Contrastive Grammar Josef Schmied

8/2/2019 Contrastive Grammar Josef Schmied

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ContrastiveContrastive GrammarGrammarJosef SchmiedJosef Schmied

more in:more in:

nn HellingerHellinger, M. (1977)., M. (1977). KontrastiveKontrastiveGrammatik Deutsch/Grammatik Deutsch/EnglischEnglisch..TbingenTbingen: Niemeyer.: Niemeyer.

nn James, C. (1980).James, C. (1980). Contrastive analysis.Contrastive analysis. London: Longman.London: Longman.

nn Hawkins, John (1986).Hawkins, John (1986). A Comparative Typology of English andA Comparative Typology of English andGerman. Unifying the ContrastsGerman. Unifying the Contrasts. London:. London: CroomCroom Helm.Helm.

more on:more on:

http://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/english/chairshttp://www.tu-chemnitz.de/phil/english/chairs//linguist/independent/linguist/independent/kursmaterialienkursmaterialien//

congram/index.htmlcongram/index.html

IntroductionIntroduction t ot o contrastivecontrastive linguisticslinguistics

1.1.1.1. HistoricalHistorical developmentdevelopment

nn 1950s:1950s: basedbased onon structuralismstructuralism

nn ToTo makemake foreignforeign languagelanguage teachingteaching moremoreeffectiveeffective

nn BasedBased onon thethe assumptionsassumptions thatthat::nn ForeignForeign languagelanguage learninglearning isis basedbased onon thethe mothermother

tonguetongue

nn PositivePositive transfertransfer:: similaritiessimilarities facilitatefacilitate learninglearning

nn NegativeNegative transfertransfer//InterferenceInterference:: differencesdifferences causecauseproblemsproblems

nn ViaVia contrastivecontrastive analysisanalysis:: problemsproblems cancan bebe predictedpredictedandand consideredconsidered inin thethe curriculumcurriculum

nn CLCL seenseen as anas an appliedapplied branchbranch ofof linguisticslinguistics

nn ServingServing practicalpractical purposespurposes inin foreignforeign and secondand second

languagelanguage teachingteaching

nn ExpectationsExpectations werewere notnot metmet

nn InterestInterest in CLin CL declineddeclined ((especiallyespecially inin thethe US)US)

nn In Europe,In Europe, interestinterest continuedcontinued; large; large contrastivecontrastive projectsprojects

inin thethe 1970s1970s

nn sincesince 1990s1990s corpus-basedcorpus-based

nn ExpandingExpanding fieldfield;; theoreticaltheoretical andand methodologicalmethodological interestinterest

nn InternationalisationInternationalisation increasinglyincreasingly demandsdemands cross-culturalcross-cultural

competencecompetence,, translationtranslation,, foreignforeign languagelanguage teachingteaching etc.etc.

Language pedagogy

Translation theory

Language typology

Language description

Language universalsIntercultural

communication

1.2.1.2. MethodologicalMethodological stepssteps in CLin CL

nn 1.1. DescriptionDescription::

nn SelectionSelection ofof itemsitems toto bebe comparedcompared

nn CharacterisationCharacterisation ofof itemsitems inin termsterms ofof somesome languagelanguage

independentindependent theoreticaltheoretical modelmodel

nn 2.2. JuxtapositionJuxtaposition

nn SearchSearch forfor andand identificationidentification ofof cross-linguisticcross-linguisticequivalentsequivalents

nn 3.3. ComparisonComparison::

nn SpecificationSpecification ofof degreedegree andand typetype ofof correspondencecorrespondence

betweenbetween comparedcompared itemsitems

1.3. Problems1.3. Problems

nn TertiumTertiumComparationisComparationis::nn LgLg a anda and LgLg bb differdiffer inin structurestructure

nn translationtranslation equivalenceequivalence::meaningmeaning of of structurestructure a >a > structurestructure bb

nn meaningmeaning structurestructure a =a = meaningmeaning structurestructure b?b?nn Das gefllt mirDas gefllt mir

nn IIlikelikethisthis

nn CelaCelamemeplaitplait//JaimeJaimecelacela

gefallen = togefallen = tolikelike==plaireplaire==aimeraimer??

