r s

f a i l to r e a l i z e th a t sc reen s to r i e s , more th an any o th e r k in d ,

must have p le n ty o f s u b je c t iv e movement and outward a c t io n .

Involved in n e r f e e l in g s and lo n g ^ ite ra ry d e s c r ip tio n s a re d i f ­

f i c u l t to show on th e sc re e n , and a ttem p ts to show mere psycho­

lo g ic a l re sponses w ithou t a c tio n u s u a l ly become d u l l to th e

2 2

*au d ien c e . This i s g e n e ra l ly d i f f i c u l t fo r th e average " l i t e r ­

a ry " w r i te r t o u n d e rs tan d .

T his somewhat invo lved s i tu a t io n has led many d i r e c to r s

t o develop s p e c ia l f a c i l i t y in hand lin g s to r i e s from one genre

o r a n o th e r . One, such as Frank Gapra, m y p re f e r to work w ith

o r ig in a l m a te r ia ls p rep ared in th e s tu d io f o r h is in d iv id u a l

u s e , A nother, such as C e c il B. d eM ille , may draw h e a v ily upon

d ram atic s i tu a t io n s from h i s to r y . A t h i r d , such as W illiam

K eigh ley , m y prove e s p e c ia l ly a b le a t tra n sp o s in g r e l a t i v e l y

s t a t i c s ta g e p lay s in to v i t a l , moving se reen e n te r ta in m e n t.

S t i l l a n o th e r , such as A lfred Greene, m y p r e f e r to develop

s in g le s i tu a t io n ^ s h o r t s t o r i e s ; w h ile a few e x h ib it no outward

s ig n s of d e f in i t e p re fe re n c e .

In any ease d i r e c to r s a r e , as a r u l e , q u i te conscious

o f th e sou rces from which t h e i r s t o r i e s may come, and th e y tend

to look fo r new m a te r ia ls in th e d i r e c t io n s from which t h e i r

p a s t su ccesses haVe been d e r iv e d .

I I . STOBY VALUES FOR THE SCREEN*

A sc reen s to ry must be planned c a re fu l ly t o e s ta b l i s h

c h a ra c te r s , lo c a le and s i t u a t io n , and proceed in te r e s t in g ly to

i t s o rdained co n c lu s io n . Two p a t te r n s a re used most e x te n s iv e ­

l y : one, in which two p lo ts a re r e la te d and run in p a r a l l e l

a c t io n to th e end; th e second, sometimes c a lle d a " b e a d -s tr in g ’1

p lo t , u sing many d i f f e r e n t s i tu a t io n s to make a com plete s to r y .

23

O ther c o n s tru c tio n p a t te rn s a re used o c c a s io n a lly bu t th e s e

two a re th e most f re q u e n tly employed.

In a d d it io n to be ing c a r e fu l ly p lanned , th e se reen s to ry

must a ls o have o th e r c e r ta in q u a l i f i c a t io n s , perhaps th e most

im portan t o f which i s c o n f l i c t . W ithout c o n f l ic t i t i s v ery

d i f f i c u l t to hold th e i n t e r e s t o f an au d ien ce . W ithout con­

f l i c t , th e r e can be no drama e i th e r p h y s ic a l o r m en ta l. The

p lo t must n o t be im personal, however, bu t must d e a l w ith i n t e r ­

e s t in g human c h a ra c te rs in s i tu a t io n s which a re u n d erstan d ab le

and e n te r ta in in g to la rg e m asses o f p e o p le .

To meet t h i s q u a l i f i c a t io n , a s to ry must be p la u s ib le .

I t must f i t in w ith what th e aud ience co n s id e rs t o be r e la te d

to i t s own ex p e rien ce , and no a ttem p ts should be made to tam­

p e r w ith th e in n e r co n v ic tio n s o r sen tim en ts o f an au d ience .

According to Y ic to r Hugo:

What th e mass d e s ire s on th e s ta g e i s s e n s a tio n a l a c t io n ; what th e women seek i s em otion, and what th e th o u g h tfu l c rav e , i s food fo r m e d ita tio n . A ll demand p le a s u re ; th e f i r s t , p le a su re o f th e eyes; th e second, g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f th e f e e l in g s ; th e l a s t , m ental en­joyment .

S u cce ssfu l p roducers understand t h i s , and a re s tro n g ly

in flu en ce d by th e t a s t e s and p re ju d ic e s o f t h e i r au d ien ces .

They a re c o n s ta n tly on th e a l e r t to s e le c t tim e ly to p ic s which

F ra n c is M arion, How to W rite and S e l l F ilm S to r i e s . (Hew York: G o v ic i-F re id raan ,'1937), p . Sf.

24

w i l l have th e g r e a te s t ap p ea l t o th e g r e a te s t number o f p eo p le .

T his was apparen t when, im m ediately a f t e r th e o u tb reak o f th e

p re se n t World War, Hollywood began ms. c o n c e n tra tin g on a n t i -

Nazi p ic tu re s and r e la te d s u b je c ts .

I t i s a ls o im portan t t h a t a m otion p ic tu r e be p i c t o r i a l -

l y e f f e c t iv e . The a r t o f th e cinema i s la r g e ly in t e l l i n g

s t o r i e s in p ic tu r e s in s te a d o f w ords. However, i t must be

remembered th a t what i s t r u e in th e case o f s ta g e aud iences i s

t r u e o f th e motion p ic tu r e aud ience ; th e emotions which th e y

want to ex p e rien ce , a r e th e same in b o th in s ta n c e s , in s p i t e

o f d if fe re n c e s in th e te ch n iq u es o f s t o r y - t e l l i n g .

I I I . ADAPTATION OP STORY MATERIALS

A fte r th e s to ry i s s e le c te d , a c e r ta in ro u t in e i s u su a l­

l y fo llow ed b e fo re th e sc re en p lay i s f i n a l l y com pleted. Gener­

a l l y , th e r e a r e th r e e s ta g e s ; f i r s t , a c q u is i t io n o f th e s to ry ;

second , i t s a d a p ta tio n ; and th i r d , p re p a ra tio n o f th e shoo ting

s c r i p t o r f i n a l sc reen p la y . The d i r e c to r may n o t be involved

in th e f i r s t , bu t he i s very much concerned w ith th e second

and t h i r d .

In th e a d a p ta tio n , th e w r i te r tra n sp o se s th e s to ry in to

v i s u a l te rm s. He b u ild s up o r c u ts down th e im portance o f

c h a ra c te r s and sc e n e s . In ad ap tin g a n o v e l, s i tu a t io n s which

a re u n n ecessary , and c h a ra c te r s which a re no t im p o rtan t, a r e

e i th e r e lim in a ted o r condensed. S tre s s i s p laced upon showing

25

im portan t ev en ts , r a th e r th a n m ere ly ta lk in g about them a s i s

u s u a l ly done on th e stage* M a te r ia ls from o th e r sou rces have

t h e i r own s p e c ia l p roblem s.

There a re a ls o c e r ta in t e c h n i c a l i t i e s o f c o n s tru c tio n

which th e d i r e c to r must understand i f he i s t o se rv e an e f f e c t ­

iv e purpose in th e p re p a ra tio n o f h i s s t o r i e s f o r f i lm in g .

The sc reen p la y i s d iv id ed up in to scenes and sequences. I t

may be s a id th e sequences correspond to th e w e ll-d e f in e d a c ts

o f a s ta g e p la y ; th e y a re u s u a l ly in d ic a te d in s c e n a r io s by th e

term s ttfa d e -in * a t th e b eg inn ing and “fad e -o u t* a t th e end.

A lso , jh s t as th e a c ts o f a s ta g e p la y may be d iv id ed in to

scen es , th e more compact a rea s o f a sc re en p lay a re s e t o f f

w ith in th e sequences; and th e y a re g e n e ra l ly in d ic a te d in

s c r i p t s by th e term “d isso lv e * a t t h e i r b eg inn ings and end­

in g s . The d is s o lv e s a re made hy a chem ical p ro cess in f i n ­

is h in g th e f i lm , o r by m an ip u la tin g th e le n se s w h ile shoo t­

in g th e scen es . The te rm “montage* has come t o id e n t i f y a

s e r i e s o f sh o ts o r quick f la s h e s used to e s ta b l i s h an id ea

o r a mood in a few seconds o r to speed up th e tem po. For

example, should one w ish to e s ta b l i s h q u ick ly th e a c tio n o f

a man t r a v e l in g , a few sh o ts of him on t r a i n s , b u sse s , b o a ts ,

o r p la n e s , in m otion, w i l l convey th e id e a to an aud ience

w ith in a few seconds; and i t saves showing a f u l l scene in

each lo c a t io n .

Both th e w r i te r and th e d i r e c to r must always be th in k -

26

in g o f aud ience a p p e a l. This i s e s p e c ia l ly t r u e in th e m a tte r

o f opening th e p i c tu r e . The opening must a t t r a c t immediate

a t t e n t io n , bu t i t must a ls o s e t th e mood o r atm osphere which

i s a p p ro p r ia te fo r th e p ic tu r e .

There i s a ls o th e q u estio n o f d ia lo g u e . I t must ad ­

vance th e p lo t o f th e s to ry , and must a t th e same tim e h e lp

t o d e f in e th e c h a ra c te r s . I t must r e f l e c t th e n a tu re o f th e

c h a ra c te r who speaks i t . D ialogue i s o f te n u sed , a l s o , to

enhance th e mood o f a scene , c re a tin g suspense , o r atmos­

p h e re , o r p a th o s , o f lau g h s—beyond what i s accom plished by

th e camera. In every c a se , however, d ia lo g u e should be con­

c is e and to th e p o in t , a s long wordy speeches tend to d u l l

th e i n t e r e s t o f th e au d ien ce .

In summary, th e d i r e c to r i s so g r e a t ly concerned w ith

th e f in is h e d s c r i p t , and so much depends upon i t b e ing s u i t ­

a b le to h is needs, t h a t he g e n e ra lly assumes a s dominant a

p o s i t io n a s p o s s ib le in ad a p tin g th e s to r y and developing i t

in sc re en p lay form - p o in t in g i t f o r maximum aud ience ap p e a l,

d es ig n in g i t s c o n s tru c tio n f o r c inem atic and d ram atic e f ­

f e c t iv e n e s s , and p o in tin g i t s d ia lo g u e fo r p l a y a b i l i t y and

punch.

IT . WORKING POLICIES

There a re many approved methods th rough which d i r e c ­

to r s e f f e c t th e p re p a ra tio n of t h e i r s c re e n p la y s . Some d i r ­

27

e c to rs a c c e p t th e s c r ip t and fo llo w i t q u ite l i t e r a l l y ; o th e r s ,

l i k e Frank C apra, F r i t z Lang, A lfred H itchcock , and W illiam

K eighley , f i r s t read th e s c r ip t tho ro u g h ly and t r y t o v is u a l ­

iz e th e sce n es , cheeking s to ry v a lu es and th e c o n tin u i ty from

one sequence to a n o th e r , th en make changes in th e s c r ip t

them selves o r send i t hack f o r re w ritin g * Sometimes th e y

c o l la b o ra te c lo s e ly w ith th e w r i te r th roughou t th e w r it in g

o f th e s e re e n p la y . A lfred H itchcock sa y s :

With th e help of my w ife , who does th e te c h n ic a l c o n t in u i ty , I p lan out a s c r ip t very c a r e fu l ly , hop­ing to fo llo w i t e x a c tly a l l th e way th ro u g h , when sh o o tin g s t a r t s . In f a c t , t h i s working on th e . s c r ip t i s th e r e a l making o f th e f i lm , fo r me.1

Even in t h i s f i r s t s te p in p ro d u c tio n o f th e f ilm ,

th e re i s a fundam ental d if f e re n c e between th e methods o f

d i r e c to r s who handle la rg e -b u d g e t p ic tu r e s , as compared w ith2th o se who han d le th e sm all ones. The l a t t e r group, re g a rd ­

l e s s of t h e i r in d iv id u a l a b i l i t i e s , work under such sh o rt

tim e -sch ed u le s and p re s s u re , th a t th ey seldom have th e oppor­

tu n i ty to do any th in g w ith th e sc reen p lay b e fo re sh o o tin g ,

beyond re ad in g i t and s e t t in g up th e p ro d u c tio n sch ed u le .

O ccasio n a lly th e y suggest changes and have th e s e r e v is io n s

made b e fo re o r du ring th e sh o o tin g ; more o f te n th e y ta k e th e

^ A lfred H itchcock , " D ir e c t io n ,” from F oo tno tes to th e Film , e d ite d by C harles Davy. (London: Lovat D ickson,Etd,7“l937), p. 5.

2 c f . , fo o tn o te , p . 19,

28

s c r ip t as i t i s and shoot i t*

Men who d i r e c t h igh-budget p ic tu r e s , on th e o th e r

hand, u s u a l ly e x e rc is e c o n s id e rab le in f lu e n c e in th e p rep a ­

r a t io n of th e s c r ip ts * Most o f them re fu s e to s t a r t p ro ­

d u c tio n , re g a rd le s s o f th e o th e r f a c to r s , u n t i l th e y have

approved every l i n e .

A fte r re ad in g th e s c r ip t and d ec id in g upon i t s e f­

fe c tiv e n e s s a s a s to r y , th e d i r e c to r c o n s id e rs th e im agery,

mood, tempo, pho tog raph ic p o s s i b i l i t i e s , s h o r t c u ts , and

choice o f camera a n g le s . B efore going deep ly in to d i r e c ­

t i o n a l tre a tm e n t, th e d i r e c to r th en u s u a l ly c o n s id e rs th e

s c r ip t very c a r e fu l ly w ith th e w r i te r and p ro d u ce r, i f on ly

a minor a l t e r a t i o n i s n e c e ssa ry , he may do i t h im se lf . He

may change th e sequences around, o r in tro d u c e a new ch arac­

t e r , o r remove one, as he sees f i t . n a tu r a l ly , to do t h i s

e f f e c t iv e ly th e d i r e c to r should have a broad knowledge o f

sc reen p la y w r it in g .

Among th e d i r e c to r s who work w ith t h e i r w r i te r s from

th e beg inn ing i s Frank Capra; fo r y ea rs he has c o lla b o ra te d

c lo s e ly on most of h is p ro d u c tio n s w ith Robert R isk in .

W rite rs may be o u ts tan d in g in l i t e r a r y f i e l d s , bu t t h a t does

no t n e c e s s a r i ly mean th a t th e y know how to w r i te s u c c e s s fu lly

f o r th e film s* S creenp lay w r it in g i s a te c h n ic a l job and r e ­

q u ire s e i th e r thorough t r a in in g o r y ea rs o f p r a c t i c a l exper­

ien ce , p lu s c e r ta in in h e re n t a b i l i t i e s , sometimes d esc rib ed

29

as "knack ,"

W rite rs o f te n do no t understand th e problem s of th e

d i r e c to r . They may w r i te camera d i r e c t io n s th a t read w e ll,

y e t th e s e camera d ir e c t io n s may be v ery im p ra c tic a l and hard

to fo llo w when sh o o tin g . In s p i t e o f a th e o r e t i c a l knowl­

edge o f th e t e c h n i c a l i t i e s o f m otion p ic tu r e making, many

w r i te r s ten d to c re a te d i f f i c u l t problem s which th e d i r e c to r

has to co n fro n t and d ea l w ith l a t e r on th e se t.jf T here fo re ,

i t i s d e s ir a b le in most in s ta n c e s fo r th e d i r e c to r to work

v ery c lo s e ly w ith th e sc re e n p la y w r i te r th roughou t p re p a ra ­

t io n o f th e sc re en p lay .

For example: suppose a s c e n a r is t w r i te s , "Dawn r i s e s

In th e lo v e ly l i t t l e tow n ." To gain th e e f f e c t o f th e morn­

in g , th e d i r e c to r in tro d u c e s h is own d e t a i l s showing th e dim

l i g h t s o f th e s t r e e t lamps a g a in s t th e b r ig h te n in g sky, th e

awakening of b i r d s , th e newspaper boys d e l iv e r in g p ap e rs ,

and so on . The w r i te r may suggest th e scene , bu t i t i s th e

d i r e c t o r ’s r e s p o n s ib i l i ty to develop th e d e t a i l s ; he i s th e

one who knows how to p re se n t i t most e f f e c t iv e ly th rough th e

camera upon th e sc re e n .

R egarding mood and tempo, th e d i r e c to r g e n e ra lly knows

b e t t e r th an th e w r i te r how th e d e s ire d e f f e c ts can be e s ta b ­

l is h e d by th e s e t , camera a n g le s , l ig h t in g , d ia lo g u e and

m usic . He knows every a sp ec t o f th e s e phases o f p ro d u c tio n .

The w r i te r may know th e g e n e ra l fu n c tio n s o f th e s e to o ls fo r

30

s to r y - t e l l i n g bu t be i s no t o f te n a m aster o f any o f them*

By working w ith th e w r i te r , th e d i r e c to r may th u s be o f

g re a t a s s is ta n c e in s e t t in g th e tempo o f th e f in is h e d p ic ­

tu r e and e s ta b l is h in g i t s v a r ie d moods.

Y. SUMMARY

In view o f th e s e c ircu m stan ces , i t i s on ly n a tu r a l

th a t some a u t h o r i t i e s . f e e l th a t th e s to ry i s th e most im­

p o r ta n t s in g le f a c to r in th e e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f a m otioh p ic

t u r e . As Miss F ra n c is Marion has s a id :

The most p o p u la r s t a r , b e a u t i f u l s e t t i n g , and i n t e l l i g e n t d i r e c t in g cannot overcome th e la c k o f good s to ry , w h ile , on th e o th e r hand, a good s to ry w i l l to overcome inadequa te , ' l i r e c -

I t i s no wonder t h a t d i r e c to r s devote so much tim e and e f ­

f o r t t o c a re fu l s e le c t io n o f s t o r i e s , where t h a t p re ro g a ­

t i v e i s g iven them, and in su p e rv is in g th e f u l l development

o f v a lu es in t h e i r s t o r i e s du rin g th e p ro c esse s o f ad ap ta ­

t io n and p re p a ra tio n o f th e s c e n a r io s .

t i o n .

1 Francis Marion, op,, c i t . , p . 14

CHAPTER IT

THE DIRECTOR, AND THE SETS, COSTUMES AND MA3TE-UP

As p re v io u s ly s ta te d , a f i lm d i r e c to r i s l i k e l y to be

a "Jack of a l l t r a d e s ," fo r be i s c a lle d upon to su p e rv ise

and c o o rd in a te a l l phases o f f i lm p ro d u c tio n . This i s Ju s t

a s t r u e o f th e g rap h ic cinema a r t s —s e t d es ig n , costume de­

s ig n , sind make-up—as i t i s o f th e pho tograph ic and d ram atic

a r t s invo lved in f i lm p ro d u c tio n , even though th e s tu d io s

have h ig h ly p a id and th o ro u g h ly experienced s p e c ia l i s t s f o r

t h i s work.

