1

Contribution to the design of road pavements in Cape Verde

Sandra Fonseca

Abstract: Over the past five years, Cape Verde has spent about 147 million dollars a year, almost 8

percent of gross domestic product (GDP) on infrastructures, one of the highest levels of investment in this

sector found in the African continent. Expenses are mainly directed to capital expenditures with the

resources dedicated to the support of the transports activity being especially high.

This thesis aims to evaluate new paving technologies to be implemented in Cape Verde, analyzing first of

all, the solutions implemented to date, studying aspects such as traffic and its temporal prediction and the

materials currently used in its design, comparing in terms of direct current cost these solutions and the

new solutions deemed adequate to be used in the country.. Some of Cape Verde road projects were

analysed, aiming to assess the current state of the country, addressing the paving technology employed, in

particular the flexible structure pavements with asphalt concrete wearing course and basalt stone

pavements (paving solution most used in Cape Verde). In the second part of this thesis it is analysed,

based on traffic studies, foundation analysis and on the catalogue of SATTC, possible flexible pavements

structures to implement in Cape Verde. The AUSTROADS and Shell methods are used to validate the

pavement structures. Finally it is made a comparison in terms of construction costs between the most used

pavement solution that is the traditional flexible pavement and new pavement solutions proposed in this

dissertation, namely pavements with soil stabilized with cement.

Keywords: Pavements, Paving Technologies, Granular materials, Materials stabilized with cement,

Performance

1. Introduction

Since the second half of the twentieth century

there has been a growing evolution in the study of

the peculiarities of tropical soils as road

construction materials. Due to its extension

worldwide, it is important to assess the existing

soil as road paving material, which can provide

significant economic and technical advantages

when compared to other materials traditionally

used in pavements.

Thus, it is important to evaluate the possibility

of using local materials in the construction of road

pavements in order to contribute to more effective

solutions that respond to particular aspects as the

climate, the traffic intensity, the available

resources and the needs of each country.

It is in this context that the need to implement

other materials in roads infrastructures such as

asphalt, soil stabilizers, namely cement, instead of

other materials commonly used in Cape Verde,

such as the basalt pavement .

This thesis is a contribution to increasing the

knowledge about technologies for road paving in

Cape Verde, aiming to present to the country

solutions and alternative ways to solve problems

and evaluating if these alternatives are sustainable

in terms of cost and of existing technologies in the

country.

2. Characterization and pavement

construction technologies used in

Cape Verde

2.1 Initial consideration Cape Verde, as a small developing archipelago,

suffers from a natural vulnerability due to its small

size, geographic dispersion and isolation. This is a

disadvantage of the islands regarding the spatial

planning and development.. The natural beauty of

the islands as well as the hot and dry climate led

this nation to invest in the tourism sector as a base

for the development of the country. Thus, tourism

contributes to the overall socio-economic

development and enhances the creation of

numerous infrastructures, including the road

network. However, in the current context of global

economic crisis, the economic dependence on

foreign countries, aggravated by limited natural

resources, put the economy in a fragile position,

compromising the progress and, consequently, the

development potential that the country has

demonstrated in recent years.

2

The improvement of accessibility and mobility

has been key factors in the development of the

country. This has been possible with the increasing

development of construction technologies and

constant research of materials, methods and studies

of how to optimize the road pavements taking into

account the particularities of the country, the as

the road traffic, the weather and the availability of

materials.

In the figure 2.1 is possible to see the extension of

existing national roads in each of Cape Verde

islands.

Figure 2. 1: National road extension

As it is possible to see in the chart the bigger

islands (Santiago, Santo Antao and Fogo) have

greater extensions of roads, which was already

expected.

For representing the bigger islands, they require

greater lengths of roads to meet their needs and

reach all the villages, towns and populations.

Furthermore there is a large discrepancy in the use

of funding between the various islands. Santiago,

being the island where the country's capital, has

benefited more than the other islands, and

therefore one whose development is greater,

especially in terms of transport infrastructure.

In the figure 2.2 it is presented the road extension

by type of pavement.

Figure 2. 2: Extension of National roads by type

2.2 Flexible pavements and materials

used in its design

The flexible pavements have been, in recent years,

the main option as paving solution of most of the

roads of the national road network in Cape Verde.

