Contents

1 Meaning of Nonviolence and Pacifism 1

Prominence of Aggression and Violence Research in Social Sciences IAggression 2Violence 3Pacifism 4Nonviolence 6

Nonviolence as a Philosophy 6Nonviolence as a Behavior 7

Situating Nonviolence Among Related Concepts 7An Integrated View of Nonviolence 8Recommended Readings 9

2 Recent History of Nonviolent Responses to Conflict 11

Nonviolent Action in the First Half of the Twentieth Century 12Nonviolent Action in the Last Half of the Twentieth Century 16Nonviolent Action in the Twenty-First Century 27Recommended Readings 29Recommended Films and Videos 30

3 Theories of Nonviolence 31

Philosophical Views of Nonviolence 32Holmes' Theory of Nonviolence 32

Anthropological Views of Nonviolence 34Patfoort's Conceptual Framework of Nonviolence 34

Sociological Views of Nonviolence 35Ritter's Two-Dimensional Theory of Nonviolence 36

Psychological Views of Nonviolence 39Blumberg's Utility Model of Nonviolent Mass Demonstrations 39Hare's Social-Psychological Perspective on Nonviolent Action 40Kool's Theory of Nonviolence 41Teixeira's Theory of Nonviolence 42Brenes' Model of Peaceful Selfhood 45

xiv Contents

Political Views of Nonviolence 46Gandhi's Political Theory of Nonviolence 46Sharp's Political Theory of Nonviolence 48Ackerman and Kruegler's Political Theory of Nonviolence 49

Multidiseiplinary Views of Nonviolence 52Sharp's Civilian-Based Defense 53Burrowes' Strategic Theory of Nonviolent Defense 54

Locating Nonviolence Within Peace Psychology 58Recommended Readings 58

4 Intrapersonal Perspectives of Nonviolence 61

Intrapersonal Nonviolence from an Individualistic Perspective 62The Independent Self and Nonviolence 62Personality Characteristics of a "Peaceful Person" 63Values of a "Peaceful Person" 68

Intrapersonal Nonviolence from a Collectivistic Perspective 74The Interdependent Self and Nonviolence 74Nonviolence from Eastern Religious Perspectives 75

Summations of Intrapersonal Nonviolence 83Recommended Readings 84

5 Interpersonal Perspectives of Nonviolence 87

Nature of Conflict 87Personality and Behavioral Tendencies of Peaceful Personsand Conflict Resolution 89

Agreeableness 89Forgiveness 90Cooperativeness 92Trust 93

Nonviolent Communication Approaches 94Nonviolent Methods of Dealing with Conflict:Specific Conflict Resolution Approaches 97

Negotiation 97Mediation 103Conciliation 105Arbitration 105Adjudication 106

Nonviolent Methods of Dealing with Conflict:Preventative Approaches 106

Conflict Resolution Education 107Violence Prevention Programs I 11Nonviolence Education 1 12Peace Education Programs 113

Contents xv

Concluding Comments on Interpersonal Nonviolence 122Recommended Readings 123Recommended Websites 124

6 Cultural and Societal Perspectives of Nonviolence 127

Peaceful Societies 127Nonviolent Activities and Norms in Less Peaceful Cultures 130Cultures of Peace 131

Assessing Cultures of Peace 134Major Components of Cultures of Peace:Implications for Theory and Research 136

Social Justice 136Gender Equality and Empowerment 137Human Rights 139Nonviolence 143Inclusiveness 147Civil Society 150Education and Peace Education 156Sustainability 158

Conclusion 161Recommended Readings 162Recommended Web Sites 163

7 Nonviolent Perspectives Within the Abrahamic Religions 167

Judaism 168Jewish Beliefs and Rituals 168Jewish Views of Nonviolence 171Notable Jewish Advocates of Nonviolence 173

Christianity 176Christian Beliefs and Rituals 176Christian Views of Nonviolence 180Notable Christian Advocates of Nonviolence 182Martin Luther King Jr 183Dorothy Day 184

Islam 185Islamic Beliefs and Rituals 185Islamic Views of Nonviolence 189Notable Muslim Advocates of Nonviolence 191

Baha'i 195Beliefs and Rituals of Baha'i 195Baha'i' Views of Nonviolence 198Notable Baha'i' Advocates of Nonviolence 199

xvi Contenls

Implications of the Abrahamic Religions for Nonviolenceand Peace 200Recommended Readings 201Recommended Web Sites 203

8 Situational Influences on Nonviolent Action 205

Situational Dimension of Nonviolent Political Action 206Channel Factors 206Terror Management Theory 207Situational Contexts That Foster Nonviolence 210

Construal Dimension of Nonviolent Political Action 211Tension System Dimension of Nonviolent Political Action 213

Military-Economic-Governmental-News Complex 215Conclusion 217Recommended Readings 218

9 Measurement Tools for Research on Nonviolenceand Related Concepts 219

The Teenage Nonviolence Test 220Reliability of the TNT 221Concurrent Validity of the TNT 222Known Groups Validity 224Psychometrics of TNT with College Students 225Overall Assessment of the TNT 226

Other Measures of Nonviolence 226Pacifism Scales 227Nonviolence Test 227Gandhian Personality Scale 228Multidimensional Scales of Nonviolence 228The Nonviolent Relationship Questionnaire 228"Self-Assessments" of Nonviolence 229

Selected Measures for Assessing the Peaceful Person 230Selected Measures for Assessing Cultures of Peace 231Concluding Comment 232Appendix 232

Social and Personal Opinion Survey 232Teenage Nonviolence Test (TNT): Scoring Key 236

10 New Directions for Research on Nonviolence 239

Nonviolence and Nonviolent Action into the Twenty-First Century 239Some Research Questions on Nonviolence and Nonviolent Action 242

Validating Theories of Nonviolence 242Research on the Peaceful Person AcrossIntrapersonal and Interpersonal Levels 244

Contents xvn

Research on Nonviolence and Cultures of Peace 245Religion. Worldviews. and Nonviolence Research 246Interdisciplinary Research Approaches to Nonviolence 247

Nonviolence for (he Twenty-First Century 248Recommended Readings 249Recommended Web Sites 250

References 253

Name Index 281

Subject Index 289