The in c re a s in g im portance o f t h i s phase o f f i lm p ro ­

d u c tio n i s apparen t in a comment made by Andrew Buchanan:

C lo thes a re no t th e on ly th in g s America p u b l ic iz ­e s . She shows th e w orld , in h e r f i lm s e t s , th e id e a l home; h e r s t a r s a d v e r t is e h e r l a t e s t au tom ob ilesi she f e a tu re s h e r loco m o tiv es , h e r s h ip s , and p o l i c e .1

Indeed , th e eyes o f th e world a r e charmed w ith th e gorgeous

s e t s o f Hollywood p ic tu r e s ; and Mr. Buchanan goes on to de­

c la r e t h a t much o f th e p o p u la r i ty o f Hollywood p ic tu r e s in

fo re ig n c o u n tr ie s i s due to t h e i r expensive s e ts and e la b o r­

a t e costum ing.

T his im portan t p a r t o f f i lm p ro d u c tio n i s th e b u s in e ss

Andrew Buchanan, F ilm s. (London: S i r Isaa c Pitm an and Sons, L td . , 1932), pp . 205-220.

52

o f th e a r t departm ent, b u t, s in c e th e d i r e c to r i s going to

evolve h is a c tio n and camera an g les in th e s e s e t s , he must

know t h a t each p a r t i c u l a r s e t i s f i t t e d to th e d ram atic move­

ment he in ten d s t o u se ,

I . DESIGN OF SETTINGS

tinder o rd in a ry c ircum stances s e t t in g s a re designed

a f t e r th e s to r i e s a r e adap ted and th e p la n s fo r th e sc re e n ­

p la y s a re reaso n ab ly w e ll c r y s t a l l i z e d . Most o f te n th e ap­

proved a d a p ta tio n o r tre a tm e n t of a s to ry i s sen t to th e a r t

d i r e c to r fo r p re p a ra t io n o f p re lim in a ry sk e tch es w h ile th e

sc e n a rio i s being f in is h e d . F req u e n tly , th e ap p ro v a ls on

a l l s e t t in g s re q u ire d a re completed b e fo re th e f i n a l re v ise d

sc e n a r io . is ready fo r p roduction*

So many d i f f e r e n t c ircum stances in f lu e n c e th e produc­

t i o n o f in d iv id u a l p ic tu r e s t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t to g e n e ra l­

i z e on p ro c e d u re s . As a r u l e , however, th e f i r s t s te p i s one

o f con ferences between th e p roducer o r h i s r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s ,

th e d i r e c to r , and th e a r t d i r e c to r to e s ta b l i s h p o l ic ie s fo r

th e p ro d u c tio n . Here ag a in , th e estim ated commercial w orth

o f th e s to ry and c a s t have an in f lu e n c e in th e d e c is io n s .

The g re a te r th e p o t e n t i a l earn ings o f th e p ic tu r e , th e more

expense th e a r t d i r e c to r can be a llow ed . Each in d iv id u a l

case i s judged ppon i t s m e r its in view o f th e many o th e r v a r ­

ie d c ircum stances in f lu e n c in g th e s tu d io * s a t t i t u d e toward i t .

33

Once t h i s g e n e ra l Judgment i s made and th e th r e e func­

t i o n a r i e s have come to some agreem ent on what p h y s ic a l

m ounting i s d e s i r a b le , th e a r t d i r e c to r p u ts h i s s t a f f to

work. As p re lim in a ry sk e tch es a re p re p a red , th ey a re sub­

m itte d to th e d i r e c to r and p ro d u c e r. O rd in a r ily , th e l a t ­

t e r i s concerned p r i m a r i l y w ith th e f in a n c ia l s u i t a b i l i t y

o f th e d e s ig n s . I f th e y pass h is economic s c ru t in y , th e

Judgment on t h e i r e f fe c t iv e n e s s fo r s e t t i n g o f f th e s to ry

and c a s t i s l e f t to th e d i r e c to r .

U nless th e d i r e c to r and a r t d i r e c to r have worked to -■f

g e th e r a g re a t d ea l i t i s l i k e ly t h a t th e r e w i l l be many chang­

es o f d es ig n o f th e s e t t in g s as a whole and in d iv id u a l d e t a i l s

o f appearance and c o n s tru c tio n b e fo re th e f i n a l r e s u l t i s

ach iev ed . Most o f them a re c a lle d fo r. by th e d i r e c to r in

o rd e r to improve th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e a c t io n o r to s a t i s ­

fy h is p e rso n a l t a s t e s . Even a t b e s t th e compromises and

ad ju stm en ts a re l i a b l e to be m an ifo ld .

Under c ircum stances w herein th e d i r e c to r p la y s a m ajor

p a r t in develop ing th e s to ry , r i g h t from th e s t a r t , i t i s

l i k e l y th a t th e r e w i l l be a c lo s e r in te g ra t io n o f p rocedures

and r e s u l t s . A lfre d H itchcock has s a id , " S e t t in g s , o f cou rse ,

come in to th e p re lim in a ry p la n , and u s u a l ly I have f a i r l y

c le a r id eas about them.""*"

A lfred H itchcock , " D ire c t io n ," in go o tn o tes to th e F ilm , e d ite d by C harles Davy, (London: Lovat D ickson, L td . , I§27) p . 6 .

34

l a f a c t , Mr. H itchcock i s g e n e ra lly c re d i te d w ith de­

v e lo p in g d ram atic a c tio n fo r h is sc reen p la y s to s u i t th e

c in em atic e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e s e t t in g s he has conjured*

T his was commented on by a number o f contem porary c r i t i c s

when "F oreign C orrespondent" and "Saboteur" were re leased *

I t i s on ly n a tu r a l th a t some d i r e c to r s d is p la y a

g r e a te r i n t e r e s t th a n o th e rs in th e mountings f o r t h e i r film s*

C ec il B. d e M il le ^ s e t s , f o r in s ta n c e , a re t r a d i t i o n a l l y

lu x u r io u s ; he i s re p o r te d to be concerned w ith every m inute

d e t a i l o f even th e l a r g e s t o f h is s e t s . In many In s ta n c e s ,

he to o , p lan s th e s e t t in g h im se lf o r has th e a r t d i r e c to r

d esig n i t to h is s p e c i f ic a t io n s and th e n develops th e a c tio n

to f i t them.'*'

Although Mr. 'deM ille and Mr. Mamoulian re p re s e n t ex­

trem es in t h i s m a tte r , th e p r in c ip le a p p lie s to n e a r ly a l l

o th e r re p u ta b le d i r e c to r s as w e ll , f o r s e t t in g s have some

power t o t e l l th e s to r y and i t i s o n ly n a tu r a l f o r a d ir e c ­

t o r to use every d ev ice a t h is command to make a f i lm more

e f f e c t iv e .

I I . DESIGN OF COSTUMES

This same p r in c ip le a p p lie s g e n e ra l ly to th e costum­

ing o f p ic tu r e s a l s o . The p rim ary d if fe re n c e s a r e t h a t th e

more prom inent p la y e rs f r e q u e n tly have a vo ice In s e le c t in g

g arb s fo r t h e i r own p a r t s , and th a t th e cost f a c to r s a re

^ ? /illia m C. deM ille , in a le c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia , A p r il , 1941.

35

no t su b je c t to such wide v a r ia t io n a s a re th e c o s ts o f s e t ­

t i n g s . Even so , in p e r io d p ic tu r e s th e c o s ts o f costum ing

sometimes have a s tro n g b ea rin g on p o l ic y .

A nother p o s s ib le excep tion i s th a t costumes from

form er p ic tu r e s can be used l e s s n o tic e a b ly and, th e r e fo re ,

a re used more f re q u e n tly th an second-tim e s e t t i n g s . This

seldom happens w ith th e gowns of prom inent a c t r e s s e s , a l ­

though th ey a r e sometimes pu t in to g e n e ra l w ardrobe s to c k

f o r u se by b i t p la y e r s .

Another f a c to r i s th a t th e male p la y e rs in p ic tu r e s

w ith modern s e t t in g s a re f re q u e n tly c a lle d upon to p ro v id e

t h e i r own w ardrobes.

In so fa r as costumes a re im portan t t o t e l l i n g th e

s to ry , however, th e d i r e c to r i s l i k e l y to p la y a dominant

p a r t in s e le c t in g from th e su g g es tio n s o f th e costume de­

s ig n e rs and w ardrobe, th e costumes which w i l l be most e f ­

f e c t iv e .

I I I . DESIGN OF MAKE-UP

In th e m a jo r ity o f in s ta n c e s th e i n t e r e s t o f th e d i ­

r e c to r in make-up i s confined to th e e s tab lish m en t o f a

g e n e ra l make-up p o lic y fo r each in d iv id u a l p ic tu r e w ith th e

make-up departm en t, and th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f h im se lf th a t th e

r e s u l t s conform to t h i s p o l ic y .

In t h i s case , as w ith costume d e s ig n , th e more prom-

36

in e n t p la y e rs have a la rg e p a r t in de term in ing t h e i r own

appearances b e fo re th e cam era. This i s e s p e c ia l ly t r u e when

c h a ra c te r make-ups a re u sed , as by C harles Laughton in "The

Hunchback o f H otre Dame." Such com plicated make-ups a re

u s u a l ly designed by th e p la y e r s , o r make-up s p e c i a l i s t s ,

w ith th e counse l o f th e d i r e c to r , fo r in th e l a s t a n a ly s is

th e make-up must be designed to f u l f i l l i t s appo in ted p la c e

in p u t t in g over th e f i lm as a whole, and i f th e r e s u l t s a re

n o t w e ll p lanned i t w i l l o n ly d i s t r a c t from th e e f f e c t iv e ­

ness o f th e p i c tu r e .

IV. SUMMARY

I t i s th u s , because o f th e in f lu e n c e o f th e s e t s ,

costum es, and make-up on th e o v e r - a l l e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f a

f i lm , th a t I t I s e s s e n t ia l f o r th e d i r e c to r to understand

som ething o f how th e s e g ra p h ic cinema a r t s a r e p ra c t ic e d

and ta k e a la rg e p a r t in working w ith th e s tu d io s p e c ia l ­

i s t s , even though t h i s p a r t may be la r g e ly a m a tte r o f

s e le c t in g a p p ro p r ia te su g g es tio n s o f th e s p e c ia l i s t s and

su p e rv is in g th e f in e s s e w ith which th e y a re c a r r ie d o u t .

CHAPTER ¥

THE DIRECTOR AND THE PLAYERS

The r e la t io n s h ip s between th e d i r e c to r and th e p la y ­

e rs a re in flu en ce d la r g e ly by two f a c to r s : th e p rocedures

and circum stances invo lved in th e c a s tin g o f p la y e r s , and

th e tech n iq u es and p r in c ip le s involved in t h e in te r p r e ta t io n

o f t h e i r r o l e s . Q uite u n d e rs ta n d in g ly th e s e f a c to r s a re i n ­

fluenced by a l l o f th e o th e rs invo lved in f i lm p ro d u c tio n .^

Both o f th e s e f a c to r s stem from one n e c e s s i ty , and

th a t i s t o g iv e th e f in is h e d r e s u l t a sem blanee o f r e a l i t y

w h ile a t the. same tim e u t i l i z i n g th e v a r ie d p o t e n t i a l i t i e s

o f c inem atic te ch n iq u e to overcome th e l im i ta t io n s o f r e a l ­

i t y . P e te r M ilne s tre s s e d t h i s p o in t when he s a id :

Whether a scene i s be ing made o f a beach-com ber*s sh an ty , an underw orld basement sa lo o n , a p o o l - h a l l , a s h ip ’s cab in , a shoe fa c to ry o r a sm art r e s ta u r a n t , no t o n ly should th e aim be to convince th e au d ien ce , b u t enough s tu d y should be g iven th e s u b je c t , in each ca se , to convince th e h a b itu e s o f any o f th e s e p la c e s t h a t th e y a re in f a m i l ia r su rro u n d in g s .

I . PROCEDURES FOR SELECTION OF PLAYERS

For c a s tin g purposes th e r e a re , g e n e ra lly speak ing ,

fo u r ty p es o f p la y e r s ; s t a r s or fe a tu re d p la y e r s , c h a ra c te r

^ The d a ta o f t h i s c h a p te r a re d e riv ed la r g e ly from le c tu r e s by W illiam K eigh ley , a t The u n iv e r s i ty o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia , 1940 and 1941.

2 P e te r M ilne, Motion P ic tu re D ire c tin g . (F alk Pub­l i s h in g Company, 1922), p . 65.

38

a c to r s o r a c tre s se s* b i t p lay ers* and ex tra s* This d iv is io n

i s th e one used f o r s tu d io a d m in is tr a t iv e purposes and i s ,

th e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r i ly a hey to th e d i r e c to r 's r e la t io n s h ip

to p la y e r s .

A second hey to t h i s r e la t io n s h ip i s in d ic a te d by th e

ty p e \ of each in d iv id u a l p ro d u c tio n , and th e ty p e o f p ro d u c tio n

form ula employed—th a t i s , w hether th e s to ry i s a la rg e o r

sm all-budget p ic tu r e developed e s p e c ia l ly a s a v e h ic le fo r

one or more p la y e r s o r acq u ired fo r i t s g e n e ra l f i lm a b i l i t y

and c a s t from w hatever t a l e n t may be a v a i la b le ; a l s o , w hether

i t i s produced by a m ajor o rg a n iz a tio n w ith p e rso n n e l and

f a c i l i t i e s im m ediately a t i t s d is p o s a l , o r produced by an

independent e n te r p r is e w ith w hatever p ro d u c tio n a s s e ts i t

can m uster.

B asic p r in c ip le s . G en e ra lly speah ing , c a s t in g i s done

by th e d i r e c to r w ith th e counsel o f th e p roducer o r h is

r e p re s e n ta t iv e and th e c a s tin g d i r e c to r . The problem beg in s

f re q u e n tly in advance o f o r c o n c u rre n tly w ith th e d e c is io n

to a c q u ire p ro d u c tio n r ig h t s to th e s to ry . R e la t iv e ly seldom

i s a s to ry purchased w ith o u t th e s tu d io o r p roducer having a

f a i r l y good id ea where he can f in d th e p la y e rs fo r i t . The

b ig g e r th e s to ry and th e more c r i t i c a l th e c a s tin g problem ,

th e more t h i s i s l i k e l y to be t r u e .

So many in d iv id u a l c ircum stances a r i s e in th e c a s tin g

o f p ic tu r e s th a t i t may be dangerous to g e n e ra l iz e , e s p e c ia l ly

59

on tlie f a c to r s invo lved in s e le c t io n o f s t a r s o r fe a tu re d

p la y e r s . The f a i r l y co n stan t p r in c ip le i s , however, th a t

m ajor s tu d io s t r y t o c a s t t h e i r f ilm s p r im a r i ly from among

p la y e rs under c o n tra c t to them, w hereas th e independent

o rg a n iz a tio n s have to depend more upon f r e e - la n c e p la y e rs

and th o se which th e y a r e a b le to o b ta in from th e m ajor

s tu d io s . F req u e n tly , commercial f a c to r s a r e in s tru m e n ta l

in p r e c ip i t a t in g d e c is io n s , th e m a tte rs o f s a la r y c o s t and

o th e r c o n s id e ra tio n s ou t-w eighing th e a c tu a l e f fe c tiv e n e s s

o f th e p la y e rs fo r th e r o le s fo r which th e y a re being con­

s id e re d .

In th e l a s t a n a ly s is , however, most d i r e c to r s appear

to f e e l t h a t th e s e le c t io n o f th e p ro p e r p la y e rs i s ju s t as

im portan t i f n o t more im portan t th a n th e p re p a ra tio n of th e

s c e n a rio and th e h an d lin g o f i t s in te rp r e ta t io n b e fo re th e

cam eras. F req u e n tly , th e com bination o f a p opu lar main e a s t

and a s u b s ta n t i a l su p p o r tin g -c a s t w i l l b r in g n o ta b le success

t o th e p ic tu r e even though th e o th e r f a c to r s a re unremark­

a b le .

Andrew Buchanan has commented on t h i s p o in t w h ile

speak ing o f th e p a r t i c u l a r problem s invo lved in developing

s t a r s f o r th e m otion p ic tu r e p u b lic :

The making o f f i lm s t a r s i s a h ig h ly s p e c ia liz e d b u s in e s s , in v o lv in g th e b ra in s and p a tie n c e o f p ro ­

d u c e r s , cameramen, p u b l ic i ty e x p e rts and d ressm akers. S ta r s can be and a re made from th e most unprom ising m a te r ia l , said th e reason th e y a re made i s because

40

th e y w i l l u l t im a te ly be a b le t o make poor p ic tu r e s su c c e s s fu l , and s u c c e s s fu l p ic tu r e s s e n s a tio n s , fo r i t i s no ex ag g era tio n to say th a t th e m a jo r ity o f cinema goers fo llo w t h e i r s t a r s . They cannot be induced to see th o se th e y d i s l i k e , and n o th in g w i l l p rev en t them see in g th o se th e y id o l i z e . By t h i s system peop le f r e ­q u en tly m iss good film s and w itn e ss poor o nes.

Type c a s t in g . Among many o th e r im portan t f a c to r s in

th e d ire c to r* s s e le c t io n o f p la y e r s , th e m a tte r o f " ty p e ­

c a s t in g ” cannot be overlooked . E sp e c ia lly when th e sc reen ­

p la y i s based on a well-known s ta g e p la y o r n o v e l, i t i s

n e c e ssa ry fo r th e d i r e c to r to ge t p la y e rs who w i l l be reco g ­

n ized by th e p u b lic a s embodying th e a t t r i b u t e s which th e

p u b lic has p reconceived fo r t h e i r r o l e s . I f th e s to ry in ­

vo lv es s e v e ra l members o f a fa m ily , th e d i r e c to r must s e le c t

p eo p le who appear to have a fam ily resem blance.

This m a tte r o f " ty p e - c a s t in g ," however, covers th e

whole f i e l d o f p lay e rs* s e le c t io n in th e cinem a, due to th e

f a c t th a t a p ic tu re * s commercial success depends l a r g e ly up­

on i t s a b i l i t y to app ea l t o th e m a jo r i ty . This means th a t

rom antic le a d s must be so ty p ic a l o f what th e p u b lic expects

o f th e s e c h a ra c te rs in appearance and a c tio n th a t t h e i r p u r­

pose in s t o r i e s w i l l n o t be m isunderstood . And th e same

p r in c ip le a p p lie s to th e p a r e n ta l p a r t s , h e a v ie s , th e comics

and th e ju v e n ile s .

^ Andrew Buchanan, F ilm s. (London: S ir Isa a c Pitman and Sons, L td . , 1932), p . 222.

41

In th e l a s t a n a ly s is , though , d i r e c to r s a re v ery l i k e ly

to s e le c t p la y e rs whom th ey a r e su re w i l l g iv e good perform ­

ances under t h e i r own d i r e c t io n , and to p u t t h i s m a tte r ahead

o f most o th e r c o n s id e ra tio n s . A fte r a l l , i t i s th e d i r e c to r

who w i l l be h e ld re s p o n s ib le fo r t h e i r perfo rm ances. His

p e rso n a l r e la t io n s h ip to them, and h is a b i l i t y to draw e f­

f e c t iv e perform ances out o f them, a re th e b a s ic co n s id e ra ­

t io n s , f o r th e a c to r s a re th e d i r e c t o r s p rim ary means of

g iv in g l i f e t o —th e c h a ra c te rs d e lin e a te d in mere words on

th e pages o f th e s c e n a r io .