The introduction of the asphalt concrete in Cape

Verde began on Sal Island in the nineteenth

century. The road that extends from the only

international airport at the time, Amilcar Cabral

Airport and the main village, village of Asparagus

consisted simply on 1 carriageway with 2, one in

each direction. This was important for the

economic development of the country.

Only many years later, it was possible to observe

the growth on the development of roads in Cape

Verde based on asphalt concrete.

2.2.1. Structure of a flexible pavement

In the figure 2.3 below, it is possible to see the

typical structure of a flexible pavement and its

composition.

0

100 000

200 000

300 000

400 000

San

to A

ntã

o

São

Vic

en

te

São

Nic

ola

u

Sal

Bo

a V

ista

Mai

o

San

tiag

o

Fogo

Bra

va

National road extension(m):

Extensão Estradas…

375.977;

36%

595.316;

57%

7.409; 1%

67.737; 6%

Extension of National roads by type:

Extensão BB (m)

Extensão Pedra(m)Extensão Betão -LAS (m)Extensão TerraBatida (m)

3

Figure 2. 3: Schematic section of a flexible pavement

(Antunes et al, 2006)

Two recent road projects with greather impact in

terms of economic growth were analyzed to

examine the technologies and materials used in the

pavements(flexible pavements), namely:

• Rehabilitation of the road between Lém Ferreira

and the port of Praia - Santiago Island

• Design of the road between the city of Praiaand

Cidade Velha.

2.2.1.1 Design and rehabilitation of the road

between Lém Ferreira and Port of Praia-

Santiago Island

Figure 2.4: Extension of the road between Lém Ferreira

and Port of Praia

This road existed already, and it was a basalt

stone pavement.

On this rehabilitation, two solutions were used.

On the first solution, the existing pavement was

totally removed and replaced with a new flexible

pavement. On the second solution the existing

pavement was reused as a base for new asphalt

concrete wearing course..

For the first solution, the existing ground was

excavated, regraded and compacted. For the sub-

base and base layers a 20 cm layer crushed

aggregate (coarse aggregate) were used. On top of

the base layer a prime layer was used to provide

adherence to the wearing course. For wearing

course a 5 cm thick asphalt concrete was used.

Figure 2. 5: Cross section of the new solution adopted

The second solution, shown in Figure 2.6 below,

differs from the previous because the existing was

not removed. It was reused as base for the wearing

course. This solution does not consider the sub-

base and base layers..

Figure 2. 6: Cross section of the second situation of

rehabilitation of the road section Lem Ferreira- Port of

Praia

2.2.2. Design of the link road of between the

city of Praia City link and Cidade Velha

This is a road project with 10 km of extension,

starting at Km 0 + 000 (at São Martinho junction)

and ending at Km 10 + 300 right at

Caniço (Cidade Velha). The road works started in

March 2012 and and the road open to traffic in

July 2013.

Figure 2. 7: Profile Cross Type – Cidade Velha road

section

After the completion of the ground investigation

the design software Ecoroute was used to

determine the pavement structure. The following

structure was adopted:

- Base layer of asphalt concrete 0/10 (6 cm)

- Base layer of crushed gravel 0/20 (20 cm)

- Layer Foundation in gravel crushed 0 / 31.5

(22 cm)

4

2.3 Basalt stone pavement and the

materials used in its design

2.3.1. Structure of a stone pavement For the structure, the pavement can be rigid or

flexible, depending on the foundation layer (Figure

2.8).

Basalt stone pavement are very common in Cape

Verde. One of the road projects were this type of

pavement structure was used was the

Rehabilitation of National Highway - EN3-SN02

RIBEIRA BRAVA / Juncalinho – São Nicolau

Island

2.3.1.1. Rehabilitation of National Highway-

EN3-SN02 Ribeira Brava/Juncalinho

The heavy rains that occurred on October and

November 2009, caused considerable damages to

the road network on São Nicolau island. One of the

roads affected and that was rehabilitated was the

road that connects Ribeira Brava to Juncalinho. In

Figure 2.9 it is possible to see the road that was

submited of rehabilitation works:

Figure 2. 9: Map of the Island of São Nicolau and its

intervention villages (Instituto de Estradas de Cabo

Verde, 2010)

The pavement solution consist of:

• Base layer with 0.20m thickness of crusher run;

• gravel layer with a thickness of 0.10 m;

• Basalt stone pavement.