SimilarSimilar::PresentPresentPerfectPerfectvs. Perfekt vs. passvs. Perfekt vs. passcomposcompos

nn norm,norm, standardstandard ??

nn languagelanguage independentindependent modelmodel??

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nn PredictabilityPredictability

nn L1-basedL1-based errorserrors vs. non-L1-basedvs. non-L1-based errorserrors

nn ComplexityComplexityofoflanguagelanguagesystemssystems

nn Analysis ofAnalysis of subsystemssubsystems

nn DifferencesDifferencesvs.vs. similaritiessimilarities

nn ImportanceImportance ofof crosslinguisticscrosslinguistics similaritiessimilarities

nn Langue vs.Langue vs. paroleparole

nn StaticStatic viewview onon languagelanguage

nn ContextContext

nn Levels ofLevels of linguisticlinguistic descriptiondescription inin theorytheory andand

practicepractice

1.4. Levels of1.4. Levels of descriptiondescription

nn PhonologyPhonology

nn Morpho-Syntax / GrammarMorpho-Syntax / Grammar

nn LexisLexis

nn PragmaticsPragmatics

nn Text/Text/DiscourseDiscourse

nn CultureCulture

1.5.1.5. TerminologyTerminology

nn ContrastiveContrastive AnalysisAnalysis

nn Transfer: positive and negativeTransfer: positive and negative

nn InterferenceInterference

nn HypercorrectionHypercorrection

nn Error Analysis Error Analysis predictingpredicting errorserrors

2.2. TenseTense2.0.2.0. I ssuesI ssues

conglomerateconglomerate tensetense && aspectaspect && aktionsartaktionsart::

nn DifficultDifficult categoriescategories

nn TerminologicalTerminological andand conceptualconceptual confusionconfusion

nn Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. Johnvs. Johnisissingingsinging::TENSETENSE

nn Joan wasJoan wassingingsingingvs. John sang: ASPECTvs. John sang: ASPECT

2.0.1. Time2.0.1. Time conceptsconcepts andand languagelanguage

nn ConceptualisationConceptualisation of timeof time

nn Culture-specificCulture-specific

nn TimeTime arrowarrow //straightstraight timetime lineline vs.vs. cyclecycle

nn Impact onImpact on oror relevancerelevance forfor grammaticalgrammatical

categoriescategories??

nn All humanAll human languageslanguages havehave waysways ofoflocatinglocating in timein time

RepresentationRepresentation of t imeof t ime

PAST FUTUREPRESENT

Present moment

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RepresentationsRepresentations ofof situationssituations

Situations: ProcessesEvents

States

A B C D

E

G

F

H

I

Cf. Comrie 1985: 6

Location of situations in relationto some other point or segment of

line

Internal temporal contour of a

situation: point on the line vs.

stretch of the time line

2.0.2.2.0.2. ExpressionsExpressions of t imeof t ime

nn ExpressionsExpressions cancan bebe divideddivided intointo threethree classesclasses::

nn LexicallyLexically compositecomposite expressionsexpressions

nn LargestLargest setset,, potentiallypotentially infiniteinfinite

nn LastLastyearyear,, fivefiveminutesminutesafterafterJ.J. leftleft

nn LexicalLexical itemsitems

nn FiniteFinite setset

nn NowNow,, todaytoday,, yesterdayyesterday, ,

nn GrammaticalGrammatical categoriescategories: TENSES: TENSES

nn FiniteFinite setset

nn PresentPresent,, pastpast, ,

2.0.3.2.0.3. GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation vs.vs. lexicalisationlexicalisation

nn GrammaticalisationGrammaticalisation::nn IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe grammaticalgrammatical systemsystem of aof a languagelanguage

nn ObligatoryObligatory expressionexpressionnn MorphologicalMorphological boundnessboundness

nn JoanJoanrunsrunsvs. Joan ranvs. Joan ran

nn LexicalisationLexicalisation::nn IntegrationIntegration intointo thethe lexiconlexicon of aof a languagelanguage withoutwithout effecteffect onon thethe

