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CONTENTS GEOLOGY

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GEOLOGY

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Geology 1 Kurt Stuwe, Karl Franzens Universitaet Graz, Graz, Austria A. M. Celal Sengor, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Bernhard Grasemann, University of Vienna, Austria Benedetto De Vivo, Universita di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy

1. Introduction 1.1. Layout of Theme

2. Historical review 2.1. The Birth of Geological Sciences 2.2. Geology in the Classic Period 2.3. The Big Break 2.4. The Renaissance to the Dawn of Plate Tectonic Theory 2.5. The Rise of Plate Tectonics in the Twentieth Century 2.6. Geological Science in the Future

3. Philosophical Basis of the Methodology of Geology 3.1. Finding Out About the Present State

3.1.1. The Geologists’ Ignorance 3.1.2. The Geologists’ Hypothesis

3.2. Finding Out About the Past 3.3. Finding Out About the Rules of Evolution 3.4. What Is a Model?

3.4.1. Consistent and Unique Geological Models 3.4.2. Adequate and Accurate Geological Models 3.4.3. Accuracy and Precision in Geological Models

4. First-Order Explanatory Models of Geology Today 4.1. Theory of Meteoritic Bombardment 4.2. Theory of Cyclical Astronomical Controls of Climate 4.3. Petrological Theory 4.4. Plate Tectonic Models

The Organized Earth 40 Christopher R.J. Kilburn, University College London, UK 1. Introduction 2. Organization and Volcanic Systems

2.1. Rates of Volcanism 2.2. Controls on Volcanic Output

3. Organization, Tectonics, and Impacts 4. Conclusion The Composition of Earth: Rocks and Minerals 52 Ruth Siddall, University College London, UK 1. Introduction 2. Minerals

2.1. Mineral Chemistry and Classification 2.1.1. Native Elements as Minerals 2.1.2. Silicates 2.1.3. Oxides 2.1.4. Sulfides and Sulfates

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2.1.5. Phosphates 2.1.6. Carbonates 2.1.7. Halides

2.2. Crystallographic, Optical, and Physical Properties of Minerals 3. Rocks

3.1. Rocks in Earths Crust 3.1.1. Continental Crust 3.1.2. Oceanic Crust 3.1.3. Igneous Rocks 3.1.4. Sedimentary Rocks 3.1.5. Metamorphic Rocks

3.2. Rocks in Earths Mantle 3.3. Rocks in Earths Core and the Evidence from Iron Meteorites

Using the Earth to Measure Time 99 J. Eric Robinson, University College London, UK

1. Introduction 2. Strata and Time 3. The Signs of Age 4. The Refinement of Geological Time 5. The Challenge to Evolution 6. Physics to the Rescue 7. Epilogue Earth as a Planet 110 Antony W. Brian, University College London, UK 1. Introduction 2. Earth

2.1. The Origin of Earth 2.2. Earth’s Interior 2.3. Plate Tectonics 2.4. The Geoid 2.5. Earth’s Atmosphere 2.6. Earth’s Magnetic Field

3. The Moon 3.1. Earth’s Only Satellite 3.2. Lunar Missions 3.3. The Origin of the Moon

4. Earth from Space The Evolution of Landscape 131 Berthold Bauer, University of Vienna, Austria Christopher R.J. Kilburn, University College London, UK 1. Introduction 2. Landscape Changes in the Fluvial Cycle

2.1. River Networks 2.2. River Adjustments to Tectonic and Climate Change

3. Landscape Changes in the Glacial Cycle 3.1. The Formation of Glaciers 3.2. Denudation by Glaciers

4. Periglacial and Aeolian Processes 5. Landscape, Energy, Climate, and Other Planets

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6. Conclusion The Hazardous Earth 146 Bill McGuire, University College London, UK 1. Introduction 2. The Scale of the Threat from Geological Hazards 3. Geological Hazards

3.1. Volcanic Hazards 3.2. Earthquake Hazards 3.3. Landslide Hazards

4. The Future Tectonics and Geodynamics 164 Bernhard Grasemann, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Kurt Stuwe, Karl Franzens Universitaet Graz, Graz, Austria 1. Introduction 2. The Theory of Plate Tectonics

2.1. The Geodynamic Concept of Plate Tectonics 2.1.1. Convergent Boundaries 2.1.2. Divergent Boundaries 2.1.3. Transform Boundaries

2.2. Global Seismicity in the Concept of Plate Tectonics 3. The Description of Geodynamic Processes

3.1. Energetic Descriptions of Geodynamic Processes 3.1.1. Conductive Heat Transfer 3.1.2. Convective Heat Transfer 3.1.3. Heat Production

3.2. Kinematic Description of Geodynamic Processes 3.2.1. Vertical Reference Frames 3.2.2. Lagrangian and Eulerian Reference Frames

3.3. Dynamic description of geodynamic processes 3.3.1. Stress and Deformation 3.3.2. Deformation Mechanisms

4. Important Concepts in Geodynamics and Tectonics 4.1. Rheology of the Lithosphere

4.1.1. Rheology of the Continental Lithosphere 4.1.2. Rheology of the Oceanic Lithosphere

4.2. Gravity and Isostacy 5. Outlook and Perspectives

5.1. Alternative Concepts ? 5.2. The Future of Geodynamics

Geodynamics: Recent Advances in Quantitative Modeling of Compressional Orogens 191 Jean Braun, Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Australia 1. Introduction 2. 'S-point' dynamics

2.1. Introduction 2.2. Basic response 2.3. A word on the numerical methods

3. Effect of crustal rheology 4. Effect of erosion 5. Different types of mantle shortening

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6. Comparison with the indenter mode of continental collision 7. Variations around the S-point

7.1. Variations in basal velocity distribution 7.2. Three-dimensional plate boundaries: the effect of oblique convergence 7.3. Application of the doubly-vergent taper to intracratonic deformation 7.4. Application of the mantle subduction model to extensional tectonics

8. Geological predictions 9. Application to various orogens

9.1. The Southern Alps of New Zealand 9.2. The European Alps 9.3. The Pyrennees 9.4. The Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau 9.5. The Andes 9.6. The Alice Springs Orogeny of Central Australia

Plate Tectonics 223 Martin Meschede, Institut fur Geologische Wissenschaften, Universitat Greifswald, Germany 1. Introduction 2. The Earths Composition 3. Age and magnetization of the Earths crust 4. Plates 5. Geometric Constraints 6. Plate Boundaries

6.1. Divergent Plate Boundaries 6.2. Convergent Plate Boundaries

6.2.1. Accretion and Subduction Erosion 6.2.2. Types of Plate Convergence 6.2.3. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence 6.2.4. Continental-Oceanic Convergence 6.2.5. Continental-Continental Convergence

6.3. Conservative Plate Boundaries 6.4. Triple Junctions

7. Hot Spots Rheology of Rocks in Natural Tectonic Processes 243 Brian Evans, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, MIT, USA 1. Natural Deformation of Rocks 2. The Mechanical Problem

2.1. Physical mechanisms 3. Constitutive Laws for Rocks

3.1. An elastic constitutive equation 3.2. Criteria for Brittle Failure and Frictional Sliding

3.2.1. Brittle Fracture of Intact Rock 3.2.2. Frictional sliding

3.3. Creep deformation 3.4. Solution transfer creep

4. Predicting rock strength under natural conditions: Problems and future directions 4.1. Deformation mechanism maps and strength profiles 4.2. Spatial scaling

Geochronology 262 Igor Maria Villa, Institute of Geology 3012Bern, University of Bern, Switzerland and Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche e Geotecnologie, Università di Milano Bicocca, Milano, Italy