The typical cross-section of the track, shown in

Figure 2.10, consists of a carriageway with two

lanes of 3.00m, a side drain of 0.50m and a road

shoulder of 0.5m on both lanes, for a total width of

8,00m.

Figure 2. 10: Profile cross-sectional – São Nicolau

Island (Cape Verde Roads Institute, 2015)

3. Analysis of proposed paving

technologies and their feasibility

in Cape Verde

New alternatives were compared to the methods

commonly used to asses if they can be used in

Cape Verde for the design of road pavements. For

this propose, the SATCC manual (Southern Africa

Transport and Communications Commission,

SATCC, 1988- Code of Practice for the Design of

Road Pavements) was used.

3.2. SATCC The manual SATCC - Draft Code of Practice for

the design of Road Pavements (1998) includes a

catalogue of pavement structures with alternative

pavement solutions. The pavement structures are

designed depending on the traffic, the class of

foundationand climatic conditions. The SATCC

design catalogue is used for roads with less traffic

than 30 million ESA (standard axles equivalent) of

80 kN.

3.3. Structural design methodology The design process in this manual is divided in

five stages:

Estimated cumulative traffic expected

during the design working life of the

pavement.

The pavement design process requires the

estimation of the average daily number of ESAs

on one lane at the opening of the new road to

traffic, which is then projected and cumulated

over the design period to give the design traffic

loading.The pavement structures suggested in this

guide are classified in various traffic categories by

cumulative ESAs expected. It is assumed that

traffic growth will be in a range between 1% and

3% per year. Considering for a pessimistic forecast

a growth rate of 1% per year with small growth of

traffic, and a design working life of 15 years, the

T1 class is adopted, with 0.12 million standard

axles for prediction of traffic (light vehicles). For a

more realistic and optimistic forecast, with growth

rate of 3% per year and a high traffic growth, also

Figure 2. 8: pavement old structure with

basaltic stone

Ribeira Brava

Juncalinho

5

with design working life of 15 years it is adopted

the T5 class with 3.1 million standard axles.

Definition of the foundation strength

(soil) on which the pavement will be built

This section focuses on the classification of the

sections in terms of the California Bearing Ratio

(CBR) to represent realistic conditions for design.

In practice this means determining the CBR

strength for the wettest moisture condition likely to

occur during the design life, at the density

expected to be achieved in the field

The results of geotechnical investigations for the

road in Cidade Velha show the predominance of

CBR between 5 and 7%, represented by class S3.

Definition of climate conditions

The SATCC manual distinguishes specific

pavement structures for wet and dry regions, which

are defined according to the average annual

precipitation-Cape Verde was considered to be

included in a dry region (average annual

temperature of 25ºC and average annual

precipitation of 230mm/year).

Pavement design life selection

The design life is the period during which the road

is expected to carry traffic at a satisfactory level of

service, without requiring major rehabilitation or

repair work. It is implicit, however, that certain

maintenance work will be carried out throughout

this period in order to meet the expected design

life.

Selection of possible pavement structures

that will be addressed in the next

subchapter

3.3.1. Characterization of the models for

Bisar 3.0 software use

The Bisar software loading models adopt only

allows a uniform contact pressure, applied to a

circular area with uniform time distribution, that is,

does not account for the dynamic character of the

load. In Figure 40 one can observe an outline of

treating floor structure with reference to the

quantities which have to be made for calculating

the stress-strain state: h layer thickness in m; [and

so on].

The main stresses usually analysed in the design of

a flexible pavement are:

• Horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of asphalt

layers - Fatigue criterion of bituminous mixtures

• Vertical compressive strain on top of the

foundation layer - criterion of permanent

deformation.

• If applicable, in case of materials stabilized with

cement, horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of

the layers with these materials - Fatigue criterion

for mixtures stabilized with cement.

Figure 3. 1: Pavement structure treatment Scheme

(FUNDEC-IST, 2014)

The study of the fatigue behaviour, relates the

maximum tensile strain induced in the number of

load applications leading to ruin the material by

this failure criterion.