A lthough o c c a s io n a l ex cep tio n s may be found, i t I s

common p r a c t ic e to determ ine who w i l l p la y th e le a d in g r o le s

b e fo re g e t t in g v ery f a r in to th e ad ap tio n o f th e s t o r i e s , fo r> '

th e in d if id f ia l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f p la y e rs very o f te n d e te r ­

mine th e range o f d ram atic and e h a ra c te r iz a t io n a l va lu es

which a s to ry may have. This i s t r i ie no t on ly o f s t a r r in g

and fe a tu re d r o l e s , bu t a ls o o f prom inent b i t p a r ts *

This f a c to r i s even more obvious in p ro d u c tio n s

launched by th e sm alle r o rg a n iz a tio n s , fo r th e y canno|r gen­

e r a l ly a f fo rd to p u t money in to th e f in is h in g o f a sc e n a rio

u n le s s th e y know t h a t s u i ta b le p la y e r s w i l l d e f in i t e l y be a v a i l ­

a b le when p ro d u c tio n tim e comes.

R e s p o n s ib i l i t ie s o f th e d i r e c to r . The s tro n g e r th e

d i r e c to r and th e la rg e r th e p a r t s , th e more a u th o r i ty th e

d i r e c to r i s l i k e ly to have in s e le c t in g h is p la y e r s . This

42

i s t r u e o f c h a ra c te r r o le s as w e ll as fe a tu re d and s ta r r in g

p a r t s . The c a s tin g d i r e c to r se rv es la r g e ly a s a c o n tra c tin g

fu n c tio n a ry , a rra n g in g th e b u s in e ss d e t a i l s w ith th e a c to r s

o r t h e i r r e p re s e n ta t iv e s in accordance w ith in s t r u c t io n s

from th e p roducer and d i r e c to r .

The d i r e c to r f re q u e n tly a s s e r t s a s im ila r in f lu e n c e

on th e s e le c t io n o f b i t p la y e rs , a lthough t h i s i s in some

in s ta n c e s l e f t to th e c a s tin g d i r e c to r and th e p ro d u ce r.

The p ro v id in g o f e x tra s i s seldom re fe r r e d to th e d i r e c to r ,

however, excep ting in th o se in s ta n c e s where th e d i r e c to r

d e s ire s to emphasize th e c h a ra c te rs o r a c tio n s o f such

p la y e r s .

In a sm a lle r o rg a n iz a tio n , t h i s same p r in c ip le ap­

p l i e s , b u t because th e r e a re fe w e r.a id e s o r a s s i s t a n t s to

hand le such m a tte rs th e d i r e c to r i s l i k e l y t o have no t only

a f r e e r hand in making s e le c t io n s , bu t a ls o more re sp o n s i­

b i l i t y fo r t h e i r e f fe c t iv e n e s s .

I I . INTERPRETATION OF ROLES

Much o f th e su ccess o f a d i r e c to r l i e s in h is a b i l i t y

to v is u a l iz e th e c h a ra c te rs in a s to ry and th e s i tu a t io n s in

which th e y ap p ear, so t h a t f i r s t in h is own im ag in a tio n , and

l a t e r on c e l lu lo id , th e y are ,-tu rned in to r e a l peop le engaged

in b e l ie v a b le a c t i v i t i e s .

This i s a somewhat d i f f e r e n t problem on th e sc reen

43

/th a n on th e s ta g e because sc reen a c to r s a re u s u a l ly c lo s e r

b o th v i s u a l ly and em o tiona lly to t h e i r aud iences th an a re

c h a ra c te rs in a s ta g e play* I t ta k e s a keen und erstan d in g

o f th e p la y e rs and t h e i r p e rso n a l a t t r i b u t e s , as w e ll as f u l l

v i s u a l iz a t io n and knowledge o f p ro d u c tio n te ch n iq u es to

o b ta in e f f e c t iv e r e s u l t s .

This r e q u ir e s q u ite an u n d erstan d in g o f human n a tu re ,

a thorough knowledge o f psychology, and o r d in a r i ly a v a s t

amount o f t a c t and diplom acy. U nless th e d i r e c to r has th e

confidence o f h is p la y e r s , he ean h a rd ly expect them to do

t h e i r b e s t . Sometimes i t i s n ec essa ry fo r him to watch them

c a r e f u l ly d u rin g re h e a r s a ls in o rd e r to le a r n how to i n f l u ­

ence them when th e y a re b e fo re th e cam eras. At o th e r tim es

he must persuade them in d i r e c t ly to h is own in te r p r e ta t io n

o f t h e i r l i n e s and a c tio n s w ithou t l e t t i n g them r e a l i z e t h a t

he i s doing i t . He must always weigh c a r e fu l ly th e ac to rs*

a b i l i t i e s , p e rm itt in g them to work out fo r them selves every­

th in g which th e y a r e capab le o f d eve lop ing , and th en working

ou t w ith them or fo r them th e rem ain ing f a c e ts o f a c tin g and

in t e r p r e ta t io n he d e s i r e s .

I n t e g r i ty o f in t e rp r e t a t io n . There a r e th r e e th in g s

which most d i r e c to r s have to watch p a r t i c u l a r ly , however,

w ith th e la r g e r number o f t h e i r p la y e r s : o v e r -a c tin g , u n d e r-

a c t in g , and i n s in c e r i t y . The f i r s t i s a common c h a r a c te r is -th e r e

t i c o f a c to r s who :have come from th e s ta g e , a s / th e y have to

4 4

exaggeratjkie p o r t r a y a l o f c h a ra c te r in o rd e r to p r o je c t t h e i r

c h a ra c te r iz a t io n s to th e rea r-m o st s e a ts o f th e t h e a t e r s . When d i r e c t l y

t r a n s f e r r e d to th e sc reen i t w i l l be ap t to look l i k e o v e r -a c t-

in g . They f re q u e n tly f in d i t d i f f i c u l t to r e a l i z e th a t th e

cinema aud ience w i l l be as c lo s e to them as th e le n s e s o f th e

camera and th e m icrophone on i t s ever moving boom, and so th e y

a r e in c lin e d to mouth t h e i r words to extremes and move t h e i r

b o d ies w ith obvious th e a t r i c a l i s m . The second i s more l i k e ly

to occur w ith l e s s experienced p la y e rs o r th o se who a re f r e ­

q u e n tly c a s t in subdued p a r t s . This q u a l i ty can be v ery e f ­

f e c t iv e fo r s p e c ia liz e d r o le s , Ju s t as o v e r-a c tin g may c o n tr i^

b u te to c e r ta in ty p es o f comedy and melodrama, b u t a s a g e n e ra l

r u l e r i t needs to be guarded a g a in s t in a l l cases except th o se

where e x p l i c i t l y d e s ire d . I n s in c e r i ty may be app aren t in e i th e r

o v e r -a c tin g o r u n d e r -a c tin g , bu t i t i s most o f te n p re se n t where

p la y e rs a r e m erely c a s t to ty p e s and do n o t need to develop

s p e c ia l c h a r a c te r iz a t io n s . I t i s more l i k e l y t o be sensed im­

m ed ia te ly by an aud ience th an e i th e r o f th e two f a u l t s .

To sum up t h i s phase o f th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f r o le s ,

s i n c e r i t y on th e p a r t o f th e a c to r g e n e ra lly outw eighs th e

m a tte r o f a c tin g te c h n iq u e . Some a c to r s f a l l in to i t n a tu r a l ly

when going th rough scenes fo r th e f i r s t tim e o r tw o, o th e rs

have to be worked up to i t s lo w ly . Some a c to r s lo s e i t i f th ey

a r e reh ea rsed to o s t r in g e n t ly . I t i s u s u a l ly s a f e r to s a c r i ­

f i c e te c h n ic a l f in e s s e in a c tin g to th e e s s e n t i a l q u a l i ty o f

s i n c e r i t y .

45

R eh earsa l te c h n iq u e s . Some d i r e c to r s re h e a rs e scenes

f u l l y w ith t h e i r p la y e rs o f f th e s e t , however, and th e n g iv e

them o p p o rtu n ity to r e s t b e fo re going in f r o n t o f th e cam eras.

T his was a h ig h ly c o n tro v e r s ia l m a tte r around Hollywood f o r a

number o f y e a rs , a lth o u g h as e a r ly as 1950 i t was employed

by a number o f o u ts ta n d in g European d i r e c to r s . Pudovkin has

s a i d :

The re h e a r s a l system a t t a i n s th r e e r e s u l t s : I ta c h iev es p re lim in a ry work w ith th e a c to r to th e d eep est p o s s ib le d e g re e . I t g iv e s th e ex ecu tiv es th e o p p o rtu n ity to see th e f i lm , a s i t w ere, b e fo re i t I s sho t and make in tim e any c o r re c tio n o r a l t e r a ­t io n th a t m ight be r e q u ir e d . I t reduces to a m in i­mum th e w aste o f tim e du ring th e p re l im in a r ie s to each sho t which, a s i s w e ll known, in g e n e ra l , ru n away w ith a g re a t d e a l o f money.1

In Hollywood i t i s g e n e ra l ly th e d i r e c to r s who have

worked e x te n s iv e ly on th e s ta g e who make th e most of p re -

p ro d u c tio n r e h e a r s a ls . Garson Kanin, f o r example, re h ea rse d

"They Knew What They ?/antedn fo r two weeks b e fo re th e a c tu a l

sh o o tin g o f th e p ic tu r e . He b e lie v e s t h a t t h i s n o t on ly

saved tim e and money fo r th e p roducer, who has t o pay hun­

d reds o f d o l la r s f o r each hour consumed on th e s e t , b u t a ls o

gave th e p la y e rs and h im se lf a sense o f s e c u r i ty which was2r e f l e c te d in th e su ccess o f th e p ro d u c tio n .

^ T. L. Pudovkin, Film A c tin g . (A nnotated by Iv a r Montagee, London: V. G o llances, 1930), p . 56.

2 Garson Kanin in p e rso n a l in te rv ie w a t R.K.O. S tu d io s , Hollywood, 1942.

46

On th e o th e r hand, W illiam K eigh ley , who has had wide

experience as a d i r e c to r fo r b o th s ta g e and sc re e n , goes over

th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f d ia lo g u e w ith h is a c to r s b e fo re shoo t­

in g , bu t i s no t in fa v o r o f extended r e h e a r s a ls . He has

s a id t h a t i f he g e ts to o good a r e h e a r s a l i t may mean th a t

he w i l l lo s e a good " ta k e ." He fa v o rs sp o n ta n e ity o f i n t e r -1

p r s ta t io n as an a id to s in c e r i ty .

I t should be n o ted , however, th a t th e amount of r e ­

h e a r s a l and th e ty p e of r e h e a r s a l re q u ire d depend to a la rg e

ex ten t upon th e in d iv id u a l p la y e rs as w e ll as th e ty p e s o f

r o le s th e y a re e n a c tin g . S ta rs o r fe a tu re d p la y e rs g e n e ra l­

l y re q u ire l e s s d e ta i le d in s t r u c t io n in th e in te r p r e ta t io n

o f r o le s th an c h a ra c te r a c to r s o r p la y e rs o f s p e c ia liz e d

sm a ll r o l e s . I t i s t r u e , though, t h a t th e r e a re n o ta b le

excep tio n s to t h i s , e s p e c ia l ly among p la y e rs who have a t t a i n ­

ed p o p u la r i ty by o th e r means th an t h e i r a b i l i t i e s .

One p o in t on which th e m a jo r ity o f su c c e s s fu l d i r e c ­

t o r s ag ree i s th a t th e y should no t as a r u l e show p la y e rs how

to a c t . There a r e some, of cou rse , who seem to enjoy demon­

s t r a t i n g r o le s , a s though perhaps to compensate f o r f r u s t r a ­

t i o n or n o s ta lg ia , b u t th e o th e rs f e e l th a t th e p la y e rs a re

th e r e to conceive and p o r t r a y th e r o l e s , and th a t th e d i r e c ­

t o r should no t assume th e s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . B e e il B.

^ W illiam K eigh ley , in a l e c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs ity of Southern C a l i fo rn ia , 1940.

47

deM ille lias s a id :

One o f th e v i t a l th in g s f o r a d i r e c to r to remember i s t h a t he should no t te a c h th e a c to r s how to ac t*This i s no t th e b u s in e s s o f th e d i r e c to r , fo r i t means th e in s e r t in g o f h is own p e r s o n a l i ty in to th e a c to r s in s te a d o f b r in g in g out what th e y have in them .^

W illiam K eigh ley i s o f th e same op in ion a s d eM ille ,

bu t goes even f u r th e r :

The s t a r s a re pa id fo r p o r tra y in g r o le s , n o t th e d i r e c to r s . The d i r e c to r must e x p la in to them what to do and what no t to do. I t i s th e du ty of th ep la y e r s t o fo llo w h is a d v ic e , b u t to d is p la y t h e i rown tech n iq u es o f a c t in g .*

Sometimes i t i s n e c e ssa ry fo r a d i r e c to r to use a

d ev ice o f s tra tag em to o b ta in th e re q u ire d in t e r p r e ta t i o n .

Once, when an a c to r s a id he could no t c ry in a p a r t i c u la r

scene , th e d i r e c to r went to a s ta g e hand and w hispered some­

th in g in h is e a r . A few m inutes l a t e r th e te lep h o n e ra n g .

Someone from th e p o l ic e departm ent inform ed th e s t a r over

th e phone th a t h is ch au ffeu r had wrecked th e ca r and was

s e r io u s ly in ju re d . The s t a r , w ith eyes f u l l o f t e a r s , beg­

ged th e d i r e c to r to l e t him go home. The d i r e c to r consen ted ,

• /bu t asked him to s tan d b e fo re th e camera f o r a few seconds

and say h i s l i n e s . He d id t h i s , bu t now h is vo ice was f u l l

o f em otional c o lo r and t e a r ’s were in h is eyes. This tim e

"B uild ing a p h o to p la y ," by C ec il B. d eM ille , from S to ry o f th e F ilm s, e d ited by Joseph P . Kennedy. (Chicago and New York: A.W.Shaw Company, 1927), p . 141.

W illiam K eighley, l o c . c i t .

48

th e d i r e c to r was s a t i s f i e d and, coming to th e s t a r , he to ld

him th a t th e ca r was n o t smashed and exp la ined th a t i t was

a l l a d ev ice .^ -

Another of th e p r in c ip le s fo llow ed by a m a jo r ity o f

th e most su c c e s s fu l d i r e c to r s i s to g iv e an ex p lan a tio n to

th e p la y e r fo r every a c tio n and re a c t io n re q u ire d , and fo r

each emotion th a t i s to be r e f le c te d in th e n a r ra tio n * Gen­

e r a l ly speak ing , th e more i n t e l l i g e n t and ta le n te d th e p la y ­

e r , th e more he i s l i k e ly to respond* G ilb e r t S eldes t e l l s

o f an in s ta n c e when f a i l u r e to fo llo w t h i s p r in c ip le caused

s e r io u s co m p lica tio n s :

An a c to r . . . was c a lle d in on sh o rt n o t ic e to do a sm all p a r t . The d i r e c to r exp la ined i t : "You a rean o ld r e t i r e d s e a -c a p ta in and you a re s i t t i n g h e re a t h is desk, and th en you look up and you see 3Tack coming down th e s t a i r s , over th e r e . You g e t up— you haven*t seen him fo r te n y e a rs—and you say ,’Why, i f i t i s n ’t my old f r ie n d , Jack J" The a c to r though t he cou ld , bu t every tim e he t r i e d i t th e d i r e c to r c r ie d ou t in p a in th a t i t was a l l wrong; a f t e r dozens o f r e h e a r s a ls and r e t r i a l s th e d i r e c ­t o r re p e a te d th e in s t r u c t io n s over a g a in , and in d e sp e ra tio n th e a c to r asked , "What i s i t I am sup­posed to remember?" and th e d i r e c to r s a id c a s u a lly ,"Oh, d id n ’t I t e l l you? pYou a re supposed to be s u f fe r in g from le p r o s y ." 2

O ther ty p es o f com p lica tion ensue, however, when p la y ­

e rs a re in c l in e d to d is re g a rd th e counsel o f th e d ire c to r*

1 This in c id e n t occurred in 1938, du rin g a p e rso n a l v i s i t to th e New T h ea tres S tu d io , lo c a te d in C a lc u tta , In d ia , w h ile th e p ic tu r e "Deser Matey" was in p ro d u c tio n .

2 G ilb e r t S e ld e s , The Movies Came from America* (New York: C harles S c r ib n e r ’ s Sons; London: B. T. B a ts fo rd , L td . , 1937), p . 69.

49

O ccas io n a lly , t h i s may happen when th e y th in k th e y know more

about a c t in g than th e d i r e c to r does; more o f te n i t i s th e

r e s u l t sim ply o f a la c k o f m utual u n d e rs ta n d in g . There a re

many ways to handle such m a tte r s , however, i f th e d i r e c to r

u t i l i z e s p a tie n c e and diplom acy. W illiam K eighley re p o r te d

an in t e r e s t in g example o f t h i s : Once, when he was d i r e c t in g

an a c to r in a prom inent r o l e , he exp lained ev ery th in g very

c a r e f u l ly , bu t th e a c to r s t i l l wanted to do i t d i f f e r e n t l y .

The d i r e c to r d id n o t u rg e th e a c to r to fo llo w h is ad v ice ;

in s te a d , he m erely s a id , "A ll r i g h t , you can do i t your own

way, b u t remember, i f any th in g goes wrong you w i l l be r e ­

s p o n s ib le . Don’t blame m e." Looking a t i t in t h i s way, th e

a c to r decided th a t he d id no t w ish to ta k e th e r e s p o n s ib i l i ty ,

and so d id i t the;,way th e d i r e c to r had re q u e s te d . The r e ­

s u l t was s a t i s f a c to r y in every r e s p e c t . '1'

A lthough th e s e comments on r e h e a r s a l tech n iq u es have

been 3 lan ted p a r t i c u l a r ly to th e hand ling o f s t a r s , th e y

ap p ly g e n e ra lly to f e a tu re d p la y e rs and c h a ra c te r a c to r s as

w e l l . O ccasio n a lly , d i r e c to r s n e g le c t th e s e o th e rs because

o f th e p u b l ic ’s g r e a te r i n t e r e s t in th e s t a r s . The r e s u l t s

a r e l i k e l y to be u n fo r tu n a te , however, because fe a tu re d

p la y e rs and c h a ra c te r a c to r s p ro v id e th e main f a c to r s in th e

s i t u a t io n a l m a trix e s ou t o f which th e s to r i e s and th e prom i-

^ W illiam K eighley, lo c . c i t .

50

nence o f th e s t a r s emerge.

The problem s o f hand lin g b i t p la y e rs and e x tra s a re

r a th e r d i f f e r e n t , b u t th e success o f th e d i r e c to r in th e s e

two p a r t i c u l a r s f re q u e n tly has a marked b ea rin g on th e e f ­

fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e p i c tu r e . D ire c to rs d i f f e r Ju s t as much

in th e s e tech n iq u es as th e y do in o th e r s , C ec il B. deM ille

coaches b i t p la y e rs Ju s t as in te n s e ly a s th o se who a re more

prom inent and devotes a v a s t amount o f tim e to working out

scenes in which v a s t numbers o f e x tra s a p p e a r. O rd in a r ily ,

he d iv id e s a group in to s e v e ra l u n i t s , each c o n s is t in g o f

about te n p eo p le ; to each u n i t he a s s ig n s a key a c to r o r an

a s s i s t a n t d i r e c to r , in s t ru c te d in d e t a i l on what h is re sp e c ­

t i v e u n i t i s to do,. They, in tu r n , in s t r u c t t h e i r p e rso n ­

n e l , making i t much e a s ie r fo r th e d i r e c to r to hand le th e

whole group.