grammaticalgrammatical structurestructure

nn Non-obligatoryNon-obligatory

nn FreeFree lexicallexical itemsitemsnn NowNow,, yesterdayyesterday

nn BorderlineBorderline casescases, , continuumcontinuum::nn Auxiliaries,Auxiliaries, preverbalpreverbal markersmarkers

nn DiachronicDiachronic developmentsdevelopments

2.1.2.1. ApproachesApproaches toto tensetense2.1.1.2.1.1. Definit ionsDefinit ions

nn TenseTense relatesrelates thethe time oftime of thethe situationsituation

referredreferred toto toto somesome otherother time,time, ususallyususally thethemomentmoment ofof speakingspeaking. (. (ComrieComrie))

nn GrammaticalisedGrammaticalised locationlocation in timein time

nn CommonestCommonest tensestenses cross-linguisticallycross-linguistically::nn

PresentPresent:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated temporallytemporally asassimultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe momentmoment ofof speakingspeaking

nn PastPast:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thethe

momentmoment ofof speakingspeaking

nn FutureFuture:: situationsituation describeddescribed isis locatedlocated subsequentsubsequent toto

thethe momentmoment ofof speakingspeaking

nn TenseTense isis almostalmost alwaysalways indicatedindicated onon thethe

verbverbnn VerbVerb morphologymorphology

nn GrammaticalGrammatical wordswords ((e.ge.g.. auxiliariesauxiliaries)) adjacentadjacent totothethe verbverb

nn TenseTense isis aa deicticdeictic systemsystem

nn DeicticDeictic centrecentre ((usuallyusually presentpresent momentmoment ofofspeakingspeaking butbut cfcf.. belowbelow forfor relativerelative tensestenses))

2.1.2. Absolute2.1.2. Absolute tensestenses vs. relativ evs. relativ e tensestenses

nn AbsoluteAbsolute tensestenses relaterelate thethe time oftime ofthethe situationsituation

describeddescribed toto thethe presentpresent momentmoment,, i.ei.e.. presentpresent

momentmoment == deicticdeictic centrecentre

nn E.gE.g.: Finite.: Finite verbverb formsforms in Englishin English

nn RelativeRelative tensestenses relaterelate thethe time of atime of a situationsituation toto thethe

time oftime ofsomesome otherother situationsituation

nn E.gE.g.:.: Non-finiteNon-finite verbverb formsforms in Englishin English

nn W henW hen walk ingwalk ing downdown thethe roadroad, ., .

nn I Ioftenoften meetmeet H arryH arry

nn I Ioftenoften metmetH arryH arry

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4/7

4

2.2.2.2. PresentPresent tensetense

nn AbsoluteAbsolute tensetensenn BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation atat thethe presentpresent momentmoment

((cfcf.. diagramdiagram))nn 100%100% simultaneitysimultaneity rarerare

nn PerformativePerformative sentencessentences::nn IIpromisepromiseyouyou

nn IInamenamethisthisshipship

nn SimultaneousSimultaneous reportsreports

nn UsuallyUsually:: PresentPresent tensetense usedused toto referrefer toto situationssituations whichwhichoccupyoccupy aa muchmuch longerlonger periodperiod of timeof time thanthan thethe presentpresentmomentmoment,, butbut whichwhich includeinclude thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn TheTheEiffel TowerEiffel Towerstandsstandsin Parisin Paris

nn TheTheauthorauthorisisworkingworkingononchapterchaptertwotwo

nn ImplicatureImplicature:: whetherwhether aa situationsituation isis partpart of a largerof a larger situationsituationextendingextending toto thethe pastpast oror futurefuture isis anan implicatureimplicature thatthat isis workedworkedout onout on thethe basisbasis ofof thethe contextcontext,, structurestructure ofof thethe sentencesentenceand/and/oror onesones knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe worldworld

nn ManyMany languageslanguages useuse thethe presentpresent tensetense toto referrefer toto

habitualhabitual situationssituationsnn JoanJoangoesgoestotoworkworkatateighteightoclockoclock((everyeverydayday))

nn Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.Johanna steht (jeden Tag) um sieben Uhr auf.