Fatigue law proposed by the method of

AUSTROADS is applied to layers bonded with

cement. This model can be expressed by equation

3.1 as follows:

𝑁 = 𝑟(𝑘

𝜇ɛ)12 [3.1]

in which:

N is the number of repetitions of allowable load;

K, reliability anáçise fatigue;

μɛ, tensile strain in the base layer;

The law of fatigue proposed by Shell, is one of the

most known and used. The design working life of a

bituminous layer to fatigue is function of the strain

level, of the bitumen content and of the elastic

modulus. This model can be expressed by equation

3.2 as follows:

ɛ𝑧 = (0,856 × 𝑉𝑏 + 1,08 × 𝐸−0,36 × 𝑁−0,2 [3.2]

In which,

N is the number of standard axle loads until the

occurrence of failure by fatigue;

Vb, bitumen content by percentage voulme;

ɛz, horizonta/radial microstrain;

E- Elastic modulus of bituminous mixture [Pa].

The criterion for failure by permanent deformation

(Shell Method) is expressed by the relationship

between the vertical compressive strain, measured

on top of the foundation layer, with the number of

6

standard axles (N) according to the following

expression 3.3:

ɛ𝑧 = 𝐾𝑠 × 𝑁80−0,25

[3.3]

at where,

ɛ(z) is the vertical compressive strain on top of the

foundation soil;

N80, the number of standard axles;

Ks, the parameter that depends on the probability

of survival, and its value is given by:

Ks= 1,8 × 10−2

3.3.2. Materials characterization at

structural evaluation of pavements

For the characterization and study of the solution

to be implemented by the software Bisar 3.0, it is

necessary to define the materials that will be part

of the surface.

It was admitted for the city of Praia, capital of the

country, an optimistic forecast, considering the

growth rate of 3% per year for the traffic. It is

presented in Table 3.1 below the other values used

to start the design of the new pavement structure:

Table 3. 1: Foundation soil characteristics and

foundation class for optimistic solution

For the foundation soil it is used an empirical

formula for estimating the elastic modulus given

by equation 3.4:

𝐸 = 17,6 × 𝐶𝐵𝑅0,64 [3.4]

Where CBR is the California bearing ratio (percent

value)

For layers of granular soils recourse to the forward

formulas given by equation for deformability

module:

𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝐾 × 𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗

𝐾 = 0,2 × ℎ0,45

For the layers stabilized with cement it is used the

recommendation of AUSTROADS [Design and

Consevação of Pavements, Picados Luis Santos]

for the elastic modulus for bases and sub-bases

treated with cement. It was assumed for the base

layers and sub-base 3% - 4% binder material

(cement) so that it can be seen from Table 11.3

that the value of the deformability modulus is 2000

MPa adopted.

. For the wearing course layer, considering the use

of bituminous mixtures, it is determined by the

Shell method the value of the elastic modulus.

Below, the expression used:

𝐸 = 1𝑂𝐴

Considering for the case study, the deformability

modulus of 2413 MPa for the entire thickness of

bituminous mix because it is believed to be

necessary to use a kind of AC20 (for basic) and

thus simplifies the calculation (instead of

considering the analysis two layers, base longer, it

is considered one).

3.3.3. Solutions for structure of Pavement

evaluated

3.3.3.1. Case 1 (Flexible Structure/semi-rigid)

This case corresponds to the solution proposed by

SATCC catalogue shown in Figure 3.2. It is used

stabilized soil cement (SC) in the base and sub-

base with a double surface treatment (SD double

seal) as wearing surface and all over a selected

layer of soil (SS), as shown in Figure 3.2, where it

is also indicated the elastic modulus and thickness

for each layer.

E (Mpa)

SD Surface Drassing

20 SC stabilized soil

withcement 2000

20 SC stabilized soil

withcement 2000

12,5 SS Selected layer 99

ᴏᴏ Fundation

55

Figure 3. 2: 1st attempt to case 1

Class of

Foundation soil S3

CBR=6%

ν=0,35

E= 55 Mpa

Traffic class

(SATCC, 2011) T5

eixo de 80KN (15

anos)

N80: 3,06x106

7

3.3.3.2. Case 2 (Flexible Structure/semi-rigid reverse)

This case corresponds to the solution proposed by

SATCC catalogue shown in Figure 3.3. It is used

crusher runin the base layer and stabilized soil

cement (SC) in the sub-base with a double surface

treatment (SD) as wearing surface and all over a

selected layer of soil (SS), as shown in Figure 3.3.