The problem o f th e a t r io a l i s m . I t i s g e n e ra lly con­

ceded th a t s ta g e a c tin g o r t r a in in g fo r th e s ta g e i s th e b e s t

p re p a ra t io n fo r sc reen a c t in g . Many problem s ap p e a r, how­

ev e r, when th e a c to r i s making th e t r a n s i t i o n from s ta g e t o

sc re e n , and most o f them become s u b je c ts f o r th e d i r e c to r ’ s

la b o r s . According to Andrew Buchanan:

The m a jo r ity o f f i lm s t a r s a r e r e c ru i te d from th e s ta g e ( th e reb y c re a t in g y e t an o th e r d i f f i c u l t l in k betw een th e two mediums). This i s because i t i s f e l t t h a t t h e i r a c tin g a b i l i t y on th e s ta g e w i l l enab le , them to make an e q u a lly good perform ance on. th e sc re e n .

1 Andrew Buchanan, F ilm s.(L ondon: S i r Isaa c Pitm an and Sons, L td . , 1932), p . 223.

51

Pudovkin has p o in ted o u t, though, t h a t th e t r a n s i t i o n

from s ta g e to sc reen i s d i f f i c u l t f o r th e a c to r , because th e

sc reen re q u ir e s an a l to g e th e r d i f f e r e n t s e t o f b eh av io r p a t ­

t e r n s . U nlike th e s ta g e , where th e a c to r must p la c e g re a t

emphasis upon d ia lo g u e and broad g e s tu re s , th e sc reen r e ­

q u ire s an emphasis on n a tu ra ln e s s o f a c t io n and g e s tu re , and

what may be d esc rib ed as s im p lic i ty in th e hand lin g o f d ia ­

logue* In making th e t r a n s i t i o n th e a c to r must r e a l i z e th a t

many o f th e tech n iq u es used on th e s ta g e fo r p ro je c t io n o f

c h a ra c te r and emotion w i l l now be q u i te u n n ecessary , because

th e camera and microphone b r in g th e aud ience to th e p la y e r -

sometimes to o c lo se fo r com fort!

S ince t r a in in g and experience do g iv e a c to r s funda­

m ental s k i l l s , however, which th e d i r e c to r o f m otion p ic ­

tu r e s can mold to h is own re q u ire m e n ts . The a c to r who un­

d e rs ta n d s th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f d ia lo g u e , needs m ainly to be

guarded a g a in s t o v e r -a c t in g , and r e s t r a in e d to th e p o in t

where he w i l l perm it th e camera to p la y i t s p ro p e r p a r t in

t e l l i n g th e s to ry . In a c lo se -u p , fo r in s ta n c e , th e aud ience

ean read th e joy , sorrow , o r anger in th e eyes o f an a c to r ,

even though th e r e s t o f h is body may be r e l a t i v e l y ex p ress io n ­

l e s s . A lfred H itchcock has s a id :

You can u se th e camera to g iv e emphasis whenever^ th e a t te n t io n o f th e aud ience has to be focused fo r a moment on a c e r ta in p la y e r . There i s no need fo r him to r a i s e h is v o ice o r move to th e c e n tre o f th e

5B

s ta g e o r do an y th ing d ra m a tic . A c lo se-u p w i l l do i t a l l f o r him—w il l g ive him, so to speak, th e s ta g e a l l to h im s e lf .1

Xn su b s tan ce , th e n , th e problem i s how to m oderate

th e a c tin g te c h n iq u e s re q u ire d fo r th e s ta g e so t h a t th ey

w i l l work fo r r a th e r th an a g a in s t th e c o n d itio n s o f th e

cinem a. This means guard ing a g a in s t th e n a tu r a l tendency

o f th e s ta g e a c to r to "p o in t up" h is l in e s and over-do h is

g e s tu re s .

Tempo and rhythm . One o f th e more complex and s u b t le

f a c to r s in th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f r o le s i s m a tte r o f tempo

and rhythm . I t i s u s u a l ly spoken o f as " t im in g ." A lthough

aud iences a re g e n e ra l ly unaware o f th e v a r ia t io n s o f tim in g

from scene to scen e , th e d i r e c to r knows th a t o f te n on ly a

v e ry s l ig h t v a r ia t io n from th e r ig h t tempo and rhythm of

p re s e n ta t io n can make a v a s t amount of d i f f e re n c e .

The co m p lex itie s o f t h i s phase o f d i r e c t in g a r i s e

from th e f a c t th a t i t o v e rlap s a l l a sp e c ts o f each a c to r ’ s

p la y in g - a c tio n , g e s tu re , f a c i a l ex p re ss io n , and d ia lo g u es <

to g e th e r w ith th e p lay in g o f th o se who appear w ith him in

each scen e . And th e tim in g o f th e p la y e rs i s always t o be

co n sid ered in r e l a t i o n to th e tim in g o f th e photography and

A lfred H itchcock , " D ire c t io n ," in F oo tno tes to th e F ilm , e d ite d by C harles Davy. (Hew York: Oxford U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1957), p . 3 .

53

e d i t in g , w h ile sometimes th e re i s th e a d d i t io n a l f a c to r o f

more o r l e s s c o n tra p u n ta l movement in t |t e s e t t in g i t s e l f .

I f th e tim in g o f any o f th e s e f a c to r s i s o f f t o any co n sid er^

a b le deg ree , no t on ly th e in d iv id u a l scene b u t even th e

e n t i r e p ic tu r e may lo s e i t s e f fe c t iv e n e s s .

I I I . SUMMARY

Thus, i t happens t h a t in th e r e la t io n s h ip s between

th e d i r e c to r and th e p la y e r s , th e d i r e c t o r 's f i r s t respon­

s i b i l i t y i s to s e le c t p la y e r s who have th e a b i l i t y t o p o r­

t r a y th e s e v e ra l ro b s o f th e s to ry , as he see s them, most

e a s i ly and f l e x i b ly . To do t h i s w e ll , he must sense fu l ly v

th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f th e s to ry and th e c h a r a c te r i s t i c s and

a t t r i b u t e s o f h is p la y e r s . A lthough th e e a s tin g d i r e c to r

o r b u s in e ss o f f i c e p la y a s u b s ta n t ia l p a r t ip o b ta in in g th e

p la y e r s , th e d i r e c to r must assume f u l l r e s p o n s ib i l i ty fo r

t h e i r work; and, in develop ing th e in te r p r e ta t io n s o f t h e i r

r o le s w ith them , I t i s e s s e n t i a l th a t he draw ou t o f each

one h is most e f f e c t iv e perform ance and mold t h i s w ith th e

a c t in g o f th e o th e rs in to a s in c e re and w e ll-b a la n ced p re s ­

e n ta t io n .

The h e a r t o f th e d i r e c t o r 's work In th e in te r p r e ta t io n

o f r o le s l i e s In th e r e h e a r s a l tech n iq u es he employs, bo th

o f f and on th e s e t . And I t ta k e s a Iteen u n d e rs tan d in g of

human n a tu re and psychology to do t h i s so n e a t ly t h a t th e

54

work o f th e p la y e rs b e fo re th e cameras i s t r u l y e f f e c t iv e .

A lthough s ta g e experience i s h e lp fu l , i t may cause com pli­

c a tio n s u n le s s th e a t r ie a l is m s a re m oderated . In th e l a s t

a n a ly s is , th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e d ir e c to r* s work r e s t s

upon h is a b i l i t y to ach ieve fo r each scene and p ic tu r e th e

p r e c is e tim in g which w i l l perm it th e com pleted work to p la y

most e f f e c t iv e ly on th e em otions o f i t s a u d ie n c e s . And th e

key to a l l t h i s i s th e a d ro itn e s s o f th e d i r e c to r in hand­

l in g th e p la y e r s .

CHAPTER ¥1

THE DIRECTOR AND THE PHOTOGRAPHY

I t i s u s u a l ly assumed th a t f i lm d i r e c t in g I s d e riv ed

from s ta g e d i r e c t in g o f p la y s . W hile t h i s i s t r u e , in p a r t ,

th e s p e c if ic te c h n iq u e s a r e v a s t ly d i f f e r e n t . One o f th e

most Im portan t d if f e re n c e s i s th e la y in g out o f scenes f o r

d ram atic in t e r p r e ta t io n , w ith p a r t i c u l a r re fe re n c e to th e

p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and l im i ta t io n s o f th e camera. The s i tu a t io n

was no ted hy F reeburg a s e a r ly as 1918:

When we examine th e pho top lay as an a r t medium, we see th a t i t i n h e r i t s som ething from each o f th e e ld e r a r t s , and y e t d i f f e r s e s s e n t i a l ly from them a l l . . . . I t i n h e r i t s from s ta g e drama th e power o f d e l in e a t in g human c h a ra c te rs in a s e r ie s o f a c tio n s in te rp re te d by a c to r s . I t i n h e r i t s from th e a r t of a c tin g and from s ta g e pantomime some o f th e methods o f th e v is u a l p re s e n ta t io n ; ye t th e p h o to p lay , b e­cause o f i t s u b iq u ity o f s e t t in g and i t s hundreds o f sc reen d e v ic e s , has a f l e x i b i l i t y which p e rm its th e p re s e n ta t io n o f s t o r i e s th a t no d ra m a tis t o r d i r e c to r o f s ta g e pantomime would ever dream o f un­d e r ta k in g . *

I . COMPARISON OF STAGE AND SCREEN TECHNIQUES

The b a s ic d if f e re n c e between s ta g e and sc reen d i r e c t ­

in g l i e s in t h e i r v a r ie d emphasis on te ch n iq u es and d ev ices

in th e t e l l i n g o f th e s to r y . With b o th , th e common q u a l i -

^ V ic to r Oscar F reeburg , The A rt o f P ho top lay Making. (New York: The M acmillan Company, T918), ppV 1 -2 .

56

t i e s a re th e d ram atic v e h ic le s and th e r e v e la t io n s o f charac­

t e r and s i tu a t io n th rough a c t io n and d ia lo g u e o r sound e f ­

f e c t s . On th e s ta g e th e p rim ary emphasis i s upon d ia lo g u e

and pantomime, bu t in m otion p ic tu re s th e c h ie f burden u su ­

a l l y l i e s upon th e p i c tu r i z a t io n and broad scope o f a c t io n ,

w ith d ia lo g u e assuming secondary im portance.

g e n e ra l c o n s id e ra t io n s . The e f f i c i e n t and competent

d i r e c to r shou ld know th e camera th o ro u g h ly , f o r i t i s th e eye

th rough which th e s to ry i s 3een by th e au d ien c e . Kanin p u ts

i t f ig u r a t iv e ly :

Your eye i s your cam era. I t r e f l e c t s upon your co n sc io u sn ess— c lo se -u p s , lo n g -s h o ts , d o l ly - s h o ts .Every tim e you go to s le e p , you fad e o u t . "When you awaken in th e m orning, you fade in .

Many prom inent d i r e c to r s , l i k e A lfred H itchcock , John Ford,

F r i t z Lang, and W illiam K eigh ley , g iv e th e camera g re a te r

im portance th a n an y th in g e ls e , because , a s d i r e c to r Kanin

ag a in sa y s :

No m a tte r how much o f t h i s d e t a i l a d i r e c to r choos­es to add to h is work, h is main job l i e s no t so much in d i r e c t in g a s in th e aud ience—o r more p a r t i c u l a r ly In d i r e c t in g th e aud ience*s a t t e n t io n and th e aud- ienGe^s em o tio n s.2

T his s i tu a t io n may be epitom ized by a s in g le com pari­

so n . In view ing a s ta g e p ro d u c tio n , a member o f th e aud ience

Gars on K anin, " I d i r e c t , " from T h ea tre A r ts , Sep­tem ber 1941, pp . 640-644.

2 I h i d . , pp . 641-642.

57

may o b ta in th e e f f e c t o f a “c lo s e -u p ,“ b r in g in g h im se lf

c lo s e r t o th e p la y e rs v i s u a l ly and em o tio n a lly , by u s in g

opera g la s s e s to focus a t te n t io n * This e f f e c t depends upon

him r a th e r th an th e d i r e c to r , because th e s ta g e d i r e c to r

has no p o s i t iv e way o f c o n tro l l in g th e a t t e n t io n o f th e

au d ien c e . When a cinema d i r e c to r wants to s t r e s s a c e r ta in

l i n e o f d ia lo g u e o r an em otional ex p ress io n o f a c e r ta in

c h a ra c te r , however, he has a way to do i t . He e lim in a te s

ev e ry th in g e ls e and ta k e s a “f u l l c lo se -u p “ o f th e in d iv id ­

u a l a c to r o r scene . And th e f u l l and p ro p e r u se o f t h i s

power, to g e t and ho ld th e a t t e n t io n o f th e au d ience , g iv es

th e cinema d i r e c to r a profound advantage over h is s ta g e

co lleague*

Speaking about t h i s d if f e re n c e between th e s ta g e and

m otion p ic tu r e , W elford B eaton sa y s :

On th e s ta g e , d ia lo g u e i s o f p rim ary im portance.But on th e sc reen th e camera can move up c lo se enough to a llo w th e a c t o r Ts eyes to become th e most e x p re ss iv e fo rc e in r e g is t e r in g h is em otion. His o th e r f e a tu r e s may be e x p re s s io n le s s w h ile th e f u l l s to r y o f h is em otions i s to ld by h is ey es . In t h e i r d ep th s we read Joy, sorrow , amazement, o r tra g e d y em phasized. H is eyes a re h is g r e a te s t weapon in w re s tin g from a scene a l l th e drama th a t i t c o n ta in s .

Garson Kanin c a r r ie s th e same p o in t a s te p f a r th e r ,

em phasizing c o n tro l over th e a t te n t io n and em otions o f th e

au d ien ce :

1 W elford B eaton, Know Your M ovies. (Hollywood, C al­i f o r n i a : Howard H i l l , 5362 Hollywood B oulevard, 1932), p . 79.

58

You want th e aud ience to th in k and to f e e l a c e r ­t a i n th in g a t a c e r ta in tim e . That i s n e c e ssa ry to ga in th e d e s ire d e f f e c t . The f i lm d i r e c to r can do t h a t , can a b s o lu te ly c o n tro l th e a t t e n t io n , th e focus o f h is au d ien c e . He has on ly to d i r e c t h is camera to th e p la c e where he d e s ire s th e eyes o f h is s p e c ta to r . Such an advantage becomes, by th e same to k en , an added r e s p o n s ib i l i ty . I f th e s p e c ta to r has no ch o ice , i f he must look where you w ish him t o , you must be doubly su re t h a t what he sees i s w orth lo o k in g a t .

S p e c if ic c o n s id e ra t io n s . Among o th e r n o ta b le d i f f e r ­

ences between cinema tech n iq u es and s ta g e d i r e c t in g , a re

s e v e ra l s p e c i f ic f a c to r s which g iv e th e cinema d e f in i t e

ad v a n ta g es :

(a) More f l e x i b l e s p e c ia l and tempo concep ts .

(b) B roader p h y s ic a l scope.

(c) More in t im a te in te r p r e ta t io n o f d ia lo g u e and C h a ra c te r iz a t io n s ,

Cd> G rea te r u se o f m ountings and music in mood and emotion b u i ld in g .

O thers could be named, bu t th e s e r e f l e c t th e b a s ic p r in c ip le

im plied above: t h a t th e m a jo r ity o f th e d if fe re n c e s d e r iv eEfrom th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f th e cam era.

In view o f t h i s s i tu a t io n , g r e a te r emphasis i s be ing

p laced in t h i s s tu d y o f la y -o u t o f scenes and u se o f th e

camera by th e d i r e c to r th an would be a p p ro p r ia te i f t h i s

^ Garson K anin, " I D ir e c t ," T h ea tre A rts , September 1941, p . 64S.

S W illiam K eigh ley , in a l e c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs i ty o f S outhern C a l i fo rn ia , October 1940,

59

d isc u s s io n were ce n tred upon th e more s u b je c t iv e phases o f

d i r e c t o r i a l techn ique*

I I . PRINCIPLES OF VISUALIZATION

In th e e a r ly y ea rs o f sound-film p ro d u c tio n , r e la t iv e '

l y few d i r e c to r s r e a l iz e d th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s fo r f l e x i b i l i t y

and s u i t a b i l i t y o f v i s u a l i z a t io n which were l a t e n t in th e

medium;

I f th e d i r e c to r works along custom ary l i n e s , he f i r s t photographs th e a c tio n in f u l l from th e maxi­mum re q u ire d d is ta n c e . Then he moves th e camera up and re p e a ts c e r ta in p o r t io n s o f i t in th e fo r e ­ground, whieh means w ith th e f u l l - l e n g th f ig u re s Ju s t in th e fram e. N ext, he moves f u r th e r in to what i s c a lle d "medium" o r th r e e - q u a r te r le n g th , alw ays re p e a tin g th e a c t io n save where he see s a way t o b e t t e r i t , b u t even th e n being c a re fu l to beg in and end th e sho t p r e c is e ly as he took i t b e fo re , t h i s to in s u re p ro p e r m atch ing . Follow ing th e medium he ta k e s th e se m i-c lo se -u p s , th e in d iv id u a l su b je c t h e re f i l l i n g th e sc re en to about th e w a is t , th e c lo s e - ups and th e "extrem e" o r "very c lo s e -u p s ." Out o f th e r e s u l t th e f i lm e d i to r may th en s e le c t and Jo in th e v a ry in g d is ta n c e s he w a n ts .1

T his r a th e r m echan iea llapp roach to camera h an d lin g was soon

d isp la c e d , however, as sound and pho tog raph ic equipment were

p e r f e c te d . Today th e medium i s even more f l e x ib l e and po­

t e n t i a l l y em otional th an in th e f r e e s t p e r io d o f th e s i l e n t

f i l m .2

1 A rthur Edwin Knows, The T a lk ie s . (New York: Henry H olt and Company, November, 1930), pp . 164-166.

2 B oris V. Morkovin, in a l e c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia , 1940.

60

The re a so n s fo r changing camera an g le s may n o t always

he apparen t to th e aud ience, hu t th e experienced d i r e c to r

knows th a t changes a re n e c e ssa ry to ho ld th e i n t e r e s t and

a t te n t io n o f h is aud iences and t h a t , in th e l a s t a n a ly s is ,

he s t r i v e s to c a p tu re on th e sc re en th e deg ree o f v is u a l

r e la t io n s h ip to th e a c tio n which w i l l p la c e th e s p e c ta to r

in th e most e f f e c t iv e v iew p o in t.

S p e c i f ic a l ly , th e a d r o i t s e le c t io n and maneuvering

o f camera scenes and an g les may g a in th e fo llo w in g r e s u l t s :

(a) To e s ta b l i s h lo c a le , mood and atm osphere more e f f e c t iv e ly .

(b) To in c re a s e or d ec rea se tempo by adding o r e lim in a tin g —space and tim e .

(c) To make scenes more r e a l i s t i c o r ro m an tic .

(d) To avo id monotony.

(e) To g iv e movement.

( f ) To c r e a te suspense by h e ig h ten in g th e te n s io n o f th e drama, and

(g) To make u se o f symbolism p o s s ib le and e f f e c t iv e .