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1. The age equations 2. Isotope ratios and isochrons 3. Dating metamorphic rocks 4. Summary of dating methods

4.1. Rb-Sr 4.2. Sm-Nd 4.3. Lu-Hf 4.4. La-Ce(-Ba) 4.5. Re-Os 4.6. K-Ar(-Ca) 4.7. U-Pb and Th-Pb 4.8. Other U decays: U-He and fission tracks 4.9. U series disequilibrium method 4.10. Radiocarbon (14C)

Structural Geology 290 Neil Sydney Mancktelow, Department of Earth Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, CH-8092 Zürich, Switzerland 1. Introduction 2. Stress and Strain

2.1. Stress 2.2. Measurement of Stress 2.3. Strain 2.4. Measurement of Strain

3. Geometry 3.1. Common Deformation Structures 3.2. Influence of Initial Irregularities 3.3. Polyphase Deformation

4. Kinematics 5. Dynamics 6. Tectonic Modeling

6.1. Analytical Models 6.2. Numerical Models 6.3. Physical Models

7. Outlook Neotectonics 319 Manfred R. Strecker, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, Germany George E. Hilley, Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, USA Peter M. Blisniuk, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, Germany Claus D. Reuther, Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut, Universität Hamburg, Germany 1. Neotectonics as an integral part of geosciences 2. Remote sensing methods 3. Structural field studies 4. Geophysical investigations 5. Morphotectonics and Tectonic Geomorphology 6. Paleoseismology 7. Archeoseismology 8. Geodesy 9. Numerical modeling 10. Neotectonic movements and climate patterns

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Index 359 About EOLSS 365

VOLUME II

Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology 1 Angelo Peccerillo, University of Perugia, Italy 1. Introduction 2. The Magmatic Process

2.1. Chemical Composition of Magmas 2.2. Physical Properties of Magmas 2.3. Factors Controlling the Composition of Magmas

2.3.1. Major Element Composition 2.3.2. Trace Elements Composition 2.3.3. Isotopic Composition

2.4. Magma Genesis in the Upper Mantle 2.5. Magma Genesis in the Continental Crust 2.6. Magma Differentiation

2.6.1. Fractional Crystallization 2.6.2. Mixing and Assimilation 2.6.3. Complex Differentiation Processes

3. The Metamorphic Process 3.1. Metamorphic Facies 3.2. Types of Metamorphism 3.3. Metamorphic Minerals and Reactions 3.4. Ultrametamorphism and Anatexis 3.5. Metasomatism

4. Relationship Between Petrogenesis and Geodynamics 5. Petrogenesis and Life

5.1. Petrogenesis and Evolution of the Planet Earth 5.2. Formation and Stabilization of Continents and the Effects on Global Climate

6. Historical Perspective and Future Developments of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology Occurrence, Texture, and Classification of Igneous Rocks 37 Gezahegn Yirgu, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia 1. Introduction 2. Mode of Occurrence of Igneous Rocks

2.1. Lava Flows and Domes 2.2. Pyroclastic Deposits 2.3. Intrusive Bodies

2.3.1. Plutons 2.3.2. Minor Intrusions 2.3.3. Layered Intrusions

3. Texture of Igneous Rocks 3.1. Crystal Nucleation and Growth 3.2. Common Igneous Textures

3.2.1. Crystallinity 3.2.2. Granularity 3.2.3. Crystal Shapes 3.2.4. Mutual Relations of Crystals (and Amorphous Materials)

4. Classification and Nomenclature of Igneous Rocks 4.1. Classification Scheme for Igneous Rocks

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4.2. Principal Factors in Classification 4.2.1. Modal Mineralogy 4.2.2. Grain Size 4.2.3. Nomenclature 4.2.4. Chemical Classification

4.3. Classification and Nomenclature of Plutonic Rocks 4.3.1. Ultramafic Rocks 4.3.2. Charnockitic Rocks

4.4. Classification and Nomenclature of Volcanic Rocks 4.5. Classification and Nomenclature of Pyroclastic Rocks 4.6. Other Igneous Rock Groups

The Mantle and its Products 65 Keith Bell, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 1. The Layered Earth 2. Mineralogy and Chemical Composition of the Mantle 3. Volatiles in the Mantle 4. Melting in the Mantle 5. Primary Melts from the Mantle 6. Mantle Components 7. Mantle Metasomatism 8. Noble Gases in the Mantle 9. Pollution of the Mantle Processes of Magma Evolution and Magmatic Suites 79 Gerhard Worner, University Goettingen, Germany 1. Introduction 2. Melting in Earths Mantle

2.1. What Causes the Melting of Rocks and Formation of Magmas? 2.2. Partial Melting and its Effect on Major and Trace Elements 2.3. Types of Primary Magmas 2.4. Accumulation and Ascent of Magma

3. Magma Chambers 3.1. Cooling, Convection, Crystallization, and Differentiation 3.2. Interaction with Magma Chamber Wall Rocks and Crustal Melting 3.3. Timescales of Igneous Activity and Lifetime of Magma Chambers and Volcanoes

4. Magma Differentiation Trends 4.1. Magmatic Series 4.2. Trace Element Variations During Magma Differentiation

4.2.1. Crystallization: the Example of the Laacher See Magma Chamber 4.2.2. Assimilation: the Example of the Central Andes

4.3. Magma Series and Geological Setting 5. Development of Thought and Future Avenues Role of Fluids in Igneous Petrogenesis 100 Maria Luce Frezzotti, Universita di Siena, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Magmatic Fluids

2.1. Definition of Magmatic Volatiles 2.2. Solubility of Magmatic Volatiles in Silicate Melts 2.3. Composition of Exsolved Fluids

3. Remnants of Magmatic Fluids in Igneous Rocks: Melt and Fluid Inclusions in Minerals

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4. Origin of Magmatic Fluids: Earth Degassing and Recycling 5. Modeling Magmatic Fluids

5.1. Fluids and Genesis of Basaltic Magma in the Mantle 5.2. Fluids and Origin of Granitic Melts in the Crust 5.3. Role of H2O in Fractional Crystallization Processes

6. Influence of Magmatic Fluids on Geological Phenomena 6.1. Explosive Volcanism 6.2. Volcanic, Hydrothermal Systems and Geothermal Reservoirs

Origin, Texture and Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 119 Teklewold Ayalew, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia 1. Introduction 2. Occurrence

2.1. Orogenic Metamorphism 2.2. Contact Metamorphism 2.3. Ocean Floor Metamorphism

3. Classification 4. Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks 5. Metamorphic Facies

5.1. Facies of Very Low Grade 5.2. Greenschist Facies 5.3. Amphibolite Facies 5.4. Granulite Facies 5.5. Hornblende Hornfels Facies 5.6. Pyroxene Hornfels Facies 5.7. Blueschist Facies 5.8. Eclogite Facies

6. Tectonic Setting of Metamorphic Facies 7. Textures

7.1. Layering, Banding, and Fabric Development 8. Kinetics

8.1. Diffusion 8.2. Nucleation 8.3. Crystal Growth

Pressure, Temperature, Fluid Pressure Conditions of Metamorphism 138 Marco Scambelluri, Università di Genova, Italy 1. Introduction 2. General Features of Metamorphism

2.1. PressureTemperature Conditions of Metamorphism 2.2. Types of Metamorphism 2.3. Kinetics of Metamorphic Reactions

3. Temperature 4. Pressure 5. Variations of Metamorphic Mineral Assemblages in Dependence of Pressure and Temperature 6. Role of the Fluid Phase During Metamorphism