3.3.3.3. 3 (Flexible Structure)

The third and last structural solution is considered

the most common and usual with regard to flexible

pavements. The proposal made by SATCC

catalogue consists of a pavement with an asphalt

concrete wearing course and two granular layers

(crusher run) as subbase and base layers, as can be

seen in Figure 3.4. In order to obtain an optimized

solution, like on the previous solutions, several

attempts have been tested / iterations through the

Encore program, changing some variants to the

method of Shell.

For the three cases several iteration were

performed on the software, changing thicknesses

of the layers, mechanical characteristics of the

materials or removing some layers in order to find

an optimal solution for each case.

3.3.4. Conclusion on structural solutions

The solution 1 for the first attempt with 95%

confidence, the pavement structure was over-

designed as the values for damage due to fatigue

reached only 4% and 3% damage due to

permanent deformation.

For the 2nd, 3rd and 4th iterations it was observed

that that the proposed solutions exceed the

acceptable limits. Thus, it was possible to

conclude that the proposed structures do not

support the considered loads for the time

spanconsidered, not being therefore viable

structures.

On the fifth and last iteration the elastic modulus

of layers of soil cement was increased to 2500

MPa, as it is assumed a material of less quality,

thereby increasing the proportion of cement in the

soil (up to 4.5%) and consequently increasing the

elastic modulus.

Note that the increase in cement soil characteristics

of the 2nd attempt led to a solution that, a priori, it

would be good practice due to poor fatigue

behavior of the cross layer to be an acceptable

solution, with a rate of 100% fatigue damage to the

useful life of the road. Although this solution is not

an optimum solution, since this range of values is

not between 60 to 80% damage, or reaches the end

of life of the floor with a damage 60 to 80% of the

structure, this constitutes a good approximation of

what is intended to analyze, considering so this as

the best solution found. Proceeds to the analysis of

the case 2, consisting of soil-cement layer,

granular layer ABGE, selected soil and surface

coating.

For the case 2 it was possible to observe that for

the first attempt, and for a reliability of 95%, these

values are much greater than the desired

percentage, which leads us to conclude that

solution is infeasible, giving damages about

2000%, or is the structure does not support the

loads to which it is subject.

The second attempt is the solution best adapted to

the characteristics required by this solution. With

damage to the fatigue of 67% and damage to

permanent deformation of 23%, this presents, not a

great solution, but considered rather interesting

technological point of view.

The third attempt is to add another layer SC at the

second attempt. This has lower damage as would

be espectável.

Given the presence of soil stabilized with cement,

similar to the first structural solution, the fourth

attempt is to alter the proportion of cement in

relation to its incorporation third attempt, causing

the deformability modulus increases to 2500MPa.

SD Surface dressing

15 ABGE ABGE

500

25 SC stabilized soil

withcement 2000

15 SS Selected layer 105

ᴏᴏ Fundation

55

Figure 3. 3: 1st attempt to case 2

Figure 3. 4

5 BB Hot mix asphalt 2413

20 ABGE ABGE

311

30 ABGE ABGE

143

ᴏᴏ Foundation

55

Figure 3. 4: 1st attempt to case 3

8

Although the damage associated with this new

attempt have decreased considerably to about

300% to fatigue, this solution is not feasible.

The third and final case, it is possible to observe

that the sixth attempt is the only solution that

respects the ruin of criteria to fatigue and

permanent deformation, with 74% and 37%

respectively, while the remaining go beyond the

acceptable values. Recall that this structure is the

most common in Cape Verde, not necessarily the

cheapest nor the most efficient. Although ruin

criteria are closer to the range of values that you

want, consider a bituminous concrete layer 13cm

thick is not the most common in Cape Verde. In

general, wear layers 5 to 8 cm are most frequently

used, but it is also observed that, although not

verify the destruction of the flooring, pavements

reaching the end of its useful life without the need

for intervention because its inability to withstand

the loads they are subjected to the effect of rain

and not least the high temperatures to which they

are subject.

