Contemporary Teaching WRITTEN REPORT

7/27/2019 Contemporary Teaching WRITTEN REPORT

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STUDENT-CENTERED TEACHING

SCAFFOLDING

Definition:

Noun: A temporary or movable platform for workers (as

bricklayers, painters, or miners) to stand or sit on when workingat a height above the floor or ground.

The word scaffolding puts us in mind of painters and window washers who usescaffolds for support. The notion providing learners with support also makessense. Consequently, when learners need assistance, teachers or peers provideprompts or clues, or explanations, demonstrations, coaching or additionallearning resources.

Definition in Education

Scaffolding is an instructional method that emphasizes the

support structure given to the learner in order for him toaccomplish a taskand the gradual withdrawal of thatsupport system as soon as the learner is deemed fit toperform the task on his own.

The purpose is to ensure understanding. Good teachers probably are more ableto provide such assistance since they are sensitive to when it is needed. Again,scaffolding occurs when someone is guided through learning. For example, ateacher guides a student through the process of problem solving a problem suchas how to make a PowerPoint computer presentation. The learner proceeds step-by-step while the teacher is vigilant and assists as necessary.

Analogy The scaffolding definition here is a direct analogy from how scaffolding is

originally used in construction: just as builders will place support beams andscaffolding all over the building and take them away as soon as the buildingis finished and stand alone on its own, scaffolding in education places muchstress on how a teacher can take away a learners support structure withoutcompromising his learning.

History of Scaffolding

Scaffolding method developed by Lev Vygotsky. Lev Vygotsky proposed a

theory called the Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD to furtherelaborate the concept. Though the term was never coined by Vygotskyhimself, it encompasses what the essence of scaffolding in education reallyis.


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The theory states that the instructor will introduce a new concept and thenwill give the student all the resources, assistance, instruction and support atthe beginning of the lesson or teaching phase. As the lesson progresses, theinstructor will assign new lessons that the student must learn, all the whilewithdrawing support, bit by bit, until such a time that the instructor isconfident that the student really is handling the lesson competently all by his

lonesome.

Over time, the instructors role shifts from a directive standpoint, to moresuggestive, and then to an encouraging role, and finally to as an observerof progress.

The best way to maximize scaffolding is in adapting to the learners rate oflearning, moving from being regulated by others to self regulation; fromover reliance to self reliance.

Eventually, the learner will develop his own self-scaffolding in the processthrough internal thought or internal dialogue.

*NOTE: In whatever the case may be, the Zone of Proximal Development, orZPD, is crucial concept in scaffolding in education, as scaffolding affects alllearners both at the cognitive and emotional levels, and has an impact not onlyon the lesson learned or the skills acquired, but on the students motivationsand confidence when approaching a task.

Levels of Scaffolding in EducationSaye and Brush (2002) expounded on the two levels that there are the twolevels of scaffolding:

Soft Scaffolding is when the instructor moves around the room andconverses with the learners. The instructor may then question thestudents approach on a problem (particularly difficult ones) and give outconstructive feedback.

According to Van Lier, this type of scaffolding can also be referred to ascontingent scaffolding. The type and amount of support needed isdependent on the needs of the students during the time of instruction(Van Lier, 1996).

Hard Scaffolding, much like Soft Scaffolding, are also aimed at helping

students cope with difficult problems and tasks. The main difference beingis its emphasis on techniques of having the assistance pre-emotivelyplanned well in advance.

In contrast with contingent or soft scaffolding, embedded or hardscaffolding is planned in advance to help students with a learning taskthat is known in advance to be difficult (Saye and Brush, 2002). Forexample, when students are discovering the formula for the PythagoreanTheorem in math class, the teacher may identify hints or cues to help thestudent reach an even higher level of thinking. In both situations, the idea


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of "expert scaffolding" is being implemented (Holton and Clarke, 2006):the teacher in the classroom is considered the expert and is responsiblefor providing scaffolding for the students.

SOFT vs. HARD Scaffolding

Soft scaffolding is considered a more basic technique in which a person

will directly converse with another person learning a task and critique hisor her approach to problem-solving. Hard scaffolding refers to a lessdirect method in which the teacher will not directly instruct, but insteadgive clues that will allow the student to reach conclusions on his or herown. This essentially promotes a higher level of thinking.