nn ContradictionContradiction toto definitiondefinition ofof basicbasic meaningmeaning??

nn ReferenceReference to ato a habithabit andand notnot to ato a sequencesequence ofof situationssituations

nn TheThe habithabit doesdoes hold athold at thethe presentpresent momentmoment

nn Habituality alsoHabituality also aspectualaspectual ((seesee belowbelow))

nn PresentPresent tensetense = universal= universal tensetense??

nn CowsCowseateatgrassgrass

nn Interpretation of universalInterpretation of universal truthtruth onon thethe basisbasis ofof factorsfactorsbeyondbeyond thethe basicbasic meaningmeaning ofof presentpresent tensetense =>=>

implicatureimplicature

2.3.2.3. PastPast tensetense

nn AbsoluteAbsolute tensetensenn BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation in timein time priorprior

toto thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn SituationSituation maymay occupyoccupy

nn aa singlesingle pointpointnn AtAtsevensevenoclockoclockyesterdayyesterdayJ.J. promisedpromisedtotogivegivememetentenpoundspounds

nn anan extendedextended timetime periodperiod priorprior toto thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn J.J. livedlivedin Manchesterin Manchesterfromfrom1962 to 19821962 to 1982

nn oror thethe wholewhole periodperiod up toup to thethe presentpresent momentmoment

nn Up toUp tothisthismomentmomentthisthisdiseasediseasewaswasincurableincurable

nn BasicBasic meaningmeaning doesdoes notnot includeinclude anyany referencereference totowhetherwhether thethe situationsituation continuescontinues toto thethe presentpresent ororeveneven intointo thethe futurefuture!!

nn ConversationalConversational implicatureimplicature thatthat pastpast tensetense doesdoesnotnot continuecontinue toto oror beyondbeyond thethe presentpresent

2.4. Fut ure2.4. Fut ure tensetensenn AbsoluteAbsolute tensetensenn BasicBasic meaningmeaning:: locationlocation of aof a situationsituation at a timeat a time

subsequentsubsequent toto thethe presentpresent momentmomentnn TenseTense oror moodmood??

nn MoodMood: a: a grammaticalgrammatical categorycategory whichwhich expressesexpresses thethe degreedegree oror kindkindofof realityreality asas perceivedperceived byby thethe speakerspeaker

nn SpeculativeSpeculativenn PredictionPredictionnn RealisRealis vs.vs. irrealisirrealis

nn ManyMany languageslanguages havehave aa clearclear grammaticalgrammaticaldistinctiondistinction betweenbetween pastpast andand non-pastnon-past ((i.ei.e.. presentpresentandand futurefuture timetime referencereference))

nn DistinctionDistinction betweenbetween futurefuture andand non-futurenon-future isis lesslessdistinctdistinct; in; in particularparticular betweenbetween futurefuture andand presentpresent

nn InIn manymany languageslanguages,, presentpresent tensetense thethe normalnormal verbverb

formform usedused toto indicateindicate futurefuture (German,(German, FinnishFinnish):):nn German:German:

nn ich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehenich gehe morgen vs. ich werde morgen gehen

nn AlsoAlso possiblepossible in Englishin English forfor scheduledscheduled situationssituations::

nn TheThetraintrainleavesleavestomorrowtomorrow

nn **ItItrainsrainstomorrowtomorrow

nn BinaryBinary tensetense systemssystems

nn Future vs.Future vs. non-futurenon-future

nn PastPast vs.vs. non-pastnon-past

nn PresentPresent tensetense cancan alwaysalways bebe usedused withwith futurefuture timetime referencereference

((FinnishFinnish, German), German)

nn SevereSevere constraintsconstraints onon thethe useuse ofof presentpresent tensetense toto referrefer to timeto time

(English(English))