6.1. The Catalysis of Mineral Reactions by Fluids 6.2. Incorporation of Fluids in Metamorphic Rocks and Associated Compositional Variations 6.3. Fluid Release in Metamorphic Rocks: Dehydration and Decarbonation Reactions 6.4. Influence of Fluids on the Behavior of Metamorphic Rocks

7. Trends in Metamorphic Petrology

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Ultrametamorphism and Crustal Anatexis 166 Bernard Bonin, Université de Paris-Sud, Orsay, France 1. Introduction 2. Ultrametamorphic Facies: a Brief Summary

2.1. High to Ultra-High Pressure Metamorphism 2.2. High-Temperature Metamorphism

3. Anatexis and Migmatites: Where and When? 3.1. Migmatites and Migmatitic Terrains 3.2. Geometric Relationships with Granitic Bodies

4. Geometry of Partial Melting: Mobility and Fate of Crustal Liquids 4.1. Water-Saturated and Water-Deficient Melting Processes 4.2. Mobility of Anatectic Liquids 4.3. Liquid Compositions According to Their Protoliths

5. Geodynamic Settings: Anatexis Under Compressional and Extensional Regimes 5.1. Orogenic Episodes: Clockwise P–T Paths 5.2. Within-Plate Settings: Paucity of Anatectic Processes

6. Conclusion. What About Elsewhere? Behavior of Trace Elements during Magma Genesis and Evolution 186 Fernando Bea, University of Granada, Spain 1. Introduction 2. Geochemical Modeling using Trace Elements

2.1. Partition Coefficients and Fractionation Equations 2.1.1. Closed Systems 2.1.2. Open Systems

2.2. Limitations of Fractionation Equations: Disequilibrium Processes 3. Trace Elements as Discriminants of Tectonic Settings of Igneous Rocks 4. Future Perspectives of Trace-Element Studies: In-Situ Microanalysis Applications of Isotopes to Igneous Petrogenesis 202 Elisabeth Widom, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA 1. Introduction 2. Radiogenic Isotope Systems

2.1. Radioactive Growth and Decay 2.2. Isochron Diagrams 2.3. Decay Series

3. Cosmogenic Nuclides 4. Stable Isotopes 5. Applications of Isotopes to Igneous Petrogenesis

5.1. Evolution of the Silicate Earth 5.1.1. Bulk Silicate Earth 5.1.2. CrustMantle Evolution

5.2. Chemical Geodynamics and Mantle Heterogeneity 5.2.1. MORB Source 5.2.2. OIB Sources

5.3. Subduction Zone Processes 5.3.1. Crustal Recycling Versus Crustal Contamination 5.3.2. Fluxes to the Sub-Arc Mantle Wedge

5.4. Magmatic Processes and Timescales 5.4.1. Processes and Timescales of Magma Formation and Ascent 5.4.2. Processes and Timescales of Magma Evolution

6. Recent Advances and Future Applications of Isotopes to Igneous Petrogenesis

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Mantle Dynamics and Plate Kinematics 244 Carlo Doglioni, Università La Sapienza, Rome, Italy Roberto Sabadini, Universita Studi di Milano, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Techniques to Sample the Interior of the Earth 3. Seismic Tomography 4. Changes in Earth’s Gravity Field and their Implications for Mantle Dynamics 5. Dynamic Structure of the Mantle and Ice Loss in Antarctica and Greenland 6. How the Rheology of the Mantle Impacts the Style of Subduction 7. Plate Kinematics 8. The Hot Spot Reference Frame and the Westward Drift of the Lithosphere 9. Plate Boundaries

9.1. Subduction Zones 9.2. Rift Zones 9.3. Transform Faults

10. Plate Kinematics versus Mantle Dynamics Sedimentary Geology and Paleontology 272 Mariano Parente, Università Federico II, Naples, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Sedimentary Rocks

2.1. Clastic Rocks 2.2. Chemical and Biochemical Rocks 2.3. Other Groups of Sedimentary Rocks 2.4. Economic Importance of Sedimentary Rocks

3. Facies, Facies Models, and Depositional Environments 4. Sequence Stratigraphy: a Dynamic View of the Sedimentary Record 5. Stratigraphy: Reconstructing Earth History

5.1. Historical Perspective and Recent Developments 5.2. The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record and the Methods of Correlation 5.3. Geochronology, Chronostratigraphy, and the Geological Timescale

6. Sedimentary Geology and Paleontology 7. The Future of Sedimentary Geology Sedimentation and Sedimentary Rocks 296 Alessandro Iannace, Università Federico II, Naples, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Historical Perspective 3. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

3.1. Clastic Rocks 3.2. Chemical Rocks 3.3. Organic Rocks 3.4. Residual Rocks

4. Environmental Significance of Sedimentary Rocks Stratigraphy and Relative Chronology 316 Agustin Martin-Algarra, Universidad de Granada, Spain 1. Introduction: Stratigraphy, Sedimentation, and Geologic Time 2. The Stratigraphic Record and its Significance 3. Principles of Stratigraphy, Relative Geochronology, and Sedimentary Dynamics 4. Event and Cyclostratigraphy and Relative Geochronology

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Global Sedimentary Geology 329 Andre Strasser, Institute of Geology, University of Fribourg, Switzerland 1. The Record of Changing Environments 2. Continental Deposits 3. Coasts, Barriers, and Shallow Seas 4. Slopes and Deep Oceans 5. Economic and Environmental Importance 6. Conclusions and Perspectives Evolutionary Paleontology 342 Johannes S. Pignatti, Università di Roma La Sapienza, Italy 1. What is Evolutionary Paleontology? 2. Historical Perspective 3. Main Research Topics of Evolutionary Paleontology

3.1. Evolutionary Behavior of Lineages, Species, and Higher Taxa 3.1.1. Punctuated Equilibria 3.1.2. Species Selection 3.1.3. "Red Queen" and Escalation Hypotheses 3.1.4. Adaptation, Exaptation, and Evolutionary Transitions

3.2. Evolutionary Trends and Generalizations ("Rules") 3.3. Long-term Fluctuations in Diversity and Extinction 3.4. Large-Scale Patterns and Processes in Space and Time

3.4.1. The Cambrian "Explosion" 3.4.2. Large-Scale Patterns and Trends

4. Outlook Index 363 About EOLSS 369

VOLUME III

Introduction to the Mineralogical Sciences 1 Peter Tropper, Innsbruck University, Austria 1. Introduction to Minerals and Mineralogy

1.1. Why Do We Study Minerals? 1.2. Definition of a Mineral 1.3. Naming of Minerals 1.4. The Physical Properties of Minerals 1.5. Classification of Minerals 1.6. Mineral Occurrences and Environments

2. Introduction to the Mineralogical Sciences 2.1. What is Mineralogy? 2.2. Historical Background of the Mineralogical Sciences 2.3. Basic Principles in the Mineralogical Sciences

2.3.1. Crystallographic Principles 2.3.2. Crystal Chemical Principles

3. The Rock-Forming Minerals of Earth: from the Crust to the Core 3.1. The Mineralogy of Earth’s Crust 3.2. The Mineralogy of Earth’s Mantle

3.2.1. The Upper Mantle

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3.2.2. The Lower Mantle and Transition Zone 3.3. The Mineralogy of Earth’s Core

4. Methods in the Mineralogical Sciences 4.1. Structural Characterization of Minerals

4.1.1. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Methods in Mineralogy 4.1.2. Electron Diffraction Methods in Mineralogy 4.1.3. New Trends in Diffraction Methods 4.1.4. Spectroscopic Methods in Mineralogy