FLAWS OF SCAFFOLDINGUnfortunately, applying scaffolding correctly and consistently can be difficultwhen the classroom is large and students have various needs (Gallagher, 1997).Scaffolding can be applied to a majority of the students, but the teacher is leftwith the responsibility to identify additional scaffolding. This method is however,not easy to implement when the classroom is large that the instructor has toevenly divide his or her attention in handling the students individual needs,without compromising the pace of his instruction.

Other Methods of Scaffolding

Reciprocal Scaffolding: a method which involves any number of groupsthat work collaboratively together. Ideally, the students ought to be pairedwith other students with different perspectives on the problem/task. Thiswould of course, create creative conflicts which would allow them toconstructively come up with solutions at a higher cognitive level.

Reciprocal scaffolding, a method first coined by Holton and Thomas, is amethod that involves a group of two or more collaboratively workingtogether. In this situation, the group can learn from each other'sexperiences and knowledge. The scaffolding is shared by each memberand changes constantly as the group works on a task (Holton and Clarke,2006).

According to Vygotsky, students develop higher-level thinking skills whenscaffolding occurs with an adult expert or with a peer of higher capabilities

(Stone, 1998). Conversely, Piaget believes that students discard theirideas when paired with an adult or student of more expertise (Piaget,1928). Instead, students should be paired with others who have differentperspectives. Conflicts would then take place between students allowingthem to think constructively at a higher level.

Technical Scaffolding is a newer approach in which computers replacethe teachers as the expert or guides, and student can be guided with weblinks, online tutorials, or help pages.


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Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which computers replace theteachers as the experts or guides, and students can be guided with weblinks, online tutorials, or help pages (Yelland and Masters, 2007).Educational software can help students follow a clear structure and allowsstudents to plan properly (Lai and Law, 2006).

Advantages of Scaffolding Technique Development of the learners sense of independence

Self-reliance

Initiative

Internal Motivation

Self confidence

Scaffolding TechniqueThe scaffolding technique finds most utility in the realm of problem basedlearning.

Give hints and suggestions instead of answers.Especially if you have the answers. The child may stumble and grope forthe answers, but it is the process of coming to the conclusion that is asequally important as the answer itself.

Corrections must not seem like railroading.You can of course point out aspects of the task that needs to be changed,or perhaps ask them mildly to reconsider, but never go too heavy on thechild, and ultimately, let them have the final say.

The journey is more important than the destinationThe manner on how the child approaches the problem is more importantthan the answer itself, so give him hints. Let him break down the task inmanageable bits, let him outline the task, or let him learn the value ofstudy. This may not be easy for some parents, as we are most of us,brought up to be results oriented and subconsciously want our child to dothe right thing. This is ultimately a mistake.

Always be around to help, and ask how they want to be helpedAt the beginning of the task, the child may need to have you around, butthat doesnt mean that they want us to baby them. Ask them about what

parts of the task they need help with. And even should they have fullmastery, give them an assurance that you will be around should theyever need any help.

Make it a positive experienceLearning to solve problems has to resonate with positive emotions, andit will do the child so much disservice if their parents are more stressedand fidgety than they themselves are. Helping your child develop skillsthat he will use although his life is what the scaffolding definition is really


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all about. In the end, your child will appreciate how you were able to givehim all the tools that he needs to succeed in life.

SUMMARY OF SCAFFOLDING:

The instructor provides support during the initial learning steps. Selecting easier initial versions Doing some of the harder steps while students do the

easier parts Initial Crutches

This allows learners to accomplish tasks that theynormally would not be able to accomplish on their own.

Learners gain access to areas that they could notobtain on their own

Scaffolding provides structural support

Once learners develop the necessary skills, theinstructor can gradually remove the scaffolding andadding more complicated variables.

The information is better integrated into the learners knowledge base.

Ideally, the instructor gives the learner everything he needs in order tolearn the lesson or task: learning aids, examples, continuedencouragement.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

A group of teaching strategies that provide structured roles for students whileemphasizing social interaction.

Teachers Role:In cooperative learning activities, teacher often use whole-group instruction tointroduce and explain basic concepts and skills, but after this presentation theteacher facilitates group learning. This begins with the organization of groups,continues with building teamwork and cohesion within groups, and includesmonitoring the students that all students are learning.