3.4. Cost analysis of paving proposals

A cost analysis was performed for all the proposed

solutions. The analysis was based on established

costs for the Portuguese realityw which is a fairly

good approximation to the Cape Verdean reality,

although for Cape Verde it should be considered

additional costs for the import of the materials,

especially the bitumen.

The following prices, shown in Table 3.3, were

considered for the analysis :

Table 3.3: materials price list for paving employed in

Portugal

Materials Measuring

unit Cost

Selected soil €/m²/15cm 1,80€/m²/15cm

Granular layer

(ABGE) €/m²/20cm

4,00€/m²/20cm

Granular (ABGE)

layes stabilized

with cement

€/m²/20cm

4,80€/m²/20cm

Surface dressing €/m² 2,5€/m²

BB (hot mix

asphalt) €/m²/cm

1€/m²/cm de

espessura

For the 1st solution proposed, composed by 15m

layer of selected soil, a 30cm layer of soil cement,

divided in two layers of 15cm and by a wearing

course with double surface tretment, the associated

costs are 14,0 €/m², equivalent to 1540 ECV (Cape

Verdean currency)

For Case 2, this is constituted, by double surface

coating, granular layers, soil-cement layers and

selected soil. the second proposed solution has a

total cost per square meter of 14.8 €, equivalent to

1628ECV.. As can be seen, there was an increase

in the cost of the solution from the previous

solution.

In case 3, it can be observed that the cost

associated with this structural solution is 19 € / m²,

corresponding to 2090 ECV.

By comparing with previous proposals it can be

verified a considerable increase on the costs

associated with this solution, which was expected,

considering the thickness of the asphalt concrete

layer of this solution. It is possible to concludethat

the granular layers are less expensive when

compared to asphalt concrete layer.

4. Conclusions

Figures 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7 below indicates the

percentage of material used in terms of costs

associated to the proposed solution. It can be seen ,

for the case 1, that 33% of the total value of this

proposal is due to the surface dressing and 47%

due to layers bonded with cement.

For the case 2 and observing the figure 3.6 it can

conclude that in terms of costs, layers stabilized

with cement and the surface dressing layer have

the highest percentage of the total cost of the

solution.

Finally, it is also possible to observe by the figure

3.7 that for the case 3, 68% of the cost of this

solution is due to the hot mix asphalt layer.

The results and comparative analysis of pavement

structures considered, showed that the stabilized

soil solutions have the potential to replace the

9

more traditional pavement, "BB" type, providing

better results when we compare of cost, simplicity

of execution and ability to withstand the loads

imposed .

Figure 3. 5: Percentage cost associated for case 1

Figure 3. 6: Percentage cost associated for case 2

Figure 3. 7: Percentage cost associated for case 3

The results and comparative analysis of pavement

structures considered, showed that the stabilized

soil solutions have the potential to replace the

traditional pavement, "BB" type. It was observed

that, besides having solid structural behavior, the

soil solutions stabilized with cement to wear layer

surface implies lower costs, under specified

conditions, to fix the bracket identified as critical

traffic.

At figure 3.8 it is possible to observe de total costs

of each case studying .

Figure 3. 8: Total costs per square meter of each case

Therefor, it is necessary to reinforce the fact that

the technology for the production of stabilized soil

depend largely on the type of soil available. So, is

required a more consistent validation in particular

on the behavior of these with actually available

materials and also with regard to the development

of pathologies that may not be compatible with the

service required by certain routes.

33%

23% 24%

20%

Percentage cost associated with each paving layer- Solution 1

revestimento superficial duplo

Camada Granular (ABGE) aglutinada comcimento

Camada Granular (ABGE) aglutinada comcimento

Camada de solo seleccionado

34%

20%

34%

12%

Percentage cost associated with each paving layer- Solution 1

revestimento superficial duplo

Camada Granular (ABGE)

Camada Granular (ABGE) aglutinadacom cimento

Camada de solo seleccionado

68%

32%

Percentage cost associated with each paving layer- Solution 3

betão betuminoso

Camada Granular (ABGE)

Caso 1 Caso 2 Caso 3

1540 1628 2090

Paving costs of each structural solution (Cape Verdeans Shields)

Custos de pavimentação (EscudosCaboverdianos)

10

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