To e s ta b l i s h l o c a l e , mood, and a tm osphere . At c e r -

p la c e s in each sc e n a r io th e main purposes o f th e v i s u a l iz a ­

t io n i s to e s ta b l i s h lo o a le , mood, and atm osphere . This

i s obv iously t r u e a t th e opening o f th e p i c tu r e , and to a

g r e a te r o r l e s s deg ree i t i s t r u e o f th e f i r s t scenes in

each sequence, as th roughou t each f i lm i t i s n e c e ssa ry to

u se a few scenes a s e s ta b l is h in g sh o ts whenever th e r e i s a

change o f lo c a le o r mood o r a tm osphere .

61

U nless t h i s i s clone th e v i s u a l iz a t io n i s l i k e ly to he

confusing to th e au d ien ce , which might be h a rd -p re ssed to

t e l l w hether th e a c tio n were ta k in g p la c e in P a r is o r in a

Siamese jungle* I f th e opening scenes show sk y sc ra p e rs , i t

i s a s ig n a l to th e aud ience t h a t th e s to ry s t a r t s , a t l e a s t ,

in a m e tro p o lita n lo c a le * I f a sho t o f R o c k e fe lle r C enter

i s in c lu d ed , most o f th e aud iences sense im m ediately th a t

th e c i ty i s Hew York; by th e same to k en , i f "Big Ben" o r

th e E i f f e l Tower should be shown, th e aud ience would know

th a t i t i s London o r P a r is* In a s im ila r manner, broad

scenes o f th e Rocky M ountains, th e Beep South , th e A frican

ju n g le , or th e China c o u n try s id e , in d ic a te a t a g lan ce th e

s e t t in g f o r th e a c tio n to follow *

Very o f te n th e sh o ts which e s ta b l i s h lo c a le a re rnaneuv

ered in such a way t h a t th e y a ls o g iv e an in d ic a t io n o f mood

and a tm osphere . In A lfre d H itc h c o c k 's **!©?• and Mrs. S m ith ,"

fo r example, th e v i s u a l i z a t io n s t a r t s w ith th e camera ro v in g

a l l around R obert M ontgomery's bedroom. I t re v e a ls a d ish ev ­

e l le d m ess, and s to p s on Montgomery s t i l l in bed, a lthough

i t i s q u i te l a t e in th e m orning. The l i g h t s tream ing in th e

window and th e clock b e s id e th e bed a re c lu e s to t h i s l a s t

p o in t ; th e c h a ra c te r .of th e room in d ic a te s t h a t th e a c tio n

i s s e t in a Hew York ap a rtm en t. The mood and atm osphere a re

re v e a le d as much by th e cho ice o f camera an g les a s by th e

g e n e ra l co n ten t o f th e scenes* At th e same tim e a c o n s id e r-

68

a b le in s ig h t in to th e c h a ra c te r o f Montgomery i s a ls o given*

This i s n o t u nusua l in Mr. H itc h c o c k s p i c tu r e s .

Speaking o f h i s s i l e n t f i lm , "The R in g ," he once s a id :

The young boxer comes home a f t e r w inning h is f i g h t .He i s f lu sh e d w ith su cc ess—wants t o c e le b ra te . He pours out champagne a l l round, th e n he f in d s th a t h is w ife i s o u t, and he knows a t once t h a t she i s out w ith an o th e r man, At t h i s moment th e camera cu ts t o a g la s s o f champagne; you see a f i z z o f bubbles r i s e from i t and th e r e i t s tan d s u n ta s te d , going f l a t . That one sho t g iv e s you th e whole f e e l in g o f th e s c e n e .1

F r i t z Lang i s a ls o a m aster o f c re a tin g mood and

atm osphere by camera a n g le s . Sometimes he , l i k e many an-*

o th e r m aster d ra ftsm an , e s ta b l is h e s one s e t o f co n d itio n s

a s a f o i l fo r consequent a c t io n . His p ic tu r e , "Man H u n t,”

opens w ith a scene in a calm and p e a c e fu l wood. A ll one

h ea rs i s th e c h irp in g o f b i rd s every now and th e n . A po­

licem an i s guard ing th e p la c e one s id e , w h ile on th e o th e r

s id e , a h u n te r i s aim ing a t som ething. I t c re a te s a

w onderful c o n tra s t in g mood and atm osphere fo r th e excite-^

rnent which fo llo w s .

John Ford i s an o th e r d i r e c to r whose cho ices o f camera

an g les a re e s p e c ia l ly e f f e c t iv e . In "The Long Yoyage Home,"

a mood o f calm ness iS p e r f e c t ly e s ta b lis h e d when th e boat

I s anchored in th e C arribean h a rb o r; th e camera shows th e

A lfred H itchcock , " D ir e c t io n ,” F o o tno tes t o th e F ilm , e d ite d by C harles Davy. (New York: Oxford UnTver- s i t y P re s s , 1937), p . 10.

63

b lu e w a te rs o f th e bay w ith th e m oonlight r e f l e c te d l ik e

s t r i p s o f s i l v e r . O ther e x c e lle n t examples o f c r e a t in g mood

and atm osphere by camera an g les can be found in h is p ic tu r e ,

"How Green Was My V a lle y ."

To in c re a se o r d ec re a se tempo. A lthough a la r g e amount

o f th e burden fo r s e t t i n g th e tempo o f a p ic tu r e o r in d iv id ­

u a l sequence r e s t s w ith th e degree o f movement o f th e p la y e rs

and th e tempo o f th e d ia lo g u e , a g re a t d e a l depends upon th e

e f f e c t iv e cho ice o f camera an g les and th e e d i t in g o f th e

m a te r ia l . For example, i f th e a c tio n re q u ir e s a c h a ra c te r

to go from th e i n t e r i o r o f a house to a nearby r i v e r bank,

and a l l o f th e a c tio n i s shown, th e tempo i s l i k e l y to seem

slow to an aud ience , even though th e c h a ra c te r may move w ith

some a l a c r i t y . A few h a s t i l y spoken words w i l l add to th e

sen se o f u rgency , bu t th e cho ice o f one a p p ro p r ia te an g le

to cover h i s d e p a rtu re and an o th e r to show him a r r iv in g

b r e a th le s s ly by th e r i v e r , jo in ed perhaps by a " d is s o lv e ,"

g iv e s an immediacy o f r e s u l t which in tu rn g iv es th e aud­

ien ce an im pression o f r a p id i ty .

In th e s h i f t in g p o in t o f view o f th e lens* many f e e t o f f ilm may be dropped out w ithou t th e spec­t a t o r s u f fe r in g th e s l i g h te s t sense o f lo s s ; and th u s tempo may^he speeded and u n in te re s t in g i n t e r ­v a ls o m itte d .

^ A rthu r Edwin Knows, The T a lk ie s . (New York; Henry H olt and Company, November, 1930), p . 1*71.

64

This f a c i l i t y in th e te le s c o p in g o f tim e makes i t

p o s s ib le fo r a la d to m ature in to a man in a few seconds,

and p e rm its th e r e v e la t io n o f y ea rs o f a d u lt experience in

an hour and a h a l f . These m a tte rs , o f th em se lv es , do no t

c o n tr ib u te to r a p id i ty o f tempo, b u t , combined w ith th e

a d r o i t use o f th e camera in o th e r ways, add to th e v a rie d

s im il i tu d e .

The manner in which t h i s p r in c ip le o p e ra te s i s i l l u s ­

t r a t e d by a com parison w ith s ta g e te c h n iq u e s . In a p la y th e

sense o f tempo i s d eriv ed alm ost e n t i r e ly from th e pacing

o f p h y s ic a l a c t io n w ith in th e seenes and d e l iv e ry o f dia*^

lo g u e . Time la p s e s can be shown only by th e c lo s in g o f th e

c u r ta in o r dimming of th e l i g h t s . On th e sc re en th e p h y s i­

c a l a c tio n can be speeded up s u b s ta n t i a l ly and th e d ia lo g u e

can be reduced in q u a n ti ty as w e ll a s a c c e le ra te d in d e l iv ­

e ry , and th e tim e la p se s which a re r e l a t i v e l y cumbersome on

th e s ta g e can be whisked over w ith d is s o lv e s and fa d e s . By

th e same to k en d ec rease o f tempo can be su s ta in e d th rough

use o f th e camera to p ic k up pho tog raph ic d e t a i l , th u s su s­

ta in in g i n t e r e s t w h ile th e p h y s ic a l a c tio n and tempo of

d ia lo g u e a re d e c e le ra te d .

When a c c e le ra t io n i s c a r r ie d on to a s t a r t l i n g de­

g re e , a s p e c ia l dev ice i s used , term ed "m ontage;" no spec­

i a l te rm has been dev ised to d e sc r ib e th e r e ta rd in g p ro c e s s .

Both, however, a r e d e riv ed la r g e ly from th e d i r e c to r * s !

65

c le v e rn e ss in th e s e le c t io n and maneuvering o f earners a n g le s .

To make scenes more r e a l i s t i c o r ro m a n tic . A lthough

to o much camera movement may d is tu rb aud iences and ten d to

b reak th e i l lu s io n a r y elem ent, which i s so e s s e n t ia l to th e

su ccess o f f i lm s , a p ro p e r com bination o f an g le s and tempo

h e lp s th e aud iences to id e n t i f y them selves w ith th e ch arac­

t e r s . A ccording to Pudovkin:

By s e le c t io n of th e camera s e t up, d i r e c to r and cameramen lead th e s p e c ta to r a f t e r them . . . Thus, in "The L ea th e r P u sh e rs ," th e camera sees w ith th e eyes o f a b ea ten boxer ren d ered d izzy by a blow, and shows th e ^ re v o lv in g , swimming p ic tu r e o f th e a m p h ith e a tre .

In t h i s manner th e camera can do wonders in adding to

th e r e a l i s t i c e f f e c t - o f sc e n e s . The R ussian and German

d i r e c to r s o f th e s i l e n t e ra developed a number o f s p e c ia l

tech n iq u es a long t h i s l i n e . A ll were designed to s t a r t l e

aud iences in to a f e e l in g th a t th e y a re a p a r t o f th e v i t a l ,

p h y s ic a l , r e a l i s t i c a c tio n o f th e sc e n e s . O rd in a r ily , th e s e

te ch n iq u es were used , th e r e f o r e , f o r th e c r e a t io n o f e x c i te ­

m ent.

By in v e r t in g th e s e same tech n iq u es d i r e c to r s a re a ls o

a b le to induee s u b je c t iv e r e a c t io n s o f a rom an tic o r o th e r ­

w ise in te n s e n a tu re in t h e i r au d ien c es . They can cause

s p e c ta to r s to weep o r be overwhelmed w ith jo y f They can

T. S . Pudovkin, F ilm T echnique. (London: George Bewnesy L td . , 1935), p p . 1266127*

66

c re a te i l lu s io n s o f in te n s e romance and u n r e a l i t i e s o f id e a l ­

iz e d p e r fe c t io n which come under th e head o f rom antic ism .

A lfred H itchcock , one o f th e m asters o f t h i s te c h n iq u e , has

s a id :

The camera can f e e l a l s o w ith th e s p e c ta to r . . .A number o f a ttem p ts on th e p a r t o f th e f i lm d i r e c t ­o r has been d ire c te d tow ards th e c r e a t io n , by means o f s p e c ia l methods o f sh o o tin g , o f a g iven em otional c o n d itio n in th e s p e c ta to r , and th u s . th e s tre n g th e n ­ing of th e im pression o f th e sce n e . •L

To avo id monotony. A nother im portan t r e s u l t o f th e

a d r o i t s e le c t io n and m aneuvering o f camera scenes and ang les

i s th e avoidance o f monotony. I f th e d i r e c to r p la c e s th e

camera in one p o s i t io n fo r a long scene , th e scene i s l i k e ly

to lo s e i t s charm o r i t s a b i l i t y t o s u s ta in th e audience*a

i n t e r e s t . At th e same tim e , e s p e c ia l ly in a v e ry c lo se

scene , th e one d im ensiona l n a tu re o f th e shadows on th e

sc re en i s l i k e l y t o be to o c le a r ly obvious to th e au d ien ce ,

g iv in g th e e f f e c t o f im p la u s ib i l i ty and u n r e a l i t y . As

B ru n e ll has s a id : "Camera p o s i t io n must be c o n s ta n tly changed2

to m ain ta in th e i n t e r e s t in your c h a r a c te r s ."

As has a lre a d y been m entioned, th e m otion p ic tu r e i s

f a r from being m erely a photographed s ta g e p la y . R egard less

o f how in te r e s t in g any in d iv id u a l seene may be in a c t io n o r

1 A lfred H itchcock , op_. c i t . , p . 127.2 A drian fenunell, F ilm P ro d u c tio n . (London: George

Kfewnes, L td . , 1936), p . 45.

67

d ia lo g u e , i t i s l i k e ly t h a t aud iences w i l l g e t more out o f

i t i f a v a r ie ty of camera an g les i s u sed . For example,

suppose one o f th e main c h a ra c te rs in a f i lm i s g iv in g an

im passioned p le a b e fo re a ju ry in a co u rt room scene; i f

th e d i r e c to r p la c e s h is camera in one p o s i t io n and shoo ts

th e whole speech from th e same an g le , th e scene i s l i k e ly

to become monotonous; th e r e f o r e , w hereas he c o n c e n tra te s

somewhat on th e main c h a ra c te r , he s h i f t s th e scene w ith

w ell-tim ed frequence from th e speaker to th e ju ry , to th e

judge,, t o th e s p e c ta to r s , from an g le to a n g le , in te r s p e r s ­

ing th e sh o ts to b e s t show th e d e s ire d r e a c t io n s . In t h i s

manner even a s t a t i c scene may be kep t from appearing to be

monot onous.

To g iv e movement. The same p r in c ip le s a re a p p lied

to lend a d d i t io n a l movement to scenes which a re a lre a d y

somewhat a c t i v e . This i s p a r t i c u l a r ly t r u e o f m usica l p i c ­

tu r e s , bu t w i l l be found in o th e rs as w e l l .

An example o f t h i s d ev ice can be seen in alm ost any

f i lm where th e r e i s a p ro tr a c te d d ia lo g u e scene between two

c h a ra c te r s . Only in th e r a r e s t o f c ircum stances i s th e d i ­

r e c to r l i k e l y to photograph more th an a few sen ten ces from

a s in g le camera p o s i t io n . To make th e scenes in te r e s t in g

and len d th e semblance o f movement which i s so e s s e n t i a l ,

th e d i r e c to r w i l l u s u a l ly b reak down th e d ia lo g u e , b i t by

68

b i t , em phasizing th e em otional or a c t io n a l im p lic a tio n s o f

i t by changing camera a n g le s , v a ry in g from c lo se -u p s to mov­

in g s h o ts , as may be most h e lp f u l . He may talce a c lo se -u p

o f th e hand o f one c h a ra c te r as he v io le n t ly p u ts ou t a

c ig a r e t t e ; o r th e camera may fo llo w th e g i r l as she s t a lk s

p e tu la n t ly tow ard th e window when th e boy says som ething th a t

i r k s h e r .

I t i s e s s e n t i a l , however, th a t each change o f camera

an g le be m otivated by th e d ia lo g u e o r a c tio n o f th e p la y e r s ,

o th e rw ise th e movement i s l i k e ly to seem un n ecessary t o th e

aud ience and prove to be d i s t r a c t i n g .

The s p e c ta to r does no t mind b e in g moved ab o u t; b u t he wants t o r e a l i z e where he i s g o in g . On t h i s acco u n t, s h i f t s should no t be a b ru p t; and th e c a re ­f u l d i r e c to r p ro v id es in te rm e d ia te p o s i t io n s so th a t th e aud ience i s c le a r ly conscious o f i t s p o in t o f v iew .

To h e ig h ten su sp en se . S t i l l an o th e r v a lu e d e riv ed

from a d r o i t u se o f th e camera i s th e c re a t in g o f te n s io n and

i n t e r e s t in th e aud ience th rough th e h e ig h ten in g o f su sp en se ,

T his may be accom plished in many o th e r ways, in p a r t , bu t as

a r u l e th e d i r e c to r u ses th e camera, moving i t from one de­

t a i l to a n o th e r , b re ak in g up th e a c tio n in to c o n tra p u n ta l

u n i t s t o c a p i t a l i z e on h is use o f th e o th e r d e v ic e s .

1 A rthu r Edwin Knows, The T a lk ie s . (New York: Henry H olt and Company, 1930), p . 167.

69

This i s an o th e r c in em atic tech n iq u e o f which A lfred

H itchcock i s a m a s te r . In "S ab o tag e ," th e r e i s a very su s­

p e n se fu l scene , in which th e g i r l i s in a c r i t i c a l sp o t;

th e camera c u ts back and f o r th from h e r eyes to th e p o ten ­

t i a l l y l e t h a l k n ife and in a few sh o ts g e ts over t o th e

aud ience what she f e e l s and what she i s th in k in g o f doing

about i t , even though th e r e i s no d ia lo g u e . Commenting on

t h i s scen e , H itchcock has s a id :

In an o ld e r s ty l e o f a c t in g , S y lv ia would have had to show th e aud ience what was p a ss in g in her mind by exaggerated f a c i a l e x p re ss io n s . But peop le to d ay in r e a l l i f e o f te n don’t show t h e i r f e e l in g s in t h e i r f a c e s ; so th e f i lm tre a tm e n t showed th e aud ience h e r mind th rough h e r hand, th rough i t sunconscious g rasp oil th e k n ife . . . . The te n s io nb e tw e en .th e two i s b u i l t up w ith th e k n ife as i t s fo c u s . x

In H itchcock , s "S u sp ic io n ” th e r e i s an o th e r k ind o f

su sp en se fu l scene in which Cary Grant t r i e s to k i s s Joan

F o n ta in e . Her r e a c t io n o f anger i s re v e a le d by a c lo se -u p

o f her hands, v io le n t ly c lo s in g h e r p u rse , r a th e r th a n by

p r o te s t in g d ia lo g u e , o r by f a c i a l e x p re ss io n . I t i s la r g e ­

l y because o f such i n t e l l i g e n t use o f th e camera and by c le v ­

e r c u t t in g th a t H itch co ck ’s p ic tu r e s a re so a c u te ly cinema­

t i c .

H erbert Leeds s t r e s s e d t h i s p o in t a l s o , when he s a id :

A lfred H itchcock , " D ire c t io n ," F oo tn o tes to th e F ilm , e d ite d by C harles Davy. (London: Lovat D ickson,' L W ., T93V]f,' p . 8 .

C rea tin g suspense in a p ic tu r e i s th e e a s ie s t and a t th e same tim e th e most d i f f i c u l t ;job; — d i f f i c u l t , because you have to g iv e though t fo r every d e t a i l ; easy because i t i s th e sarae1 te c h ­n ique as i s a p p lie d in chasing sequences.

To make u se o f symbolism. Only a few y ea rs ago c in e ­

m atic symbolism was t r e a te d alm ost as a f e t i s h by c e r ta in

d i r e c to r s . A lthough i t had been a dev ice used by d i r e c to r s

a s long as f ilm s have been made, i t had been Used most ex­

te n s iv e ly in Europe, and s e v e ra l schoo ls o f though t had

grown up about i t .