Students Role:Student roles also change. Cooperative learning requires that students becomeactive and responsible for their own learning. This goal is accomplished byhaving students act a both teacher and learners. In addition, students also learnto explain, compromise, negotiate, and motivate as they participate as groupmembers. Growth in social interaction skills my be one of the most importantoutcomes of cooperative learning activities.

Students learn together but holds each student accountable for his or herlearning.


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Organize in small groups to solve problems and complete challengingassignments.

Individual roles within the group are clearly assigned.

Cooperative Learning Conditions:

Group Goals. Cooperative learning gets its name from the fact thatstudents are places in learning situations where they work together toreach common goals.

Group goals refer to incentives within cooperative learning that help

create a team spirit and encourage students to help each other.

Positive Interdependence means that everyone in the group mustparticipate for the group to be successful. P.I. puts two burdens on pupils they must reach the objectives of the lesson, and they must make certainthat all members of their group reach these objectives. Thisinterdependence is a function of the materials, tasks, and roles that areassigned to students. Role and task responsibilities ensure that everyone

in the group must participate, or the group will not be successful. Face-to-face Interaction. Pupils should be able to see and interact with

each of the group members. Groups should also have promotiveinteractions interactions that facilitate success. Students should be ableto explain to each other how to solve problems, share information, andconnect new information to previous knowledge. Group members shouldbe able to teach each other and make corrections and connections whennecessary.

Individual accountability requires that each member of a cooperativelearning group demonstrate mastery of the concepts and skills beingtaught.

The teacher communicates the expectation for individual accountability byemphasizing that all students must understand the content, holdingstudents accountable with quizzes and tests that all students takeindividually or with individual reports, papers, and projects.

Equal Opportunity for Success. It means that all students, regardlessof ability or background, can expect to be recognized for their efforts. Thiselement is particularly important in heterogeneous classes, wherebackground knowledge and skill levels vary. To promote success,copperative learning strategies focus on individual effort andimprovement.

Research shows that cooperative learning results in greater achievementgains, improved cross-cultural friendships, increased social skills, enhancedself-esteem, greater interdependence (teamwork), increased cognitive andaffective abilities, and an improved classroom climate.

Requirement of Cooperative Learning

True cooperative learning requires:1. Formation of heterogeneous teams


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Teams should have a balance of gender, ethnicity, ability, etc. You canrandomly assign and then adjust for the above or you can rank studentsby ability and then assign one from the top with one from the bottom, etc.Group sizes of 4-6 are about right, but partners can work too.

2. Establishment of positive interdependence and individual

accountabilitySet up one task to be accomplished by each group. Make sure it can becompleted ONLY if the students cooperate. Establish individualaccountability making sure each member has a specific task, role, orresource ensuring that each must contribute to the successful completionof the task

3. Opportunity for team members to get acquainted with oneanother and establish a team identity.Students need time to get to know one another and develop trust beforebeing presented with a task. Groups go through 4 stages:

Forming Storming Norming Performing

o FormingDirect the team and establish objectives clearly. (A good way ofdoing this is to negotiate a team charter.)* Formation of team happens & the team comes together*

Members feel anxious and spend their time finding out abouteach other* Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear*Highly depending on the manager/leader* Equivalent SituationalLeadership style: Directing

o StormingEstablish process and structure, and work to smooth conflict andbuild good relationships between team members. Generallyprovide support, especially to those team members who are lesssecure. Remain positive and firm in the face of challenges to yourleadership or the team's goal. Perhaps explain the "forming,

storming, norming, and performing" idea so that peopleunderstand why conflict's occurring, and understand that thingswill get better in the future. And consider teachingassertiveness and conflict resolution skills where these arenecessary.* Team members come up with ideas through debates on how toproceed with the task- about task priorities;- clarity on purpose ofthe task;- roles & responsibilities and- processes to follow*Influence of ideas and power struggles may arise* Compromisesmay be required to enable progress* Team members may