4.2. Chemical Characterization of Minerals 4.2.1. Bulk Chemical Analytical Techniques 4.2.2. In Situ Chemical Analytical Techniques

5. Modern Developments in the Mineralogical Sciences 5.1. Mineral Thermodynamics 5.2. Simulating Nature: Experimental Mineralogy and Petrology 5.3. Mineral Physics 5.4. Computational Crystallography

6. Fields in the Mineralogical Sciences 7. Mineralogy and the Earth Sciences: The Connection Between Minerals and Rocks

7.1. Petrology 7.2. Geochemistry 7.3. Economic Geology 7.4. Structural Geology

8. The Mineralogical Sciences and the Industrial Society 8.1. Ore Mineralogy and Mineral Deposits

8.1.1. Processes That Lead to the Formation of Ore Deposits 8.1.2. Methods in Ore Mineralogy

8.2. Applied Mineralogy and the Industrial Use of Minerals 8.2.1. Classification of the Materials to be Studied in Applied Mineralogy 8.2.2. The Characterization of Physical and Chemical Properties of Materials 8.2.3. New Materials: Applied Mineralogy and the Link to Material Sciences

9. History Through the Eyes of a Mineralogist: Archeometry 9.1. Archeoceramics 9.2. Archeometallurgy 9.3. Mineralogy and Cultural Heritage

10. Mineralogy and the Environment 10.1. Environmental Mineralogy 10.2. Mineralogy and Health

10.2.1. Hazardous Minerals 10.2.2. Minerals in Humans

10.3. Geomicrobiology 11. Conclusion The Crystal Structure of Minerals 60 Herta Effenberger, Institut für Mineralogie und Kristallographie, Universität Wien, Wien, Austria 1. Introduction 2. Symmetry Elements 3. Periodicity 4. Crystal Systems and Point groups 5. Translation Lattices

5.1. Two-dimensional translation lattices (plane lattices) 5.2. Three-dimensional translation lattices (space lattices)

6. Translation Groups ( line-, plane- and space groups) 7. Defects, Quasi-periodic and Aperiodic Structures

7.1. Incommensurate Structures 7.1.1. Modulated Structures 7.1.2. Composite Structures

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7.2. Quasi-crystals 7.3. Nano-crystals

8. Crystal Chemistry 8.1. Chemical Bonds

8.1.1. Ionic Bonds 8.1.2. Covalent Bonds 8.1.3. Metallic Bonds 8.1.4. Van der Waals Bonds

8.2. The Coordination Polyhedra (coordination figures) in Minerals 8.3. Pauling's Rules

9. The Crystal Structures 9.1. Description of the Crystal Structure 9.2. Comparison of Crystal Structures

Modern XRD Methods in Mineralogy 93 Robert Ernst Dinnebier, Max-Planck- Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart, Germany Karen Friese, Max-Planck- Institute for Solid State Research, Stuttgart,Germany 1. Introduction 2. The Diffraction of X-rays

2.1. The Laue Equations 2.2. The Bragg Equation 2.3. The Ewald Sphere

3. The Generation of the Primary Beam 3.1. Filters and Monochromators 3.2. Detectors

4. Single Crystal Methods 4.1. The Rotation Method 4.2. The Weissenberg Camera 4.3. The Precession Camera 4.4. The Automatic Single Crystal Diffractometer

5. Powder Diffraction 5.1. The Characteristics of a Powder Diffraction Pattern 5.2. Measurement of a Powder Pattern

6. The Position of a Bragg Reflection 7. The Intensity of a Bragg Reflection

7.1. The Atomic Form Factor 7.2. The Structure Factor 7.3. Intensity Corrections

7.3.1. Polarization Correction 7.3.2. Lorentz Factor 7.3.3. Absorption Factor 7.3.4. Warming-Up Process of the X-Ray Generator 7.3.5. Overspill Effect (Specific for Powders) 7.3.6. Grain Size Effects (Specific for Powders) 7.3.7. Multiplicity Factor (Specific for Powders) 7.3.8. Preferred Orientation (Specific for Powders)

8. The Profile of a Bragg Reflection 8.1. The (Pseudo-)Voigt Function 8.2. Asymmetry Caused by Axial Divergence 8.3. Sample Broadening

8.3.1. Crystallite Size 8.3.2. Lattice Strain

9. Crystal Structure Solution 9.1. The Patterson Function 9.2. Direct Methods 9.3. Specialized Methods for Powder Diffraction

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10. Crystal Structure Refinement 10.1. Difference Fourier Synthesis 10.2. Powder Pattern Profile Fitting

10.2.1. The Rietveld Method 10.2.2. The LeBail Method 10.2.3. The Pawley Method

11. Powder Diffraction in Non-ambient Conditions 11.1. Micro-Reactor 11.2. High Pressure Powder Diffraction 11.3. Energy-Dependent Powder Diffraction

12. Texture, Stress, and Microdiffraction 12.1. Texture 12.2. Stress 12.3. Microdiffraction

Analytical Techniques for Elemental Analysis of Minerals 158 Richard Tessadri, University of Innsbruck, Austria 1. Introduction 2. Bulk (Non-Position-Sensitive) Methods

2.1. Classical Wet Chemical Methods 2.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) 2.3. Atomic Emission Spectrometry (AES) 2.4. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis (XRFA) 2.5. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) 2.6. Mass Spectrometry (MS)

3. Beam (Position-Sensitive) Methods 3.1. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 3.2. Laser Ablation Coupling Techniques (LA-ICP-AES, LA-ICP-MS) 3.3. Proton Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) and Gamma-Ray Emission (PIGE) 3.4. Electron Microprobe Analysis (EMPA)

Thermodynamics of Minerals and Mineral Reactions 178 Eric J. Essene, University of Michigan, USA 1. Introduction 2. Measurement of Thermodynamic Data

2.1. Measurement of Entropy 2.2. Measurement of Enthalpy and Calculation of Gibbs Energy 2.3. Direct Measurement of Gibbs Energy

3. Estimated Thermodynamic Data 3.1. Entropy Estimates Using Oxide Summation 3.2. Entropy Estimates Using Isostructural Compounds 3.3. Third Law Calculations of Entropy 3.4. Estimates of Volume 3.5. Problems in Estimations of Gibbs Energy and Enthalpy

4. Compilation of Thermodynamic Data 5. Self-Consistent Thermodynamic Data Sets

5.1. Experimental Constraints on Equilibrium 5.2. Modification of Data in Self-Consistent Sets 5.3. Adding a New Phase to the Programs 5.4. Sources of Computer Programs

6. Derivation of Thermodynamic Data from Natural Assemblages 7. Thermodynamic Calculation of Univariant Phase Equilibria 8. Application of Thermodynamic Calculation to Mineral Assemblages

8.1. Chemical Characterization of Mineral Assemblages

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8.2. Thermodynamic Evaluation of Mineral Assemblages 8.2.1. Thermobarometric Applications 8.2.2. Evaluation of Chemical Parameters

Experimental Mineralogy and Mineral Physics 203 Ronald Miletich, ETH Zurich, Switzerland 1. Experimental Mineralogy

1.1. Indirect Observation through Experiment 1.2. Mineral Transformations

1.2.1. Polymorphism 1.2.2. Order-Disorder Transformations 1.2.3. Mineral Reactions

1.3. Experimental High-Pressure–High-Temperature Techniques 1.3.1. Large-Volume Autoclaves 1.3.2. Piston-Cylinder Technique 1.3.3. Multi-Anvil Press 1.3.4. Diamond-Anvil Press 1.3.5. Shock-Wave Experiments