Commenting on t h i s te ch n iq u e , V ic to r F reeburg has

s a i d :

When I meet my f r ie n d who has been ab sen t fo r some tim e , I am g la d to see him . My words t e l l him so . The to n e o f my v o ice and th e sm ile on my fa c e em phasize th e w ords. And, ye t th e s e th r e e means o f ex p ress io n do n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y convey my m eaning. T h e re fo re , X c la sp h i s hand. The shak­ing o f hands i s one o f th e most f a m i l ia r o f sym­b o l ic a c t io n s .

Contemporary u se o f symbolism i s more in l i n e w ith

th e f a m i l ia r and p r a c t i c a l in te r p r e ta t io n g iven by F reeburg

th an th e h ig h ly a e s th e t i c and r a t io n a l iz e d symbolism o f f o r ­

mer p e r io d s . I t i s evidenced in such scenes a s th e f i n a l

one in "A ll Q uiet on th e W estern F ro n t ," w herein th e young

H erbert Leeds, in a l e c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs ity o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia , 1940.

2 V ic to r Oscar F reebu rg , The Art o f P ho top lay Making. (Hew York: The M acmillan Company, 191'8}, p . 112.

71

s o ld ie r with, h i s l a s t ounce o f energy reach es out f o r th e

p a th e t ic l i t t l e f lo w e r, Ju s t o u ts id e h is g ra sp , and i s sho t

as he does s o . Another example i s th e f i n a l scene from ’’The

Awful T ru th ,” in w hich, w h ile Cary Grant r e tu r n s t o th e good

g races o f I re n e Dunne, two sm all f ig u re s o f a b r id e and groom,

which have been Jockeying back and f o r t h on th e b a lco n y o f a

cuckoo c lo ck on th e w a ll o f h e r bedroom, suddenly b reak t h e i r

p a t t e r n by going in to th e same door in s te a d o f t h e i r s e p a ra te

o nes. Such symbolism i s la r g e ly a m a tte r o f th e concep tion

and s ta g in g o f d e ta i le d a c t io n , bu t i t i s made e f f e c t iv e

th rough a d r o i t h a n d lin g .

I I I . OPERATIONAL FACTORS

As a r u l e th e la y -o u t o f scenes and d i r e c t io n s fo r

camera h an d lin g a r e worked o u t in c o n s id e ra b le d e t a i l d u rin g

th e w r i t in g o f th e s c e n a r io , b u t even when th e d i r e c to r c o l­

la b o ra te s in th e p re p a ra t io n o f th e s c e n a rio he i s l i k e l y to

supplem ent th e v i s u a l i z a t io n in d ic a te d :

He approaches i t e x a c tly th e way an a r t i s t does h is canvas, c o n s id e r in g what i s h is b e s t p o s i t io n , what w i l l g iv e him th e b e s t e f f e c t f o r th e d ram atic p o in t he I s going to b r in g o u t.

C e c il B. deM ille , “B u ild in g a P h o to p la y ,” S to ry o f th e F ilm s, e d ite d by Joseph P . Kennedy, (Chicago and Wew ■fork: A. W. Shaw Company, 1937), p . 139.

72

A ll d i r e c to r s have t h e i r in d iv id u a l m ethods, how­

ev e r, f o r r e a l iz in g t h e i r d e s ire d e f fe c ts* No two would be

l i k e l y to sh o o t th e same scene in p r e c is e ly th e same way*

No two work q u i te th e same in th e a c tu a l p ro c ess o f p re p a r­

ing v i s u a l iz a t io n s o r c a rry in g them o u t. No two would b e

l i k e l y to u se even th e same p a t t e r n fo r la y in g ou t th e a c t io n ,

One th in g th a t a l l d i r e c to r s s t r i v e f o r , however, i s

c o n tin u i ty and f l u i d i t y , and th e use o f v a r io u s ty p es of

p h o to g rap h ic tre a tm e n t t o o b ta in th e r e s u l t s in d ic a te d p re v ­

io u s ly in t h i s c h a p te r i s c ircum scribed la r g e ly by t h i s

f a c to r .

There i s s t i l l one o th e r f a c to r , however, which has a

b e a r in g on t h i s m a tte r . I f th e d i r e c to r v i s u a l iz e s a l l th e

camera an g le s ahead o f tim e and d ec ides which camera an g le

w i l l be most e f f e c t iv e in a p a r t i c u l a r s h o t, he avo id s un­

n e c e ssa ry w aste o f tim e and fo o ta g e . The tim e has gone when

d i r e c to r s sh o o t every scene f i r s t in f u l l s h o t , th e n medium

s h o t , and th e n c lo se -u p . For example, John F ord , who i s

known a s one o f th e most in d iv id u a l d i r e c to r s o f Hollywood,

u ses le s s f i lm th an most o th e r d i r e c to r s . P re s to n S tu rg e s ,

w h ile shoo tin g th e p ic tu r e , ’’S u l l iv a n ’s T r a v e ls ,” dsed only

390 f e e t o f f i lm fo r 48 sce n es , covering te n pages in th e

s c r i p t . This was p o s s ib le o n ly because th e s e d i r e c to r s p la n

t h e i r camera hand lin g p r io r t o a c tu a l sh o o tin g , m John F ord ’ s

p ic tu r e s , v e ry l i t t l e rem ains f o r a c u t te r to do; i t i s s a id

73

t h a t he, l i k e many a n o th e r , " c u ts h i s f i lm in th e cam era."

Ford l ik e s to work a l l th e way th rough a s c r ip t w ith th e

w r i t e r s , w rang ling over every scene , a c tin g i t o u t, always

w ith h is mind on th e camera a n g le s ,^

C lose c o l la b o ra tio n between th e d i r e c to r and th e

cameraman i s o f paramount im portance* H erbert Leeds be­

l i e v e s th a t a d i r e c to r must know a l l about th e camera; he

should know th e d i f f e r e n t le n s e s and what e f f e c t s he can2

g e t by th e u se o f th e v a r io u s le n s e s . Speaking of one o f

h is own f i lm s , Pudovkin has s a i d :

Here a com plete b len d in g o f th e work o f d i r e c to r and cameraman was in d isp e n sa b le , and i t co n d itio n ed th e su ccess o f th e ach ievem ent. The id ea s o f th e d ire c to r* in h is work in making ex p re ss iv e th e f i lm image, o n ly re c e iv e c o n c re te embodiment when te c h ­n i c a l knowledge go hand in hand, o r , in o th e r words, when th e cameraman i s an o rg an ic member o f th e team and ta k e s p a r t in „ th e c re a t in g o f th e f i lm from beg inn ing to end.

I t i s e s p e c ia l ly im p o rtan t f o r th e d i r e c to r and cam­

eraman to work w e ll to g e th e r . Poor photography o bv iously

may s p o i l th e work o f th e most competent d i r e c to r s , w h ile

good photography may o f te n keep a p o o rly d ir e c te d p ic tu r e

This d a ta was re c e iv e d p e rso n a lly from W. M. b ish o p , head o f th e fo re ig n p u b l ic i ty departm en t, 20 th C entury Fox- S tu d io s , 1942.

oH erbert Leeds, in a l e c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs ity o f

Southern C a l i fo rn ia , 1940.3 7 . I . Pudovkin, F ilm T echnique. A nnotated by Iv a r

Montagu. (London: 7 . G o llancz , 1 9 3 0 ) , p. 128.

74

from f a i l in g * So c r i t i c a l i s t h i s p o in t t h a t C e c il B. de-

M ille has said .:

The s e le c t io n o f cameraman i s v e ry im p o rta n t. In p a in t in g , i f you were going to do a p ic tu r e o f th e B a t t le o f W aterloo , you w ould .not employ a Corot to p a in t i t , because he does a d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f s u b je c t . So, w ith motion p i c tu r e s . C e rta in cameramen a re e x c e lle n t f o r p a s to r a l sc e n e s , w h ile ^ o th e r cameramen a re b e t t e r f i t t e d fo r d ram atic a c t io n .

I t i s th u s one o f th e d i r e c t o r 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in

bringih& h i s v i s u a l iz a t io n o f a s c e n a r io to f r u i t i o n to

choose a cameraman who w i l l be a b le to g iv e him th e te c h n i ­

c a l su p p o rt he re q u ire s*

IV. SUMMARY

A lthough d i r e c t in g fo r s ta g e and sc re en have many

s i m i l a r i t i e s , th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and l im i ta t io n s o f th e

camera g iv e th e sc re e n d i r e c to r many o p p o r tu n it ie s and p rob ­

lems unknown to th e s ta g e . I t i s , th e r e f o r e , Im portan t f o r

cinema d i r e c to r s to u n d erstan d th e camera th o ro u g h ly . F u lly

u t i l i z e d , t h i s s i t u a t io n a f fo rd s cinema more f l e x i b l e spa­

t i a l and tempo co n cep ts , b ro ad er p h y s ic a l scope, more in tim ­

acy o f i n t e r p r e ta t io n , and g re a te r f a c i l i t y in th e u se o f

m ountings and m usic . The crux of t h i s l i e s in th e a d r o i t

s e le c t io n and m aneuvering o f camera scen es and an g les - to

C ec il B. d eM ille , “B u ild in g a P h o to p la y ," S to ry o f th e F ilm s, e d ite d by Joseph P , Kennedy. (Chicago and Hew York: A. W. Shaw Company, 1927), pp . 152-155.

75

e s ta b l i s h lo c a le , mood and atm osphere, to in c re a s e o r de­

c re a se tempo and th e im p lic a tio n s o f tim e -sp aee f a c to r s , t o

make scenes appear more r e a l i s t i c o r more rom antic th a n th e y

a re in fa c t* to avo id monotony, to len d movement* to c re a te

suspense* and to make use o f symbolism. P ro p e rly u t i l i z e d ,

th e s e f a c to r s add to th e c inem atic e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f a d i ­

r e c t or* s work and c o n tr ib u te t o th e c r i t i c a l as w e ll a s th e

commercial su ceess o f h is p ic tu re s *

CHAPTER ¥11

THE DIRECTOR AND PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

I t has been im plied by many d i r e c to r s t h a t th e most

e s s e n t ia l a sp e c t o f t h e i r work i s done b e fo re th e cameras

beg in to tu rn in a c tu a l p roduc tion* This has been r e f le c te d

in th e s e v e ra l p reced in g c h a p te rs covering th e work o f th e

d i r e c to r d u rin g p re p a ra t io n of th e sc reen p la y , d e s ig n o f

th e s e t s , costum es and m ake-up, s e le c t io n and re h e a r s a l o f

th e p la y e r s , and th e la y -o u t o f th e photography* Coordina­

t io n o f th e m u ltip le x phases o f a c t i v i t y which a re in t e g r a l

to a c tu a l p ro d u c tio n i s exceed ing ly complex, however. The

d i r e c to r must c o n tro l th e a c t i v i t i e s o f many ty p e s o f a r t i s t s ,

a r te s a n s , .a n d te c h n ic ia n s - a c to r s , make-up a r t i s t s , d es ig n ­

e r s , p ro p e r ty men, c a rp e n te rs , s e t d r e s s e r s , cameramen, e le c ­

t r i c i a n s , sound en g in e e rs , and dozens o f o th e rs - a l l o f whom

a re s p e c ia l i s t s in t h e i r own r i g h t s , b u t whose e f f o r t s must

be b lended by th e d i r e c to r in to a p roduct which w i l l have

u n ifo rm ity and i n t e g r i t y . I t i s t r u e th a t much o f th e r e ­

s p o n s ib i l i t i e s o f t h i s c o o rd in a tio n re s ts w ith key members o f

h is s t a f f - th e cameraman, th e d ia lo g u e d i r e c to r , th e f i r s t

a s s i s t a n t d i r e c to r , th e a r t d i r e c to r , and th e sound en g in ee r,

e t c e te ra - bu t in th e l a s t a n a ly s is th e d i r e c to r h im se lf I s

re sp o n s ib le fo r t h e i r ach iev in g th e r e s u l t s which he d e s ire s*

77

I . OH THE SET

A lthough a few d i r e c to r s have claim ed th a t th e y a t ­

t a i n t h e i r b e s t r e s u l t s when working sp o n taneously on th e

s e t , most d i r e c to r s a g re e t h a t th e y a r e a b le to ho ld th e

con fidence o f t h e i r p la y e rs and working s t a f f s most e f f e c t ­

iv e ly when th e y have t h e i r p la n s w e ll worked out in mind

b e fo re going on th e s e t . Some evolve very d e ta i le d sk e tc h ­

es o f v i s u a l i z a t io n and a c t io n . O thers sim ply th in k th e s e

m a tte rs th ro u g h t o th e p o in t where th e y can work on th e s e t

w ith economy o f e f f o r t . However th e p re -p la n n in g i s done,

though, th e a p p l ic a t io n o f i t in p r a c t ic e on th e s e t i s one

o f th e most d i f f i c u l t a sp e c ts o f th e d i r e c t o r ’ s work, and

i t i s h e re t h a t he must be most d ip lo m a tic and s k i l l f u l in

h an d lin g h is s t a f f in th e executior^of h i s id e a .

The p r in c ip le s o u tl in e d in th e c h a p te r on ‘’The D irec­

t o r and th e P la y e r s ,” r e l a t i v e t o r e h e a r s a l te c h n iq u e s ,

govern la r g e ly th e work o f th e d i r e c to r w ith th e p la y e rs on

th e s e t . The main f a c to r h e re i s th e f i n a l cueing o f p la y ­

e rs r e l a t i v e to t h e i r i n te r p r e ta t io n o f in d iv id u a l sc e n e s .

Sometimes i t i s p o s s ib le to accom plish what he has e n v is io n ­

ed in one o r two o r th r e e " ta k e s ” ; o c c a s io n a lly , w ith d i f f i ­

c u l t sce n es , te n or f i f t e e n o r tw en ty " ta k e s" may be r e ­

q u ire d . Much depends upon th e s k i l l s o f th e in d iv id u a l

p la y e rs and th e thoroughness o f p re p a ra t io n , as w e ll as on

78

th e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e m a te r ia l .

A lthough each d i r e c to r has h is own r o u t in e fo r th e

h and ling o f a c tu a l sh o o tin g , th e g e n e ra l p r in c ip le s a re sub­

s t a n t i a l l y th e same fo r a l l . B efore work i s begun on a p a r ­

t i c u l a r s e t - u s u a l ly th e day b e fo re i t i s to be ready fo r

u se - th e d i r e c to r checks i t t o see i f i t w i l l p ro p e r ly

mount th e a c tio n in ten d ed f o r i t . L ast m inute changes may be

d e s i r a b le , and sometimes i t i s n ec essa ry f o r t |re p ro d u c tio n

departm ent s t a f f t o work a l l n ig h t to make them . When th e

company i s on th e s e t , ready fo r work, th e d i r e c to r again

checks to make su re th a t a l l p ro p e r t ie s and d e c o ra tio n s a re

p ro p e r ly a rra n g e d . He th e n checks th e l i g h t in g which has

been worked ou t w ith th e cameraman p rev io u s to t h i s tim e .

I t i s sometimes n e c e ssa ry to r e v is e i t , a l s o , e s p e c ia l ly

a f t e r th e p la y e rs o r t h e i r s ta n d - in s have walked th rough th e

a c tio n w h ile th e cameraman has been going over camera ang les

w ith th e d i r e c to r . M eanwhile, th e costumes and make-up o f

th e p la y e rs a r e l ik e w ise examined, so th a t ev e ry th in g w i l l be

in re a d in e s s f o r th e f i r s t sh o o tin g .

When ev e ry th in g i s s e t , one f i n a l d ry -ru n i s u s u a l ly

made as a double p r o te c t io n to a l l concerned . Then th e

ttQ u ie tn c a l l i s g iven and th e a c tio n s t a r t s .

Because th e c r i t e r i a fo r judging th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f

scenes w h ile sh o o tin g a r e so s u b je c t iv e and complex, i t has

been d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in s ta te m e n ts d e sc r ib in g them , which

79

would have a p p l i c a b i l i t y to a s tu d y such as t h i s . In th e

l a s t a n a ly s is , each d i r e c to r s e l e c t s th e " tak es* which he

f e e l s g iv es th e b e s t r e p re s e n ta t io n to th e su b je c t m atte r*

and in making th e s e d e c is io n s he u ses w hatever c a p a c ity fo r

Judgment he may have developed th rough s ta g e o r sc reen d i ­

r e c t in g ex p e rien ce , or b o th , p lu s w hatever t a s t e he has

in n a te ly , o r may have a c q u ire d . This i s in a v ery t r u e

sen se th e h e a r t o f th e d i r e c t o r 's fu n c tio n ,

I I . SOUND EFFECTS AND MUSIC

The re c o rd in g o f d ia lo g u e , which i s so much a p a r t o f

th e work w ith th e p la y e rs in in t e r p r e ta t io n o f t h e i r r o l e s ,

and i s so much bound up in en g in ee rin g f a c to r s , w i l l n o t be

co n sid e red h e re , except to say t h a t i t must be in te g ra te d

f u l l y w ith what i s reco rd ed p i c t o r i a l l y by th e cam era. Some

s p e c ia l c o n s id e ra t io n o f sound e f f e c t s and m usic i s w arran ted ,

however.

Sound e f f e c t s - th a t i s , n o is e s a s id e from speech o r

m usic - may be used w ith a degree o f r e a l i s t i c n e s s to g iv e

th e a c tio n o r d ia lo g u e more a sem blance o f a c t u a l i t y . They

may a ls o be used im a g in a tiv e ly o r sy m b o lic a lly to len d mood

and atm osphere . W hatever t h e i r pu rpose , th e y must be hand­

le d a d r o i t l y t o avo id unbalanc ing th e t o t a l e f f e c t , which

must be one o f harmony.

The o rd in a ry sound e f f e c t s , such as s t r e e t sounds,

80

fo o ts te p s , o r th e n o is e s o f t r a i n s o r au to m o b iles , a r e no

p a r t i c u l a r problem . They a re made a r t i f i c i a l l y , o r a re

o b ta in ed from s to ck fo o ta g e , and a re dubbed in to th e com­

p o s i te sound t r a c k d u rin g re - re c o rd in g .

Where sounds a re used im a g in a tiv e ly , however, th e y

re q u ir e a gr^eat d e a l o f though t and p lan n in g on th e p a r t o f

th e d i r e c to r . M ysterious sounds, fo r in s ta n c e , may be used

to c r e a te te n s io n o r t o h e ig h ten th e excitem ent o f an a l ­

read y t h r i l l i n g scene .

In "F ran k en ste in * th e dragging fo o ts te p s o f th e m onster m enacingly h e ra ld ed h is approach . The b e a t ­in g o f tom -tom s, th e d r ip o f f a l l i n g w a te r , th e t i c k in g o f a c lo c k , even th e s c ra tc h in g o f a pen have been d ra m a tic a l ly employed in p ic tu r e s . But th ey have been used s o le ly to enhance a mood, fo r th e s to r y could have been to ld , though perhaps n o t as e f f e c t iv e ly , w ithou t th em .1

In t h i s co n n ec tio n , m usic i s o f te n used to a id in

c r e a t in g th e mood and atm osphere o f a scen e . When p ro p e r ly

used i t i s as much a p a r t o f a sc reen c r e a t io n as th e pho tog­

raphy I t s e l f . In ex p la in in g th e im portance o f music in a

p a r t i c u l a r f i lm , W elford Beaton has s a id :

Always, w hile th e v is u a l sense was engaged in fo llo w in g th e a c tio n o f th e sc re e n , th e a u r a l sense was employed in l i s t e n in g to m usic, th e com bination being p e r f e c t from a p sy ch o lo g ic a l s ta n d p o in t fo r th e reaso n th a t when one sense i s occupied ex c lu s-

”*■ P araph rased from a comment by Warren S c o t t , in a l e c tu r e a t The U n iv e rs i ty o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia , 1941.