2.5.2.5. Absolute-relativeAbsolute-relative tensetense

nn SomeSome verbverb formsforms cancan combinecombine absolute timeabsolute timelocationlocation of aof a referencereference pointpoint withwith relative timerelative timelocationlocation of aof a situationsituation

nn AsAs withwith pure relativepure relative tensetense,, thethe referencereference pointpoint isisgivengiven byby thethe contextcontext

nn ExampleExample:: EnglishEnglishPluperfectPluperfect

nn MeaningMeaning:: therethere isis aa referencereference point inpoint in thethe pastpast((beforebefore thethe presentpresent momentmoment) and) and thethe situationsituationreferredreferred toto isis locatedlocated priorprior toto thatthat referencereference point;point;establishmentestablishment ofof thethe referencereference pointpoint isis donedone byby thethecontextcontext

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5/7

5

John had already left when Mary emerged from t he cupboard

Reference pointSituation located prior to:

nn Interpretation as Interpretation as remoteremote pastpast isis anan

implicatureimplicaturenn TemporalTemporal locationlocation doesdoes notnot havehave toto bebe remoteremote

nn ThisThisparticleparticlehadhadbeenbeencreatedcreated22secondssecondsbeforebeforethisthisotherotherparticleparticlewaswascreatedcreated1 second1 secondagoago..

nn InterveningIntervening referencereference pointpoint isis alwaysalways necessarynecessary

nn **TheyTheyhadhadbuiltbuiltthetheGreat Wall of China.Great Wall of China.

nn SimilarSimilar:: FutureFutureperfectperfect

nn ReferenceReference pointpoint isis inin thethe futurefuture ((anterioranterior toto

presentpresent momentmoment))

Iwill have finished this term paper by the end of this week.

Reference pointSituation located prior to :

2.6.2.6. PerfectPerfect

nn FormalFormal similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween perfectperfect andand absolute-absolute-relativerelative tensestenses

nn LocationLocation in timein time priorprior to ato a referencereference pointpoint whichwhich ininthisthis casecase isis simultaneoussimultaneous withwith thethe presentpresent momentmoment

nn ThusThus:: locateslocates aa situationsituation priorprior toto thethe presentpresentmomentmoment == pastpast tensetense

nn PerfectPerfect differsdiffers fromfrom pastpast butbut notnot withwith regardregard toto

timetime locationlocationnn PerfectPerfect in Englishin English cannotcannot collocatecollocate withwith timetime

adverbialsadverbials whichwhich referrefer to ato a specificspecific pointpoint oror periodperiodinin thethe pastpast ((pastpast and and pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefutureperfectperfect))

nn ParticularityParticularity ofof thethe EnglishEnglish languagelanguage indicatesindicates thatthat

perfectperfect constitutesconstitutes aa categorycategory apartapart fromfrom pastpast andandfromfrom absolute-relativeabsolute-relative tensestenses

nn Also:Also: cross-linguisticallycross-linguistically somesome languageslanguages maymayhavehave aa distinctdistinct perfectperfect categorycategory whilewhile lackinglacking aa

pluperfectpluperfect oror futurefuture perfectperfect

nn DiachronicDiachronic changeschanges affectingaffecting thethe perfectperfect maymay havehave

nono repercussionsrepercussions onon thethe pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefuture

perfectperfect

nn German and French:German and French: perfectperfect takestakes overover functionsfunctionsoriginallyoriginally coveredcovered byby pastpast tensetense butbut pluperfectpluperfect andand futurefuture

perfectperfect remainremain

nn FrequentFrequent implicatureimplicature:: moremore recentrecent timetime referencereference

3.3. AspectAspect

3.1.3.1. ApproachesApproachesnn AspectsAspects areare differentdifferent waysways ofof viewingviewing thethe

internalinternal temporaltemporal constituencyconstituency of aof asituationsituation. (. (ComrieComrie 1976:3)1976:3)

nn CharacterisationCharacterisation ofof thethe internalinternal structurestructure ofofanan eventevent

nn Sue wasSue wasreadingreadingwhenwhenIIenteredentered..

nn SuzanneSuzannelisaitlisaitquantquantjentraijentrai..

nn Background vs.Background vs. eventevent

nn NoNo referencereference toto thethe beginningbeginning oror thethe end vs.end vs.presentationpresentation ofof totalitytotality ofof thethe situationsituation

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