1.4. In Situ Measurements 1.4.1. Diffraction Techniques 1.4.2. Spectroscopy and Microscopy

2. Mineral Physics 2.1. Physical Properties of Crystals

2.1.1. IsotropyAnisotropy 2.1.2. Mathematical Description: Tensors

2.2. Transport Properties 2.2.1. Thermal Conductivity 2.2.2. Atomic Diffusion 2.2.3. Electrical Conductivity

2.3. Elastic properties 2.3.1. Elastic Moduli 2.3.2. Methods for Determination of Elastic Moduli

2.4. Optical Properties 2.4.1. Refractive Index and Optical Indicatrix 2.4.2. Polarization and Birefringence 2.4.3. Optical Activity

2.5. Thermomechanical and Electromechanical Properties 2.5.1. Thermal Expansion 2.5.2. Pyroelectricity 2.5.3. Piezoelectricity

Ore Mineralogy 245 Oskar A. Thalhammer, University of Leoben, Austria Aberra Mogessie, University of Graz, Austria 1. Introduction to Ore Mineralogy 2. Characteristic Physical Properties of Ore Minerals

2.1. Hardness 2.2. Texture 2.3. Optical Properties

2.3.1. Reflectivity 2.3.2. Reflectance Color 2.3.3. Bireflectance and Reflection Pleochroism 2.3.4. Anisotropy and Polarization Colors 2.3.5. Internal Reflections

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3. Reflected-Light Microscopy 3.1. Theory

3.1.1. The Reflectance of Opaque Mineral Phases 3.2. The Ore Microscope 3.3. Methods of Investigation

4. Ore Minerals 4.1. Definition 4.2. Elements and Alloys 4.3. Oxides 4.4. Sulfides 4.5. Sulfarsenides and Arsenides

5. Introduction to Mineral Deposits 5.1. Mineral Paragenesis and Textures in Mineral Deposits 5.2. Classification of Mineral Deposits 5.3. Types of Mineral Deposits

5.3.1. Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits 5.3.2. Syngenetic Deposits 5.3.3. Epigenetic Deposits 5.3.4. Skarn Deposits 5.3.5. Magmatic Deposits 5.3.6. Placer Deposits

Applied Mineralogy and the Industrial Use of Minerals 282 Klaus G. Nickel, University of Tubingen, Germany 1. Introduction 2. The Industrial Use of Natural Non-Ore Minerals 3. Mineralogical Materials Science and Processing

3.1. Chemical and Phase Analysis 3.2. Sampling 3.3. Preparation Processes 3.4. Synthetic Raw Material Production

3.4.1. Solid-State Synthesis 3.4.2. Synthesis from Solutions 3.4.3. Synthesis from Gas Phases 3.4.4. Synthesis from Polymer Precursors 3.4.5. The Specific Role of a Mineralogist in Raw Materials Production

3.5. Ceramic Processing 3.6. Material Properties

3.6.1. Environmental Behavior of Materials 3.6.2. Mechanical Behavior of Materials 3.6.3. Other Material Properties

Index 303 About EOLSS 309

VOLUME IV

Characteristics of Mineral Deposits 1 Maria Boni, University of Napoli Ferderici II, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Mineral Deposits

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2.1. Diamonds 2.2. Chromite and Platinum Group Elements 2.3. Base Metals 2.4. Gold 2.5. Iron and Manganese 2.6. Industrial Minerals

3. Conclusion Economic Minerals: A Review of their Characteristics and Occurrence 27 Pierfranco Lattanzi, Università di Cagliari, Italy

1. Introduction 2. Native Elements: Class 1 3. Sulfides and Related Compounds 4. Oxides 5. Halogenides 6. Carbonates 7. Nitrates 8. Borates 9. Sulfates 10. Phosphates, Arsenates, and Vanadates 11. Tungstates 12. Silicates Iron and Manganese Ore Deposits: Mineralogy Geochemistry, and Economic Geology 43 Jens Gutzmer, Rand Afrikaans University, South Africa Nicolas J. Beukes, Rand Afrikaans University, South Africa 1. Introduction 2. Iron Ore Deposits

2.1. Banded Iron Formations 2.2. High-Grade Iron Ore Deposits Developed from Banded Iron Formations 2.3. Oolitic Ironstones 2.4. Magmatic Deposits 2.5. Skarn Deposits 2.6. Other Deposit Types

3. Manganese Ore Deposits 3.1. Manganese Formations 3.2. Black Shale-Hosted Carbonate Deposits 3.3. Shallow Marine (Oolitic) Deposits 3.4. High-Grade Ores Developed from Low-Grade Protore 3.5. Manganese Nodules and Crusts 3.6. Other Types of Deposit

4. Outlook on the Twenty-First Century Chromite-Platinum-Group Element Magmatic Deposits 70 Georgio Garuti, Universita' di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Italy 1. Introduction

1.1. Chromium 1.2. Platinum-Group Elements(PGE)

2. Chromium and PGE Geochemistry in Magmatic Systems 3. Types and Geotectonic Setting of ChromitePGE Magmatic Deposits 4. Mineral Residence of PGE in Chromitites

4.1. Mineralogy

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4.2. Primary and Secondary Platinum-Group Minerals (PGM) 4.3. Origin of Primary PGM Inclusions in Chromite: the "Metallic Cluster" Model

5. PGE Abundance in Chromitites 5.1. Stratiform Chromitites in Continental Layered Intrusions 5.2. Podiform and Layered Chromitites in Ophiolite Complexes 5.3. Podiform Chromitites in Orogenic Lherzolites 5.4. Segregation Chromitites in Zoned Ultramafic Complexes

6. Conclusions Geology of Base Metal Deposits 91 Donald F. Sangster, North Gower, Canada 1. Introduction 2. Deposit Types and their Modes of Origin

2.1. Skarn Deposits 2.2. Mississippi Valley-Type (MVT) Deposits 2.3. Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide (VMS) Deposits 2.4. Sedimentary-Exhalative (Sedex) Deposits 2.5. Sandstone–Lead Deposits 2.6. Ag–Pb–Zn Veins in Clastic Metasedimentary Terranes 2.7. Porphyry–Copper Deposits 2.8. Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Deposits

3. Major Sources of Base Metals 3.1. Historical 3.2. Immediate Past and Present 3.3. Near Future

Gold Deposits 117 Richard J. Herrington, The Natural History Museum, UK Chris J. Stanley, The Natural History Museum, UK 1. Introduction 2. Mineralogy of Gold 3. Geochemistry of Gold 4. Fluids in Gold Deposits 5. Magmatic Systems

5.1. Layered Intrusions 6. Magmatic-Hydrothermal Systems

6.1. Porphyry Deposits (and Associated Skarns) 6.2. Epithermal Deposits 6.3. Carlin Deposits 6.4. Iron Oxide Copper–Gold Deposits 6.5. Gold in Massive Sulfide Deposits: Volcanic (VHMS) and Sediment Hosted (SEDEX) 6.6. Orogenic Gold Deposits

7. Alluvial or Placer Gold Deposits 8. Witwatersrand-Type Deposits 9. Conclusions Types of NonMetallic Ore- Mineral Resources 134 Tim Colman, British Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK 1. Introduction 2. What are Industrial Minerals? 3. The Geological Development of Industrial Minerals

3.1. Igneous Rocks

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3.2. Sedimentary Rocks 3.3. Metamorphic Rocks

4. Industrial Minerals in National Economies 5. Characteristics of Industrial Minerals 6. Demand for Industrial Minerals 7. Value of Industrial Minerals 8. Future Trends in Industrial Minerals