81

iv e ly , i t t i r e s more r e a d i ly th an when a n o th e r sen se— in th e case o f sc reen m usic, th e a u ra l sen se—i s occupied in sympathy w ith i t .

Thus, from b o th th e p h y s io lo g ic a l and p sy c h o lo g ic a l

s ta n d p o in t, music has a r e a l c o n tr ib u tio n to make in th e

e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f most f i lm s , and i t i s th e r e s p o n s ib i l i ty

o f th e d i r e c to r to s e le c t music a p p ro p r ia te to th e mood and

atm osphere d e s i r e d . In t h i s he i s a id ed by th e m usica l

s t a f f , bu t th e f i n a l Judgment i s o r d in a r i ly h i s own.

One c a u tio n i s in o rd e r , however. The a c tio n or

th re a d o f th e s to r y should n o t be l o s t by predom inance o f

th e music o r sound e f f e c t s .

M u sic 's p la c e in sc reen a r t i s as an elem ent to h e ig h ten th e em otional r e a c t io n to what we see on th e s c re e n . The sou rce o f such r e a c t io n i s in th e drama we a r e w itn e ss in g , no t in th e m usic th a t ac ­companies i t . The f i r s t c a re o f th e com posers, th e r e f o r e , should be to keep th e music from u su rp ­ing th e p la c e o f th e drama as a c r e a to r o f em otion­a l r e a c t io n .

M usic 's purpose i s to h e ig h ten th e in t e n s i ty o f th e drama

by s t i r r i n g th e em otions and im ag in a tio n s o f th e au d ien ce .

A d i r e c to r may or may no t be a m u sic ian , bu t he should have

a deep a p p re c ia t io n o f music and und erstan d how to u se i t

f o r such e f f e c t s .

1 W elford B eaton, Know your M ovies. (Hollywood, C a l i fo rn ia , 1952), p . 82.

welford Beaton, op. c i t . , p . 96.

82

I I I , EDITING THE F H i

Much o f th e f i n a l e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f a f i lm depends

upon th e in te l l ig e n c e and a r t i s t r y w ith which i t i s e d i te d .

The c u t t e r f s language i s th e m an ipu la tion o f h i s s t r i p s , and th e com bination o f them to c re a te a f i lm ic p re s e n ta t io n o f a r e a l i t y , th e re b y making i t som ething more th a n r e a l , in a tim e which cannot be Judged by normal t im e .1

B ecause, as A lfred H itchcock has s a id , th e r e i s no

r e a l ly ; su s ta in e d a c tio n in m otion p ic tu r e s , and th e e f f e c t s

o f s u s ta in e d a c tio n a re g o tte n by ta k in g a s e r i e s o f sh o ts

s e le c te d by th e d i r e c to r and p ie c in g them to g e th e r , i t i s

n e c e s sa ry t h a t e d i t in g be done so s k i l l f u l l y th a t i t w i l l

g iv e th e aud ience th e f e e l in g o f one continuous flow o f

movement. T his i s in tu r n dependent upon th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s

w ith which th e sc e n a r io i s w r i t te n and th e photography i s

h an d led .

I f th e s c e n a rio i s p lanned out in d e t a i l , and fo llow ed c lo s e ly d u ring p ro d u c tio n , e d i t in g should be easy . A ll t h a t has to be done i s t o cu t away i r r e le v a n c ie s and se e th a t th e f in is h e d f i lm i s an a c c u ra te re n d e rin g o f th e s c e n a r io . •

T h is i s one o f th e b e n e f i ts in having th e d i r e c to r

and s e e n a r is t c o l la b o ra te c lo s e ly in p lan n in g th e a c tio n ,

^ Andrew Buchanan, F ilm s . (London: Sir Isa a c Pitm an Sons, L td . , 1932), p . 181.

2 A lfred H itchcock , " D ir e c t io n ,n F oo tno tes to th e F ilm , e d ite d by C harles Davy. (New York: O xford"U niver- s i t y P re s s , 1932), p . 5 .

83

d ia lo g u e , and camera h a n d lin g . Edward S u th e rlan d has s a id :

I always work v ery c lo s e ly w ith my c u t t e r , though X t r y to cut my f i lm in th e camera as much as pos­s i b l e . I run th e f i lm s s e v e ra l tim es b e fo re t e l l i n g him how to c u t . I t e l l th e c u t t e r how my f i lm should be cu t because i t i s I who v is u a l iz e s th e whole p i c ­tu r e and X want to see th e f in is h e d p roduc t e x a c tly th e way X v is u a l iz e d i t . I am th e one who w i l l .b e re sp o n s ib le fo r th e p ic tu r e and n o t th e c u t t e r .

H erbert Leeds has commented on t h i s even more p e r ­

so n a lly :

A d i r e c to r must know a l l about c u t t in g . When I mean c u t t in g , I don*t mean th e te c h n ic a l job o f assem bling th e s e p a ra te p ie c e s o f shots-^-but how by c u t t in g a p ic tu r e p ro p e r ly , a s to ry can be to ld sm oothly , a suspense can be c re a te d , a tempo can be s e t . I m yself was once a c u t t e r , and s t i l l now, I work v e ry c lo s e ly w ith my c u t te r so t h a t he w i l l f u l l y u nderstand my purposes in making th e sho ts*The c u t t e r may a ls o have id eas about ways o f e d i t ­in g th e f i lm which I need to know a b o u t. Thus, w ith h is h e lp , we may in c re a s e th e e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e p i c tu r e . The d i r e c to r should be w i l l in g to co n sid e r any v a lu a b le su g g es tio n g iven by h is c u t t e r . *

These comments r e f l e c t th e f a c t t h a t most d i r e c to r s

in Hollywood do no t g iv e a f r e e hand to t h e i r f i lm e d i to r s ,

because th e y f e e l th a t o n ly one c r e a t iv e hand should hold

u l t im a te a u th o r i ty i f th e f i lm i s t o be in te g ra te d in e f ­

f e c t . C e rta in th e o r e t ic ia n s have held th a t th e e d i to r

should be th e u l t im a te c r e a t iv e a r t i s t , p ie c in g to g e th e r

1 Edward S u th e rlan d , in an in te rv ie w a t HKO S tu d io s ,1940.

8H erbert Leeds, in an in te rv ie w a t T w entie th Cen-

tu ry -F o x S tu d io s , 1940.

84

b i t s o f " f i lm ic language" t o s u i t b i s own t a s t e o r in c l in a ­

tio n s* American d i r e c to r s o f en te rta in m en t p ic tu r e s a re

unanimous in a g re e in g , however, t h a t th e d i r e c to r shou ld

ho ld t h i s power r a th e r th an th e c u t t e r , because he has a lv

read y ex e rc ised h is c r e a t iv e d ram atic powers in c a rry in g

forw ard th e p ro d u c tio n to t h i s p o in t , and any d iv is io n o f

a u th o r i ty would be l i k e l y to weaken th e r e s u l t s .

Among th e s p e c ia l e d i t in g problem s o f th e d i r e c to r

i s th e u se o f montage to c r e a te im p ressio n s of mood hnd ac­

t i o n , and a t th e same tim e g a in com pression o f t im e . I t i s

n e c e ssa ry fo r th e d i r e c to r to e x e rc is e g re a t c a re in t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r to avoid lo s in g th e th re a d o f th e s to ry and throw ­

in g i t out o f b a la n c e .

This m a tte r o f com pressing tim e and e l im in a tin g un­

n e c e ssa ry dead fo o ta g e can a ls o be handled in o th e r ways.

A d i r e c to r u s in g s ig h t and sound may now in d ic a te th e passage o f tim e by d is s o lv in g th e v is u a l image and co n tin u in g th e n a r r a t iv e a s , fo r in s ta n c e , a young law s tu d e n t say in g , " I w i l l n ever th row dust in Jurymens* e y e s ," and th e n l e t t i n g th e scene fad e in to th e same c h a ra c te r on th e beneh a s he u t t e r s th e words, "Dust in your eyes, gen tlem en ." . . . These exam ples, and hundred of o th e r s , would in d ic a te th a t one o f th e th in g s a d i r e c to r always does i s to p la y t r i c k s w ith tim e . He fo re s h o r te n s . He u ses qu ick p ic tu r e s to make th e t r a n s i t i o n s between ep iso d es , le a v in g h im se lf tim e fo r th e developm ent o f h is m ajor sce n e .

The f a t a l e r ro r o f many d i r e c to r s i s t h a t \ th e y seem n o t to know what t h e i r own m ajor o b je c t iv e i s , and p la y every ep isode fo r a l l i t i s w orth , in humor o r

85

sen tim en t o r ex c item en t, w ithou t c o n s id e rin g i t s r e l a t i v e im portance to a l l th a t has gone b e fo re and a l l t h a t comes a f t e r .

This i s e s p e c ia l ly t r u e in th e c r e a t io n o f su sp en se ,

which must be l a t e n t in th e pho to g rap h ic m a te r ia l s , b u t

depends f o r u l t im a te e f fe c t iv e n e s s on th e s h i l l o f th e

e d i t in g .

Suspense i s th e p rim ary e f f e c t and c re a t io n and in te n s i f ic a t io r ib f suspense has to be accom plished by knowing p r e c is e ly how many seconds o f one scene m y be used b e fo re th e a t t e n t io n o f th e s p e c ta to r w i l l r e q u ir e th e in s e r t io n o f a n o th e r . The d i r e c to r w i l l have tak en th e th r e e s e p a ra te scenes in such a tempo th a t th e c o n tra s t betw een them w i l l be e f f e c t ­iv e ; and th e d i r e c to r w i l l , from th e s e th r e e rhythm s, c r e a te th e m ajor rhythm o f t h a t s e c tio n o f th e p ic ­t u r e . 2

ThUs i t i s t h a t th e d i r e c to r must und erstan d and govern th e

e d i t in g fu n c tio n ju s t as he does th e d ram atic and te c h n ic a l

phases o f p ro d u c tio n .

IT . SCMMABY

In summing up th e work o f th e d i r e c to r in p ro d u c tio n

o p e ra t io n s , i t may be s a id t h a t t h i s i s th e p la c e where th e

e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f a l l h i s p re lim in a ry e f f o r t s i s p u t to t e s t*

On th e s e t he must c o o rd in a te th e a c t i v i t i e s o f a l l h i s a s ­

s o c ia te s , and do i t w ith a minimum o f l o s t m o tion . In th e

h and ling o f sound e f f e c t s and music he may add bo th re a lis m

1 G ilb e r t S e ld e s , Movies Come from Am erica. (New York: C harles S c r ib n e r ’s Sons, 1937), p . 76,

2 G ilb e r t S e ld e s , 0£ . c i t . , p . 78.

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and th e s u b je c t iv e a id s o f mood and atm osphere to what he

has c re a te d on th e s e t . And in th e e d i t in g o f th e f i lm he

has a f i n a l o p p o rtu n ity to in te g r a te in i t s f i n a l p a t te r n

th e p i c t o r i a l and sound v a lu es o f h is c r e a t io n in to a h a r ­

monious and e in e m a tic a lly e f f e c t iv e f i lm .

CHAPTER Y III

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Emerging from t h i s r a th e r g e n e ra l su rvey o f cont emp-

o ra ry cinema d i r e c t in g p rocedu res a r e s e v e ra l f in d in g s

which document th e fo u r p rim ary f a c to r s in h e re n t in th e

problem* Whereas th e d a ta a r e n o t com plete in every d e t a i l ,

th e y do se rv e to r e v e a l th e g e n e ra l n a tu re o f th e s e p ro ced ­

u r e s , to g e th e r w ith th e fu n c tio n s and p r in c ip le s which u n d er

l i e them, and in d ic a te th e q u a l i f i c a t io n s most h e lp fu l to

th e s u c c e s s fu l p u r s u i t o f t h i s d ram atic a r t .

I . SUMMARY

Whereas In th e e a r ly days o f th e cinema in America

th e r e was no fu n c tio n d e sc rib ed a s d i r e c t in g , th e camera­

men and experim en ters engaged in develop ing m otion p ic tu r e

en te r ta in m e n t perform ed a l l o f th e fu n c tio n s th a t we now

know as d ire c tiv e * As th e s i l e n t f i lm became in c re a s in g ly

complex I t was n e c e ssa ry fo r one man to assume o v e r - a l l

su p e rv is io n and d i r e c t th e a r t i s t s and te c h n ic ia n s in t h e i r

work* Out o f t h i s n e c e s s i ty emerged th e d i r e c to r h im s e lf .

A lthough e a r l i e r d i r e c to r s came la r g e ly from th e

ranks o f th e te c h n ic ia n s , th e more re c e n t tendency has been

f o r them to be drawn from th e s ta g e . The advent o f sound

and th e o th e r c o n d itio n s which c o n tr ib u te d to t h i s s h i f t

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have served to em phasize th e co m p lex itie s o f contem porary

f i lm p ro d u c tio n , and th e n e c e s s i ty o f th e d i r e c to r having

a broad knowledge o f a l l o f th e s e v e ra l m otion p ic tu r e a r t s

and sc ie n c e s i f he i s t o f u l f i l l h is fu n c tio n p roperly*

Among th e main tre n d s o f th e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s .a r e

th e fo llo w in g : (1) th e tendency fo r th e d i r e c to r s to have

a wide ex p e rien ce in v a r io u s phases o f s ta g e and sc reen p ro ­

d u c tio n b e fo re ac h iev in g eminence in th e cinem a; (2) th e

re c o g n itio n th a t sc re e n p la y s must be in h e re n t ly e n te r ta in ­

ing and e f f e c t iv e ly adap ted f o r th e sc re en i f th e r e s u l t s

a r e to be s u c c e s s fu l , and th a t th e d i r e c to r must e x e rc is e

a c o n s tru c tiv e in f lu e n c e in bo th th e s e sp h eres i f he i s to

p ro te c t th e m arket v a lu e o f h is work; (3) th e in c re a s in g

im portance g iven to th e m ounting o f p ro d u c tio n s and th e p a r t

o f tl^e d i r e c to r in p lan n in g o r s e le c t in g s e t t i n g s , costum es,

and make-up which w i l l lend s ig n if ic a n c e to h is work; (4)

th e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t e f f e c t iv e c a s tin g i s f re q u e n tly th e

l a r g e r p a r t o f o b ta in in g p la u s ib le c h a ra c te r iz a t io n s , and

t h a t t h i s phase o f th e d i r e c to r Ts work i s p r a c t i c a l l y as

im portan t as th e h an d lin g o f th e p la y e rs on th e s e t ; (5) th e

development o f v a r ie d sch o o ls o f though t on th e b e s t means

fo r o b ta in in g e f f e c t iv e in te r p r e ta t io n s o f r o l e s , a l l o f them

devo ted , however, to v a r io u s phases o f r e h e a r s a l b e fo re and

d u rin g sh o o tin g ; (6) th e in c re a s in g concern o f a l l d i r e c to r s

w ith th e la y -o u t o f scen es fo r c in e -d ra m a tic in t e r p r e ta t io n ;

89

and (7) th e emergence of more o r l e s s s ta n d a rd iz e d p rocedu res

f o r th e h an d lin g o f p ro d u c tio n o p e ra tio n s on th e s e t , and

a l l coming under th e d i r e c t o r in d i r e c t c o n tro l o f th e d i ­

r e c to r hims e l f *

These tre n d s se rv e t o h ig h l ig h t th e s p e c i f ic fu n c tio n s

o f th e d i r e c to r and th e p ro ced u res which have grown up a -

round them .

The d i r e c to r and th e s c re e n p la y . The in c re a s in g

re c o g n itio n on th e p a r t o f d i r e c to r s o f t h e i r r e s p o n s ib i l i ­

t i e s in th e s e le c t io n and a d a p ta tio n o f s to ry m a te r ia ls has

le d many to f e e l th a t th e y must p a r t i c ip a t e in each o f th e

th r e e g e n e ra l s ta g e s o f sc re e n p la y p re p a ra t io n . KTot th e l e a s t

o f th e s e i s th e s e le c t io n o f th e v e h ic le which th e d i r e c to r

f e e l s he can tu rn in to e f f e c t iv e sc reen e n te r ta in m e n t.

E qually im portan t i s h i s p a r t i c ip a t io n in th e p ro c e sse s of

a d a p ta tio n o f each v e h ic le to conform w ith th e d ram atic p a t ­

t e r n he sees f o r i t and th e commercial l im i t a t io n s he must

work u n d e r. Beyond th a t he must p a r t i c ip a t e in p re p a ra tio n

o f th e f i n a l sh o o tin g s c r i p t , d e term in ing th e s p e c i f ic p ic ­

t o r i a l and d ia lo g u e v a lu es he b e lie v e s w i l l be most e f f e c t ­

iv e . A lthough working p o l i c i e s v a ry w id e ly among o u ts ta n d ­

ing d i r e c to r s , th e y a l l work toward one end - p ro v id in g th e

d i r e c to r w ith a b lu e - p r in t f o r p ro d u c tio n worked out t o h is

own s p e c i f ic a t io n s .

90

The d i r e c to r and th e s e t s , costum es, and make-up.

A lthough r e l a t i v e l y few d i r e c to r s p a r t i c i p a t e c r e a t iv e ly in

th e d e s ig n o f s e t s , costum es, and make-up, a l l e x e rc is e a

trem endous in f lu e n c e th rough t h e i r power o f su g g e s tio n to

th e d e s ig n e rs and t h e i r power o f ve to over t h e i r c r e a t io n s .

The g r e a te r th e budget f o r th e f i lm , th e more i n t e r e s t th e

d i r e c to r i s l i k e l y to ta k e in th e s e s ta g e s o f p ro d u c tio n ,

and th e more he w i l l be c a l le d upon to draw them in to con­

fo rm ity w ith o th e r p h ases o f p ro d u c tio n .

The d i r e c to r and th e p la y e r s . I t i s g e n e ra l ly con­

ceded th a t th e most im portan t s in g le f a c to r in th e work o f

th e d i r e c to r i s h i s p a r t in th e s e le c t io n o f p la y e r s , and

h is r e s p o n s ib i l i ty fo r develop ing th rough them th e i n t e r ­

p r e ta t io n s o f t h e i r r o l e s . A lthough th e economic phases o f

c a s t in g a re f re q u e n tly beyond th e d i r e c t c o n tro l o f th e d i ­

r e c t o r , w ith in th e l im i t a t io n s imposed by th a t and h is in ­

f lu e n c e on th e p roducer he f re q u e n tly has a wide range o f

a c t io n . Even in ty p e -c a s t in g t h i s i s an im portan t re s p o n s i­

b i l i t y . Whereas th e d i r e c to r u s u a lly p la c e s more s t r e s s on

s e le c t io n o f s t a r s and fe a tu re d p la y e r s , h i s in f lu e n c e i s

u s u a l ly f e l t c le a r down to th e s e le c t io n o f th e l a s t e x t r a .