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challenge the leader & leader coaches* Equivalent SituationalLeadership style: Selling

o NormingStep back and help the team take responsibility for progresstowards the goal. This is a good time to arrange a social, or a

team-building event* Work as a team starts* Roles and responsibilities are clear andaccepted* Team begin to exhibit participative behavior &decision making happens by group agreement* Commitment,trust and unity increases* Equivalent Situational Leadershipstyle: Supporting

o PerformingDelegate as far as you sensibly can. Once the team has achievedhigh performance, you should aim to have as "light a touch" aspossible. You will now be able to start focusing on other goals andareas of work* This stage is characterized by high levels of:- goal orientation,-interpersonal relations,- independence, motivation,- knowledgeand- competence in team members* Team know what,why &how of the task they are executing* High level of respect in thecommunication between team members* Team expectsdelegation of task instead of instruction/assistance* EquivalentSituational Leadership style: Delegating

o AdjourningWhen breaking up a team, take the time to celebrate itsachievements. After all, you may well work with some of yourpeople again, and this will be much easier if people view pastexperiences positively.* Happens when project completes* Members moving out of thegroup after project goal achievement* Everyone can move on tonew things* Achievement celebrated* Members feel difficulty asthey have developed close working relationships with other teammembers

4. Use of an established structure

1. Think-pair-share: Students work with partners. You pose a question and give students

time to think about their answer.

After thinking, they share their responses with their partners.

Partners question each other to help refine the answer

2. Numbered Heads: Students work in partners


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You pose a question and they solve it together asking each otherquestions to make sure their answer is appropriate

3. STAD (student teams achievement divisions) Students assigned to groups of four You present the lesson and supply instructional materials, then

students work to make sure everyone in their group masters the

information Reciprocal style helps here

4. Jigsaw: Students assigned to home teams of 4-6 members Each member of the home team selects a different piece of material

to learn. Have students from different teams who have similar pieces of

information, forms expert groups to discuss their information anddevelop a presentation for their home teams. No more than 4-6 inexpert groups

Have students return to home groups to share information

5. Opportunity to debrief the situation

Ask students:

1. Was the task completed? If not, why?2. How did it feel to have someone accept your suggestions?3. How did it feel to have someone complement you?4. What can you do next time to make your group work more

successfully?5. What learning can you take from their experience to use in the

future?

6. What were some encouraging things you saw or heard?

THINK-PAIR SHARE


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DefinitionThink Pair Share activity is a strategy in lectures or tutorials, even online toenhance student learning by facilitating students thinking about an issue theninteracting with one peer to explain their ideas and listening to their peersideas.

Intention

Get students to think independently about some problems; then

Verbalize what they have learned about that problem to another person.

Steps (Kagan Spencer 2006):1. Decide on how to organize students into pairs (counting heads, ABAB,

male/female, etc.)2. Pose a discussion topic or a question.3. Give students at least 10 seconds to think on their own (think time)4. Ask students to pair with their partner and share their thinking.5. Call on a few students to share their ideas with the rest of the class

How to do a Think Pair Share

The facilitator first explains how to to the activity. Explain the timing.

Revise listening skills. Try 60 seconds with a particular noise say a loud

knock on the desk to indicate the end of each step. See the Powerpointslide and include it in any lecture as a starting point.

The facilitator poses a question, problem, issue or idea (that does not

simply have one answer). This can be up on the board or a poweroint slideso everyone is clear as to the problem to be discussed. She/he introducesthe Think Pair Share activity as the method for discussing answers to thequestion.

Think Pair Square Technique


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1. THINK: Students then silently think, write notes, draw, and/or calculate toanswer or solve the issue.

2. PAIR: Students turn to a neighbor or moves around the room and selectstheir Pair.

3. SHARE: One student explains their ideas while the other students listensattentively without speaking. When the facilitator gives the time signal,

the students swap roles.

Think Pair Square Shared Technique1. THINK: Students then silently think, write notes, draw, and/or calculate to

answer or solve the issue.2. PAIR: Students select Pair. One student explains their ideas while the

other student listens attentively without speaking. When the facilitatorgives the time signal, the students swap role.