8.1. Recycling 8.2. Higher Specification 8.3. Substitution

9. Conclusions Diamonds, Kimberlites and Lamproites 154 Paolo Nimis, Università di Padova, Italy 1. Introduction 2. Kimberlites and Lamproites 3. Distribution of Diamond Deposits and World Production 4. The Origin of Diamond

4.1. The Age of Diamond 4.2. Peridotites and Eclogites: The Diamond Reservoir

4.2.1. Harzburgites and the Cratonic Lithosphere 4.2.2. Eclogites

4.3. The Diamond Parents 4.4. The Depth of Origin of Diamond 4.5. Comparison between Kimberlitic and Lamproitic Diamonds

5. Factors of Diamond Potential 6. Exploration and Exploitation 7. Industrial Diamonds Mineral Resources: Nature's Most Versatile Life Support System 173 Christopher John Morrissey, Independent Economic Geologist, Bath, UK 1. Introduction 2. Uses of Metals and Minerals 3. The Scale of World Demand 4. Distribution of Mineral Resources and Reserves 5. Mining as a Source of Supply 6. Alternative Sources of Mineral Raw Materials

6.1. Recycling 6.2. Synthetic "Minerals" 6.3. Seawater, Brines, and Hot Springs 6.4. Sea- Floor Resources 6.5. Other Unconventional Metal Sources

7. Replenishment of Resources 8. Sustainable Mining Geology of Europe 198 Franz Neubauer, Institute of Geology and Paleontology, University of Salzburg, Austria 1. Introduction 2. Geological and Geophysical Overview 3. Laurentian Basement 4. Fennosarmatia and the East European Platform

4.1. Overview

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4.2. Baltic Shield 4.3. Podolic Shield 4.4. East European Platform

5. Late Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic Orogens 5.1. Cadomides 5.2. Caledonides 5.3. Variscides 5.4. Skythides 5.5. Uralides

6. Mesozoic-Tertiary Orogens 6.1. Cimmerian Orogen 6.2. Alpine-Mediterranean Mountain Belts 6.3. Mediterranean Sea

7. Post-Variscan Sedimentary Basins 7.1. Permo-Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins 7.2. Moesian Platform 7.3. North Caspian Trough 7.4. Passive Continental Margins Facing towards the Atlantic Ocean

8. Cenozoic Intraplate Magmatism 9. Quaternary Glaciation and Periglacial Deposits 10. Resources

10.1. Coal 10.2. Hydrocarbon 10.3. Mineral Resources 10.4. Culturally Interesting Mineral Raw Materials

The Geological Evolution of Africa 230 Paul H.G.M. Dirks, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Tom G. Blenkinsop, School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia Hielke A. Jelsma, De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd., Johannesburg, South Africa 1. Introduction 2. The Archean between 3800-2550 MA: Formation of Cratons

2.1. The West Africa Craton 2.2. The Central Africa (Congo-Tanzania) Craton 2.3. The Southern Africa Craton 2.4. An Archean Passive Margin Sequence and Foreland Basin 2.5. East Sahara or Nile Craton 2.6. Malagasy Shield

3. Paleoproterozoic Growth of Archean Cratonic Blocks: the Eburnian 3.1. Rifts and Passive Margins

3.1.1. The Southern Africa Craton 3.2. Active Continental Margins and Accretion of Volcanic Arcs

3.2.1. The Southern Africa Craton 3.2.2. The West Africa Craton: the Birrimian 3.2.3. The SW Congo Craton

3.3. Continental Collision 3.3.1. Southern Africa Craton: the Magondi-Okwa-Kheis Belts 3.3.2. The NW Congo Craton: the Gabon Belt 3.3.3. Collision of the Congo and Tanzania Cratons: the Ubendian-Ruzizian-Ruwenzori Belts 3.3.4. Collision along the SE Tanzania Craton: the Usagaran Belt

4. Mesoproterozoic Continental Break-up and Growth 4.1. Rifts and Passive Margins

4.1.1. The Central Africa Craton: the Kibaran Belt, a Failed Rift 4.2. Active Continental Margins and Accretion of Volcanic Arcs

4.2.1. The S Southern Africa Craton: the Sinclair-Namaqua-Natal Belts 4.3. Continental Collision

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4.3.1. Collision of the Central and Southern Africa Cratons: the Irumide-Zambezi-Lurio Belts 4.4. Kibaran Mantle Plume Activity

5. Neoproterozoic Continental Break-up and Growth 5.1. Rifts and Passive Margins

5.1.1. Rift-drift of the Proto-South Atlantic (Adamaster) Ocean: West Congo-Kaoko-Gariep-Saldania Belts

5.1.2. Rifts and Proto-oceanic Basins in Southern Africa: Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi Belts 5.1.3. Passive Margins along the West Africa Craton

5.2. Active Continental Margins, Accretion of Volcanic Arcs and Continental Collision 5.2.1. The East African Orogen 5.2.2. West Congo-Kaoko-Gariep-Saldania Belts 5.2.3. The Trans-Saharan Belt 5.2.4. The Mauritanide-Bessaride-Rokelide Belts 5.2.5. The Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi Belts 5.2.6. The Oubangide Belt

6. The Phanerozoic Evolution of Africa 6.1. Paleozoic Continental Margins of Gondwana (570-290 Ma)

6.1.1. The Cape Supergroup, South Africa 6.1.2. The North African Shelf

6.2. Hercynian Collision: the Gondwanide Orogens 6.2.1. Cape Fold Belt 6.2.2. Mauritanide Belt

6.3. Rifting of Gondwana: The Karoo basins (290-180 Ma) 6.3.1. The Karoo Rift Basins 6.3.2. The Karoo Foreland Basins and Sags

6.4. Develoment of a Stable Tethys Shelf in North Africa (280-110 Ma) 6.5. Break up of Gondwana

6.5.1. E African Margin Development (165 Ma-Recent) 6.5.2. North Atlantic Ocean, NW African Margin Development (180 Ma-Recent) 6.5.3. South Atlantic Ocean, W African Margin Development (150 Ma-Recent)

6.6. Rift-sag Basins of North, West and Central Africa (140 Ma-Recent) 6.7. East African Rift System 30 Ma-Recent and Development of Red Sea Margin 6.8. Collision between Europe and Africa (90 Ma-Recent)

6.8.1. Atlas Mountains 6.9. Hot Spots and Sags: the Story of a Stagnant Continent: 30 Ma to Recent

Geology of Asia 266 A. M. Celal Sengor, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey Boris A. Natal'in, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey 1. Introduction 2. First-order Tectonic Units of Asia 3. Continental Nuclei 4. North Tarim Craton 5. Orogenic Systems

5.1. The Altaids 5.2. The Manchurides 5.3. Verkhoyansk-Kolyma Orogenic System 5.4. Chukotka-North Alaska Orogenic System (Chukotkalaskides) 5.5. Asian Part of the Circum-Pacific Super Orogenic Complex: the Nipponides 5.6. Scythides 5.7. Uralides 5.8. The Tethyside Supororogenic Complex

5.8.1. Introduction 5.8.2. The concept "Tethysides" 5.8.3. Basic Architecture of the Tethysides 5.8.4. The Tethyan Domain: Palaeo- and Neo-Tethys and the Cimmerian Continent

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5.8.5. East Asia and the Tethysides 6. Neotectonics of Asia 7. Quaternary Geology of Asia 8. Economic Geology The Geology of Australia 299 Geoffrey L. Clarke, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia 1. Introduction 2. Archaean (>2500 Ma) 3. Proterozoic