The h e a r t o f th e d ir e c to r* s work in th e i n t e r p r e t a ­

t io n o f r o le s i s g e n e ra l ly conceded to l i e in th e r e h e a r s a l

te c h n iq u e s he employs b o th on and o f f th e s e t . These

te c h n iq u e s run th e whole gamut of p o s s i b i l i t i e s allow ed by

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th e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f human n a tu re to d i r e c t io n . The key to

th e whole p ro c e s s , however, depends upon th e s k i l l in hand­

l in g o f h i s p la y e r s , and th e f u l ln e s s o f h i s com prehension

o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s , and what th e y have to o f f e r to th e f i n ­

ish ed p ic tu r e .

The d i r e c to r and th e pho tography . Although d i r e c t in g

fo r s ta g e and sc reen have many s i m i l a r i t i e s , th e p o t e n t i a l i ­

t i e s and l im i ta t io n s o f th e camera g iv e th e cinema d i r e c to r

a much w ider range of d ram atic v a lu e s , to g e th e r w ith a m yriad

o f te c h n ic a l problem s unknown to th e s ta g e d i r e c to r . Most o f

them a re approached d u rin g th e p ro c ess o f la y in g -o u t th e

camera s c e n e s . F u lly u t i l i z e d , th e y a f fo rd th e sc reen d i ­

r e c to r much more f l e x i b i l i t y o f space and tim e , co n s id e ra b lyi

b ro a d e r p h y s ic a l scope, a g re a te r in tim acy in th e i n t e r p r e t a ­

t i o n o f th e r o l e s , and a w ider range o f v a lu e s in th e mount­

ing and s c o r in g o f h is work.

Whereas d i r e c to r s do no t concern them selves w ith pho­

tog rap h y to th e same deg ree - some f e e l in g th a t t h e i r b e s t

work should be done d i r e c t l y w ith th e p la y e r s , and th a t th e

camera crew should h an d le th e r e s t - th e g r e a te r number o f

w e l l - e s ta b l is h e d d i r e c to r s g iv e t h i s f a c to r im portance equal

t o t h a t o f th e p re p a ra t io n o f th e sc re e n p la y and th e hand­

l in g o f th e p la y e r s .

The d i r e c to r and p ro d u c tio n o p e ra t io n s . A lthough i t

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would be p o s s ib le to d e t a i l th e v a r ie d p rocedu res tised by a

number o f contem porary d i r e c to r s in a c tu a l p ro d u c tio n <hper-

a t io n s on th e s e t , th e s e p ro ced u res a re fo r th e most p a r t

l a r g e ly m echanical and must o f n e c e s s i ty be v a r ie d t o s u i t

many d i f f e r e n t l o c a l c o n d itio n s and c irc u m stan c es . The

c r i t i c a l f a c to r l i e s in th e judg ing by th e d i r e c to r o f th e

e f fe c t iv e n e s s o f th e work b e fo re th e camera so t h a t he may

know which ,fta k e s n to have p r in te d and assem bled fo r l a t e r

rev iew . This i s la r g e ly s u b je c t iv e and i t has n o t been

p o s s ib le to o b ta in adequate d a ta on i t w ith in th e l im i ta ­

t io n s o f t h i s s tu d y . I f s u i t a b le methods o f re s e a rc h could

be d ev ised , however, i t m ight p rove f r u i t f u l . Xn hand lin g

sound e f f e c t s and music th e d i r e c to r has s t i l l a n o th e r op­

p o r tu n i ty to lend a sem blance o f r e a l i t y to h is work and

implement th e o th e r means f o r c r e a t in g mood and a tm osphere .

T his may no t be as c r i t i c a l as th e th r e e main item s p rev ­

io u s ly d isc u sse d , bu t ta k e s i t s p la c e as an im portan t sup­

p o r t in g phase o f th e d i r e c t o r s o p e ra t io n s .

Ihen i t comes to th e f i n a l e d i t in g o f th e f i lm , how­

ev e r, th e d i r e c to r has h is f i n a l chance to in te g r a te th e

r e s u l t s o f h is work in th e s e a re a s in to a u n if ie d and e n te r ­

ta in in g w hole. And i t i s h e re t h a t th e d i r e c to r may be p u t

t o th e u l t im a te t e s t o f h is a b i l i t y to c re a te a e in e m a tic a l-

ly e f f e c t iv e p ro d u c tio n .

93

I I . CONCLUSIONS

The com plexity and in te r la c in g dependency o f th e s e

fu n c tio n s upon each o th e r em phasizes th e im p lic a tio n o f a l l

a u th o r i t i e s quoted h e re in th a t th e d i r e c to r should have a

f irm u n d e rs ta n d in g , i f n o t an a c tu a l competence, in a l l o f

th e a r t s and sc ie n c e s which e n te r in to f i lm p ro d u c tio n .

Whereas th e d i r e c to r v ery o f te n has s u b s ta n t i a l a b i l i t y as

a w r i t e r , d e s ig n e r , p h o tog rapher, e d i to r o r s ta g e d i r e c to r

t o beg in w ith , and w hereas he may co n tin u e to th in k and work

a s a d i r e c to r l a r g e ly in term s o f th e c inem atic te ch n iq u e

he knows b e s t , t h i s tendency may cause him d i f f i c u l t y un­

l e s s h is temperament and q u a l i f ic a t io n s a r e such as t o en­

a b le him to command th e whole f i e l d .

These q u a l i f i c a t io n s have no t been s ta te d c a te g o r ic ­

a l l y in t h i s s tu d y , b u t have been r e f le c te d in th e comments

o f a u th o r i t i e s , a s w e ll as in th e d is c u s s io n i t s e l f . P a ra ­

ph rased in t h i s co n c lu s io n th e y may be s e t f o r th a s g en e r­

a l l y accep ted v a lu e s :

1* Knowledge o f s to r y v a lu es and c o n s tru c tio n a s th e y

a p p ly to th e cinem aj t h i s may come from work as a w r i te r

o f n a r r a t iv e o r d ram a tic m a te r ia l o r o f sc re e n m a te r ia l i t ­

s e l f . I t may be h e ig h ten ed by experience a s a s tu d io re a d ­

e r and by p ro fe s s io n a l o b se rv a tio n s o f f i lm s . I t I s most

in te n s iv e ly he ig h ten ed by th e a c tu a l p ro c ess o f working

94

w ith w r i t e r s , p la y e r s , and camera te c h n ic ia n s in t ra n s p o s ­

ing s to ry m a te r ia l in to p ic tu r e form .

£ . U nderstand ing o f th e d e s ig n and c inem atic f a c to r s

in p re p a ra t io n o f s e t s , costum es, and make-up; t h i s , most

o f te n comes in d i r e c t ly in th e cou rse o f work in o th e r

phases o f p ic tu r e o r th e a te r p ro d u c tio n . I t may be h e ig h t­

ened by experien ce on th e s e t d u rin g p ro d u c tio n in any of

th e many phases o f t h i s work, and i t may be s tim u la te d by

th e a n a ly s is o f f in is h e d f i lm s . I t may no t be as im portan t

a s th e o th e r f a c to r s , however, in many in s ta n c e s , b u t can­

no t be overlooked .

3 . A b i l i ty t o evolve in t e r p r e ta t io n s o f r o le s and

develop them in c o l la b o ra tio n w ith p la y e r s ; t h i s i s th e

h e a r t o f th e d i r e c t o r i a l p ro cess and i s th e most d i f f i c u l t

a sp e c t o f i t to w r i te about w ith s p e c i f ic accuracy* Among

g e n e ra l q u a l i f i c a t io n s i s a need to sen se f u l l y th e p o ten ­

t i a l i t i e s o f s t o r i e s and r o l e s , as w e ll as th e c h a r a c te r is ­

t i c s and a t t r i b u t e s o f th e p la y e r s . E qually im portan t i s

th e a b i l i t y to draw out of each p la y e r an e f f e c t iv e p e r ­

formance which w i l l be harmonious w ith th e work o f th e

o th e r s . These m a tte rs r e q u ir e a keen u n d e rs ta n d in g of

human n a tu re and psychology . E xperience in th e d i r e c t in g

o f s ta g e p la y s i s one o f th e most u su a l and e f f e c t iv e ways

o f tran sfo rm in g a p o t e n t i a l i t y in to u sa b le te c h n iq u e s .

Work on m otion p ic tu r e w r i t in g , pho to g rap h ic la y -o u ts and

9 5

e d i t in g a re c e r ta in ly v ery h e lp f u l . In th e la s t^ a n a ly s i s ,

however, th e r e i s onlyvone q u a l i f i c a t io n and th a t i s in

a c tu a l ly working w ith p la y e rs on th e s e t and o f f th e s e t .

T his may he accom plished in p a r t hy an a s s i s t a n t d i r e c to r

o r d ia lo g u e d i r e c to r , h u t th e f u l l le s so n o f i t can he le a r n ­

ed only in th e a c tu a l p ro c ess i t s e l f .

4 . Knowledge o f th e camera*s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s and imag­

in a t iv e in s ig h t in to th e la y -o u t o f seen es; t h i s i s th e

p o in t a t which th e i n t e r p r e ta t io n o f th e d ram atic m ate r­

i a l s ta k e s on i t s most c inem atic a s p e c t . W ithout knowledge

o f th e o th e r f a c to r s d e sc rib ed above and th e r e la te d work

of e d i t in g th e la y -o u t o f scenes would in e v i ta b ly be s t i l t e d .

A lthough th e p rim ary q u a l i f i c a t io n i s an a b i l i t y to v i s u a l iz e

dynam ically , t h i s by I t s e l f i s o f l i t t l e a v a i l .

5* E xperience in p ro d u c tio n o p e ra t io n s : t h i s i s th e

p r a c t i c a l nub o f th e problem . I t i s th e p o in t a t which a l l

o th e r knowledge i s pu t to th e a c tu a l t e s t . Much may be

le a rn e d by p a r t i c ip a t io n in any one o f th e many a c t i v i t i e s

invo lved in work on th e s e t . When i t comes to th e co o rd i­

n a t io n o f o p e ra tio n s , though, th e key f a c to r i s a la rg e

deg ree o f in s ig h t in to a l l req u irem en ts and a f l e x i b i l i t y

and com prehensiveness of v iew poin t in see in g th a t th e y a re

f u l f i l l e d .

6. Knowledge o f sound e f f e c t s and m usic: t h i s i s fo r

most d i r e c t o r i a l assignm ents th e l e a s t n e c e ssa ry , bu t i t i s

96

a f a c to r which may add a v i t a l p lu s q u a l i ty . The p rim ary

need i s fo r im ag in a tiv e u n d e rstan d in g o f th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s

o f th e d ram atic a id e s , and th e a b i l i t y to s e le c t e f f e c t iv e ones

from th e su g g es tio n s o f th e s t a f f .

7 . Knowledge o f e d i t in g : t h i s i s in a sen se p r im a r i ly a

knowledge o f how th e s to ry f a c to r s , i n t e r p r e t iv e f a c to r s ,

p ho tog raph ic f a c to r s and o th e r e lem ents may be b e s t p u t / t o ­

g e th e r . The l e a s t im portan t p a r t o f i t i s th e p h y s ic a l

p ro c ess of h an d lin g th e f i lm . The crux of i t l i e s in having

an im ag in a tiv e s e l e c t i v e judgment on how th e s e v e ra l compon­

e n ts o f th e f in is h e d p ic tu r e w i l l a f f e c t aud iences when com­

b ined in one way o r a n o th e r . The v i t a l elem ent h e re i s an

o v e r - a l l knowledge r a th e r th an a group o f s p e c i f ic te ch n iq u es

as f a r a s th e d i r e c to r i s concerned .

Thus, i t i s in d ic a te d th a t th e p roced u res of cinema

d i r e c t in g a r e v a s t ly d e ta i le d and m u ltip le x in t h e i r r e l a ­

t io n s h ip s , th a t th e g r e a te s t c o n tr ib u t io n and r e s p o n s ib i l i ty

o f th e d i r e c to r l i e s in th e s t im u la t in g and c o o rd in a tin g of

th e c r e a t iv e e f f o r t s o f many a r t i s t s and te c h n ic ia n s , and th a t

th e whole p ro c ess o f cinema d i r e c t in g i s geared to th e c re a tio n

o f an in te g ra te d c in em atic p roduct c o n s t i tu te d o f n a r r a t iv e

m a te r ia ls , g rap h ic m a te r ia ls , many ty p e s o f sounds, pho to ­

g rap h ic r e p r e s e n ta t io n s , and d ram atic enactm ents a l l ed ited

in to a s in g le c r e a t io n .

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

A shton, Dudley, A rt o f P la y D ire c t in g , E ld r id g e , 1931.

Arnheim, Rudolph, F ilm . London: Faber and F ab er, 1933.

B ardeche and B ra s s e l la c h , H is to ry o f Motion P ic tu r e s . Hew York: W. W. H orton and Company, I n c . , and Museum o f Modern A r t , 1938.

B en n e tt, A. G ., C inem anla♦ London: J a r r o ld s , 1937.

B lack ton , I . S tu a r t , In tro d u c tio n to th e P h o to p la y . Los A ngeles: The U n iv e rs i ty o f Southern C a l i fo rn ia , and Academy o f Motion P ic tu r e A rts and S c ien ce s , 1929.

B runei, A drian , F i lm c r a f t . London: George Hewnes, 1936.

Buchanan, Andress, The A rt o f Film P ro d u c tio n . London: S i r Isa a c Pitm an a n d S o n s , “L td . , 1936.

, F ilm Making from S c r ip t to S creen . London: Faber 55T F aE e r,"L td .7 I M 7 .~ ---- ---------------------

B uckle, G erard F . , The Mind and th e F ilm . London: R outeledge and Sons)£ L td . , 192"5I

Davy, C h arle s , F oo tn o tes t o th e F ilm . London: Lovat D ickson, L td . , 1937.

B eM ille, W illiam , Hollywood Saga.

F la h e r ty , John Joseph , M oviemakers. Hew York: Doubleday,Doran and Company, 1935.

F reeb u rg , T ic to r , The A rt o f P ho top lay Making. Hew York: The M acmillan Company, 1"918 ♦

G ale, A rth u r L . , How to W rite a Movie. Hew York: B rink Row Book, 1936.

G r i f f i t h , MTs. David W., When th e Movies Were Young. H©w York E. P . D utton and Company, 1936.

99

Hampton, Benjamin Bowles, A H is to ry o f th e M ovies. Hew York: C ovici-F riedm an, 1931,

Jacobs, L ew is, The R ise o f th e American F ilm , Hew York:E a rc o u rt, B race and Company, 1939,

K e lih e r , A lic e Y ., Movie W orkers. Hew York: H arper B ro th e rs , 1939, :

Kennedy, Joseph P a t r i c k , The S to ry o f th e F ilm s as Told by L eaders o f th e In d u s try to th e S tu d en ts o f The G raduate School o f B usiness A d m in is tra tio n . Chicago and Hew York: 1937.

K ie s l in g , B a r r e t t C ., T a lk in g P i c tu r e s : How They a re Made,How to A p p re c ia te Them. Richmond, Hew York: Johnson P u b lish in g Company, 1957.

M a re h e tti , R oger, Law o f th e s ta g e , sc re e n and R adio . Los A ngeles: S u tto n House, 1936.

M artin , H erbert C ., Hollywood’s Movie Commandments. Hew York: H. W. W ilson, 1937".

M ilne, P e te r , Motion P ic tu r e D ire c t in g . Hew York: F a lk Pub­l i s h in g Company, 1922.

Haumberg, Haney, We Make th e M ovies. Hew York: W. W. H orton and Company, 1937.

Hi c o l l , A lla rd y c e , F ilm and T h e a tre . Hew York; Thomas Y. Crow ell Company, 193117”“

P a tte r s o n , F rances T ay lo r, S cen a rio and S creen . Hew York:H arco u rt, Brace and Company, 1926-T7

P i tk in , W alter Boughton, The A rt o f Sound P ic tu r e s . Hew York, London: D. App1eton and Company, 1930.

Pudovkin, Y. I* , F ilm T echnique. London: George Hewnes, L td . , 1933.

_______ , F ilm A c tin g . London: George Hewnes, L td . , 1939.

R id eo u t, W. H ., American F ilm . London: M itre P re s s , 1937.

R otha, P a u l, C e l lu lo id : The F ilm Today. London, Hew York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1931.

100

S e ld e s , G i lb e r t , Movies Come from America. Hew York: C harles S c r ib n e r ’ s Sons, I937T

S po ttisw oods, Raymond, A Grammar o f th e F ilm . London: F aber and F ab er, L td . , 19ST5.

T ay lo r, Emerson G if fo rd , P r a c t i c a l S tage D ire c tin g f o r Ama­t e u r s . Hew York: E. £ . D utton and Company, 19x51“"

W atts, S . , Behind th e S c re en . New York: Dodge,. 1938.

B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Drama, ’’D ire c to r as an A r t i s t , ” by L. Greene, 31 :2 0 , Jan u ary , 1931.

L iv ing Age, " D ir e c to r ’ s P ro b lem s,” by A lfred H itchcock , 354: T 7 2 - 4 , A p r i l , 1938.

Hew York Times, " A r t ic le s by F rank Capra on Two Types o f —D ir e c to r s ,” I x , p . 4 , c o l . 2, A p r i l 19, 1936.

" A r t ic le s on Hollywood D i r e c to r s ,” x , p . 4 , c o l . 1 , O ctober, 1935; Ix , p . 4 , c o l . 1,O ctober 27, 1955.

"C lich es t o be Avoided,,” by Sam Wood, V ol. x ,Sec. 4 , p . 3 , January 17, 1937.

"Comment on I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f D ire c to r in F i lm s ,” x i , p . 4 , c o l . 4 , March 21, 1936.

" D ir e c to r s ,” by Garson Kanin, ix , Sec, 4, p . 1, November 10,

" In te rv ie w w ith L io n e l Barrymore M entions D if­f i c u l t i e s o f D i r e c to r s ,” Ix , p . 4 , c o l . E, No­vember 24, 1955.

" In te rv ie w w ith D. W. G r i f f i th on Modern D irec ­t o r s , ” ix , p . 5, c o l . 4 , November 17, 1935.

" L e tte r s on P e c u l i a r i t i e s o f D i r e c to r s ,” ix , p . 4 , c o l . 3 , January 3, 1934*

" L e tte r s on Hollywood D i r e c to r s ,” ix , p . 4 , c o l . 6* November 17, 1935.

"Survey Shows Most D ire c to rs Began as A c to r s ,” i x , p . 5 , V ol. 7 , January 13, 1935.

101

R ead e rs* D ig e s t , ’’T ricked In to A c tin g ,” by J . P . McEvoy, 36 :7 1 -3 , F eb ruary , 194Q*

S c h o la s t ic , ”I t A ll Depends on th e D i r e c to r ,” 3 9 :8 -9 ,November 21, 1936,

T h ea tre A rts Monthly,. "Credo o f a D i r e c to r ,” by M. W ebster,22 :343-8 , May, 1938.

"D ire c to r Takes Command,” by M. E u s t is , 20 :114-23 , 211-21, 270-80, F eb ruary - A p r i l , 1936*

" I D i r e c t ,” by C arson K anin, pp . 640-644, Septem ber, 1941.

"P layw righ t as D i r e c to r ,” by E. L . R ice, 13 :355-60 , May, 1929.