3. SHARE: Student pairs share by forming with a larger group aneighboring pair or the whole class.

Why do a Think Pair Share? Advantages of Think Pair ShareThink Pair Share strategy is a cooperative learning technique that

Promotes student participation; Gives a format change in a lecture and adds variety; Helps students to feel comfortable and get to know their peers; Useful for all year levels and all class sizes; Is especially useful in lectures; Can be used in the very first lecture or tutorial; Is easy to teach, so later students quickly start the activity without

wasting time;

Only takes a short time to prepare and start and do; Engages the whole class Allows quiet students to answer questions without having to stand out

from their classmates; Makes class discussion more fruitful because everyone has ideas to

discuss; Provides equity for all students rather than the same or loud students

answering; Tells the lecturer what the students understand; Practices students communication, listening and team skills; Stretches students thinking; and most importantly

Enhances students learning. Begin by saying: Its your turn. Look at your neighbor the person sitting

to the left or right of you. Make sure no one is left out. Nudge yourneighbor and tell him/her the most important fact youve just heard in thelast 10 20 minutes. Find out what your neighbor thinks is the mostimportant fact. You have 1 minute to talk to each other.

When the minute is up, resume your lecture.

Variations of Pair Share


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Share one thing you just learned; Share one question you still have; State three things you now know that you didnt now before; Ask your neighbor a question about the topic and see if he/she can answer

it; Tell your neighbor how you can use the information you just learned.

NUMBERED HEADS TOGETHER

Is an approach developed by Spencer Kagan (1998) to involve more students inthe review of materials covered in a lesson and to check their understanding ofa lessons content. Instead of directing questions to the whole class.

Four Step Structure: Step 1 - NUMBERING: Teachers divide students into three- to five-

member teams and have them number off so each student on the teamhas a different number between 1 and 5.

Step 2 QUESTIONING:Teachers ask students a question.

Step 3 HEADS TOGETHER: Students put their heads together to figureout and make sure everyone knows the answer.

Step 4 ANSWERING: The teacher calls a number and students fromeach group with number raise their hands and provide answers to thewhole class.

JIGSAW

A form of coopeative learning in which individual students become experts onsubsections of a topic and teach that subsection to others.

Each member of the jigsaw assumes responsibility for learning a specificpart of the content. Each student/group must master the content to teachthat content to other in group/class.

NOTE: This could be done with an entire class with small groups teachingcontent to the rest of the class.

Steps of Jigsaw Activity Task Division


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Subject Matter is divided into its requisite parts. (Best done byteacher)

Home Groups Each team consists of several team members who are assigned

different requisite parts of the subject matter Expert or Focus Groups

Students assigned the same topic meet in the Expert Group todiscuss information, master the topic and plan how to teach theinformation to his/her Home Group.

Return to Home Groups -Students return to home groups to teacher the information to their

own group members. Summary Activity

All of the parts must be put together in the form of a report, a quiz,

presentation, or completion of questions.


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JIGSAW II

Jigsaw II is a five-phase strategy that begins with information gathering,proceeds through a process of disseminating information within groups, andculminates in assessment and recognition.


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INFORMATION GATHERING. In the first phase of Jigsaw II, students areassigned to groups and assigned topics in which they are to develop expertise.Since Jigsaw II uses preexisting materials such as chapters from books, the onlylogistical task is being certain that the learning materials textbooks,videotapes and the like are available for students and that the sheets guidingthe experts study are designed.

The first time you use Jigsaw II, you may have to walk students through one ofthe expert sheets to help them understand how they can be used to structureand guide their efforts.The actual study time can be done either in class or as a homework assignment.In first introducing Jigsaw II, it is helpful to do the first few sessions as in-classactivities. This strategy provides the teacher with opportunities to monitor theactivity and offer suggestions to the groups.

EXPERT MEETINGS. After students have had time to study their individualtopics, expert meetings allow experts opportunities to compare notes and clarifyareas of misunderstanding. A discussion leader should be assigned to moderate

the session and make sure everyone is actively involved. This role can berotated so that everyone gets an opportunity to lead and participate. The expertsheets passed out earlier help provide structure for this discussion.

TEAM REPORT. During team report meetings, experts return to their groupsand take turns teaching the group about their topic. This not only shares theexperts knowledge but also encourages experts to organize and summarizetheir information. Encouraging and helping experts organize their informationand offering suggestions for presentations can increase the learning in thesesessions.

EVALUATION AND RECOGNITION. The process for evaluating individualstudent performance and recognizing group achievement can be similar to theprocess used for STAD. Individual students are held accountable for theirunderstanding of the content, improvement points can be given for continuallyincreasing achievement, and group recognition in the form of certificates, letterto parents, name and pictures on the bulletin board, and privileges can all beused.

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Contemporary Teaching WRITTEN REPORT