3.1. Palaeoproterozoic (2500 to 1600 Ma) 3.2. Mesoproterozoic (1600 – 1000 Ma) 3.3. Neoproterozoic (1000 to 540Ma)

4. Palaeozoic 4.1. Palaeozoic Basins West of the Tasman Line 4.2. Lachlan & Thomson Foldbelts 4.3. The New England Foldbelt 4.4. Sydney-Gunnedah-Bowen Basin

5. Mesozoic (251 to 65 Ma) 6. Cainozoic (<65 Ma) 7. Mineral Resources The Geology of North America 331 Virginia B. Sisson, Rice University, Houston, USA 1. Introduction 2. Archean (>2500 Ma) 3. Proterozoic

3.1. Paleoproterozoic (2500 to 1600 Ma) 3.2. MesoProterozoic (1600 to 1000 Ma) 3.3. Neoproterozoic (1000 to 540 Ma)

4. Paleozoic (540 to 251 Ma) 4.1. Breakup of Laurentia 4.2. Paleozoic Basins 4.3. Paleozoic Orogenic Belts

5. Mesozoic (251 to 65 Ma) 5.1. The Atlantic Passive Margin 5.2. The Northern Gulf of Mexico 5.3. North American Cordillera

6. Cenozoic (65 Ma to 1.6 Ma) 6.1. Alaska and Canadian Cordillera 6.2. Laramide Orogeny 6.3. Basin and Range Province and Rio Grande Rift 6.4. San Andreas Fault and Triple Junction Interactions 6.5. Yellowstone Hot Spot 6.6. Hawaiian Islands

7. Quaternary (>1.6 Ma) 8. Geology of Mexico, Central America, and Cuba

8.1. Mexico 8.2. Northern Central America 8.3. Cuba

9. Mineral Resources

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The Geology of South America 374 Karl Franzens University of Graz, Graz,, Austria 1. Introduction 2. Cratonic Regions

2.1. The Amazonian Craton 2.2. The Sao Francisco Craton 2.3. The Sao Luis Craton 2.4. The Rio de La Plata Craton and the Cratonic Region around Buenos Aires

3. Neoproterozoic Orogenic Systems 3.1. The Gurupi Fold Belt 3.2. The Borborema Province 3.3. The Tocantis Province 3.4. The Northern Mantiqueira Province 3.5. The Dom Feliciano Belt and Adjacent Terranes

4. Paleozoic Basement and Marginal Belts in Southwestern South America: Patagonia 5. The Andes

5.1. The Proto-Andean Margin 5.2. The Northern Andes 5.3. The Central Andes 5.4. The Southern Andes 5.5. Tectonic Evolution of the Andes

6. Sedimentary Basins The Geology of Antarctica 406 Simon Leigh Harley, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK 1. Introduction 2. East Antarctic Shield

2.1. Archaean Terrains/ Domains with Limited or Negligible Later Overprints 2.1.1. The Grunehogna Craton, Dronning Maud Land 2.1.2. The Archaean Napier Complex, Enderby Land 2.1.3. The Archaean Vestfold Block, Prydz Bay 2.1.4. Archaean in the Denman Glacier / Obruchev Hills Area 2.1.5. The Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic Mawson Block, Adelie Land

2.2. Archaean or Mixed Archaean/Proterozoic with Extensive Younger Overprints 2.2.1. The Ruker Terrane, Southern Prince Charles Mountains 2.2.2. The Rauer Terrane, Prydz Bay

2.3. Mid- to Neoproterozoic Terranes with Limited Younger Overprints 2.3.1. Maud Province 2.3.2. Rayner Province 2.3.3. The Wilkes Province

2.4. Regions with Extensive Pan-African High-grade Metamorphism, Magmatism and Deformation 2.4.1. Dronning Maud Land (DML) Belt 2.4.2. Lutzow-Holm Bay (LHB) Belt 2.4.3. Prydz Bay Belt 2.4.4. Denman Glacier Belth 2.4.5. Cambrian Juxtaposition of Distinct Precambrian (“Grenvillian”) Crustal Provinces

2.5. Events in the East Antarctic Shield between 920 Ma and 600 Ma 2.6. A Brief Note on the Post-500 Ma Phanerozoic Geological Record of the East Antarctic Shield

3. Pre-Ross geology and the Ross Orogeny in the Trans Antarctic Mountains Region 3.1. Northern Victoria Land 3.2. Central TransAntarctic Mountains 3.3. Shackleton Range

4. Palaeozoic to Mesozoic Sedimentation on the East Antarctic Continent: The Beacon Supergroup and its Correlatives 4.1. The Taylor Group

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4.2. The Victoria Group 4.3. Nature of the Beacon Basin

5. Mesozoic Continental Flood Basalt Magmatism in East Antarctica: the Ferrar Large Igneous Province (FLIP) 5.1. The Karoo Province of Dronning Maud Land 5.2. The Ferrar Province and Dufek Intrusion 5.3. Genesis of the Ferrar Large Igneous Province and its Plate Tectonic Context

6. West Antarctica Microplates: Configuration and Evolution 6.1. Antarctica in the Breakup of Gondwana and its Relation to Microplate Movements 6.2. Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountains Microplate 6.3. Thurston Island Microplate 6.4. Marie Byrd Land Microplate

7. Evolution of the Active Margin of West Antarctica: The Antarctic Peninsula 7.1. Basement to the Antarctic Peninsula Mesozoic Units 7.2. Stages in the Mesozoic Evolution 7.3. The Magmatic Arc 7.4. Back Arc Basins 7.5. Accretionary Prism and Fore-arc Basins 7.6. Late Cretaceous and Recent History of the Antarctic Peninsula Region

8. East Antarctic/West Antarctic Connections: The Ross Sea Rift and Uplift of the TAM 8.1. The Ross Sea Rift 8.2. Cretaceous and Cenozoic Uplift of the Trans Antarctic Mountains

9. Glacial History: the Icing on the Geocake Index 451 About EOLSS 457

VOLUME V

Coal, Oil, and Gas for the Twenty-First Century 1 Robert C. Milici, U.S. Geological Survey, 956 National Center, Reston, VA 20192 , USA 1. Introduction 2. The Globalization of Fossil Fuels 3. World Primary Energy Production a Measure of the Economic Health of the World 4. The Production Life Cycle of Fossil Fuels

4.1. Non-renewable Resources 4.2. The Evolution of a Resource - The Richmond Coalfield: an Example of Coal Production and

Depletion 4.3. Pennsylvania Anthracite an Economically Depleted Coal Resource. 4.4. United States Oil Production

5. World Coal 5.1. Consumption and Production 5.2. Reserves 5.3. United States Coal Production 5.4. European Union

6. Coal Quality and Coal Use Limitations 6.1. Sulfur Dioxide 6.2. Trace Elements 6.3. Greenhouse Gases

7. World Oil 7.1. Discovery and Development 7.2. Consumption and Production 7.3. Oil Reserves and OPEC

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8. World Natural Gas 8.1. Consumption and Production 8.2. Natural Gas Reserves

Petroleum (Oil and Gas) Geology and Resources 31 Ronald R. Charpentier, United States Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, USA Thomas S. Ahlbrandt, United States Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, USA 1. Introduction 2. Importance of Petroleum 3. Origin of Petroleum

3.1. Petroleum Geochemistry 3.2. Petroleum from Non-Organic Sources?

4. Formation of Petroleum Accumulations 4.1. Generation 4.2. Migration 4.3. Accumulation

5. Unconventional Petroleum Accumulations 5.1. What is Unconventional? 5.2. Low-Permeability Reservoirs 5.3. Heavy Oil and Tar Sands 5.4. Gas Hydrates

6. Worldwide Occurrence of Petroleum 6.1. Introduction How Much Oil and Gas?

6.1.1. Classification of Reserves and Resources 6.1.2. Difficulties in Measurement 6.1.3. Sources of Information 6.1.4. Appraisal Methodology

6.2. Discovered Resources 6.3. Reserve Growth 6.4. Undiscovered Resources 6.5. Unconventional Resources

7. Summary - Options for the Future Coal Geology and Resources 54 Peter D. Warwick, Geologist, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA 20192, USA 1. Introduction to the Coal Geology and the Stages of Coal Development 2. Accumulation Phase - Review of Coal-forming Environments

2.1. Depositional systems: Fluvial, Deltaic, and Other 2.2. Coal-forming Plants 2.3. Climate, Eustacy, Tectonics 2.4. Syngenetic Processes Affecting the Peat Stage

3. Burial and Preservation 3.1. Basin Subsidence Rate 3.2. Structural Deformation 3.3. Biogenic Gas Generation

4. Diagenesis – Coalification 4.1. Regional Heat Flow 4.2. Depth of Burial 4.3. Cleat and Fracture Formation 4.4. Chemical Phases of Coal Formation 4.5. Syngenetic and Epigenetic Processes Affecting the Coalification Stage 4.6. Thermal Oil and Gas Generation, Migration, and Accumulation

5. Coal characterization 5.1. Rank Classification

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5.2. Coal Quality Parameters 5.2.1. Chemical and Physical Analytical Tests 5.2.2. Trace Elements Characterization and Implications

5.3. Coal Petrology 5.3.1. Coal Type, Megascopic to Microscopic Classification 5.3.2. Origin of Macerals 5.3.3. Reflectance

5.4. Coal Bed Thickness and Lateral Extent 5.5. Coal Bed Porosity and Permeability 5.6. Coal Beds as Aquifers 5.7. Secondary Biogenic Gas Generation

6. Resources and Reserves 6.1. Coal and Coal Gas Resource Evaluation and Classification 6.2. Distribution of World Coal and Coal Gas Resources 6.3. Age of Major Coal Deposits 6.4. Carbon Dioxide Sequestration

7. How Coal is Utilized 7.1. Electricity Generation 7.2. Gasification and Liquefaction 7.3. Other Uses

8. Conclusions Coal Exploration and Mining Geology 75 Colin R. Ward, Head, School of Geology, University of New South Wales, Sydney,, Australia 1. Introduction 2. Objectives of Coal Exploration Programs 3. Background Studies for Coal Exploration

3.1. Exploration Titles 3.2. Evaluation of Existing Data

4. Surface Geological Studies 4.1. Geological Mapping 4.2. Surface Geophysics 4.3. Environmental Baseline Data

5. Drilling Programs 5.1. Drilling Techniques 5.2. Core Logging 5.3. Down-hole Geophysical Logs 5.4. Core Analysis

6. Evaluation of Coal Exploration Data 6.1. Compilation of Maps and Sections 6.2. Computer Databases and Modeling 6.3. Coal Resources and Reserves

7. Geology in Coal Mining 8. Open-cut Mining

8.1. Open-cut Mine Design 8.2. Geological investigations for open-cut mines 8.3. Open-cut Geological Techniques

9. Underground Mining 9.1. Underground Mining Methods 9.2. Geology in Underground Mining 9.3. Stress and Deformation around Mine Openings 9.4. Gas in Coal Seams 9.5. Subsidence over Mine Workings 9.6. Geological Techniques for Underground Mining

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Methods of Exploration and Production of Petroleum Resources 107 Ione L. Taylor, United States Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, USA 1. Introduction - Background of the Petroleum Industry 2. The Role of Geoscientists 3. The Exploration and Production (E&P) Process

3.1. Steps of the E&P Process 3.2. Exploration – the Prospecting phase - Approaches and Methods

3.2.1. Petroleum Systems Overview 3.2.2. Subsurface Geologic Investigations 3.2.3. Subsurface Geologic Data 3.2.4. Geophysical Investigations

3.3. Evaluating Risk Chance of Success 4. Exploratory Drilling Phase

4.1. Well Drilling 4.2. Subsurface Rock and Fluid Sampling 4.3. The Post-Well Appraisal

5. Conventional Exploration Phase 6. Field Development Phase 7. Production Phase 8. Unconventional Reservoirs Introduction: Environmental and Engineering Geology 133 Fred G. Bell, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 1. Introduction: Environmental and Engineering Geology 2. Geohazards 3. Soil and Water Resources 4. Mining and the Environment 5. Disposal of Waste 6. Land Evaluation and Site Assessment 7. Geology and Construction Environmental Geology and Planning 142 Fred G. Bell, Bylth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 1. Introduction 2. Conservation, Restoration, and Reclamation of Land 3. Geological Hazards and Planning 4. Risk Assessment 5. Hazard Maps Natural Hazards and the Environment 160 Fred G. Bell, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 1. Volcanic Activity 2. Earthquakes 3. Landslides and Slope Movements 4. River Action and Flooding 5. Marine Action 6. Wind Action and Arid Regions 7. Glacial Hazards 8. Dissolution of Rocks 9. Gases

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Soils and the Environment 224 Fred G. Bell, Alwinton, Blyth Hall, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 1. Origin of soil 2. Soil horizons 3. Soil fertility 4. Pedological soil types 5. Properties of soil 6. Engineering soil classification 7. Soil erosion 8. Erosion control and conservation practices 9. Soil surveys 10. Problem soils Water Resources and the Environment 261 Fred G. Bell, British Geological Survey, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, UK 1. The Hydrological Cycle 2. Reservoirs 3. Dam Sites 4. Groundwater 5. Wells 6. Safe Yield 7. Artificial Recharge 8. Conjunctive Use 9. Water Quality 10. Irrigation Mining and the Environment 289 Fred G. Bell, British Geological Survey, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, UK 1. Introduction 2. Subsidence 3. Surface Mining 4. Dredge Mining 5. Waste Materials from Mining 6. Acid Mine Drainage and Suspended Solids 7. Heap Leaching 8. Spontaneous Combustion 9. Gases 10. Mineral Dusts Waste and the Environment 314 Fred G. Bell, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 1. Introduction 2. Domestic Refuse and Sanitary Landfills 3. Hazardous Wastes 4. Radioactive Waste 5. Waste Disposal and Contamination Land Evaluation and Site Assessment 339 Fred G. Bell, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom

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GEOLOGY

1. Introduction 2. Remote Sensing 3. Aerial Photographs and Photogeology 4. Applied Geological Maps 5. Geographical Information Systems 6. Terrain Evaluation 7. Land Capability Studies 8. Site Investigation 9. Geophysical Exploration 10. In Situ Testing Geology and Construction 384 Fred G. Bell, Blyth, Nottinghamshire, United Kingdom 1. Introduction 2. Open Excavation 3. Tunnels and Tunneling 4. Shaft and Raises 5. Underground Caverns 6. Highways 7. Foundations for Buildings Groundwater: Planning and Protection 419 Alfonso Corniello, University "Federico II" of Naples, Italy Roberto De Riso, University "Federico II" of Naples, Italy Daniela Ducci, University "Federico II" of Naples, Italy 1. The Importance of Groundwater 2. Basic Concepts in Hydrogeology 3. Hydrogeological Studies

3.1. Groundwater Studies in Unconsolidated Sediments 3.2. Groundwater Studies in Consolidated Rocks

4. Hydrogeological Maps 5. Groundwater Exploitation

5.1. Groundwater Budget 6. Groundwater Contamination

6.1. Groundwater-Contamination Vulnerability 6.2. Groundwater-Contamination Risk

Index 449 About EOLSS 457

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