Conventional Accounting

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    Conventional Accounting

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    Measurement of the Elements

    of Financial Statements Measurement involves assigning

    monetary amounts at which the elements

    of the financial statements are to be

    recognized and reported.

    !istorical cost

    Current cost

    "et realizable #settlement$ value

    %resent value #discounted$

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    C&"'E"()"A* ACC&+"()",

    -asic concepts

    efense of historical cost

    !ow ob/ective is historical cost0 Criticisms of conventional accounting

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    -asic concepts

    &b/ective of accounting

    )ncome

    Costs attach Flow of costs

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    &b/ective of accounting

    engan sema1in besarnya perusahaan #adanyapemisahan pemili1 dan mana/er$2 informasia1untansi sema1in signifi1an.

    (eori a1untansi2 1arenanya2 harus men/elas1an1onsep revenue dan e3pense dalam 1aitannyadengan perubahan a1tiva perusahaan2 bu1ansebagai pening1atan atau penurunan dalam

    e1uitas 4proprietors5 atau 6stoc1holders5. #%aton7 *ittleton$.

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    )ncome

    8eberadaan a1untansi terutama sebagaialat menghitung residuum2 balance2perbedaan antara costs #sebagai usaha$

    dan revenues #sebagai hasil$ untu1 badanusaha individual. %erbedaan inimencermin1an efe1tifitas mana/erial dansignifi1an bagi pemberi modal. #%aton dan*ittleton$.

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    Costs attach

    ua /enis costs9

    isplacement cost menun/u11an apa yang

    telah dibuang atau di1orban1an2 dan sama

    dengan opportunity cost.

    Embodied cost atau absorption cost

    berhubungan dengan fa1tor:fa1tor produ1si.

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    Flow of costs

    A1untan harus memutus1an cost mana

    yang telah 6e3pired;2 dan 1arenanya

    ditanding1an terhadap revenues pada

    laporan rugi laba2 dan cost mana yang

    6une3pired;2 dan harus ditempat1an pada

    neraca sebagai a1tiva.

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    efense of historical cost

    !istorical cost relevan dalam pengambilan 1eputusan

    e1onomi. !istorical cost didasar1an pada transa1si sebenarnya. Sepan/ang se/arah2 laporan 1euangan berdasar1an

    historical cost ditemu1an bermanfaat. 8onsep laba yang terbai1 adalah 1elebihan harga /ual di

    atas historical cost. !istorical cost /arang men/adi subye1 manipulasi Current cost dan e3it price accounting menyebab1an

    pandangan /ang1a pende1 laba.

    %erubahan dalam nilai pasar dapat diung1ap1an sebagaidata peleng1ap. -u1ti yang tida1 memadai untu1 men/ustifi1asi penola1an

    historical cost accounting.

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    Evidence on usefulness of accounting data

    First direction

    Mana/er menemu1an laporan 1euangan ,AA% bermanfaat dalampengambilan 1eputusan

    *aporan 1euangan tida1 overcomplicated

    (erdapat perbedaan signifi1an pengung1apan 1euangan di antaraperusahaan:perusahaan.

    Second direction )nvestor dan analis menganggap fa1tor laporan non 1euangan

    lebih penting dalam pengambilan 1eputusan investasi.

    (ida1 /elas bahwa penggunaan laporan 1euangan menyebab1anpermalan atau 1eputusan yang lebig bai1.

    (hird direction itemu1an 1orelasi signifi1an antara perubahan laba dengan

    perubahan harga.

    *aba a1untansi menyampai1an informasi tentang nilai se1uritas.

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    Evidence on predictive value

    *aba masa lalu diguna1an untu1

    mempredi1si laba masa depan.

    ata 1uartalan diguna1an untu1

    mempredi1si annual income.

    ata segmen diguna1an untu1

    mempredi1si entity income.

    Mempredi1si distress 1euangan.

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    !ow ob/ective is historical cost0

    !arga perolehan lebih menun/u11an realitasdaripada harga pasar.

    (ransa1si antar related party.

    %otongan 1as.

    -iaya tida1 langsung

    Capital e3penditures

    %embangunan a1tiva /ang1a pan/ang

    %enghitungan depresiasi Metode persediaan

    *aporan 1euangan 1onsolidasi

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    Criticisms of conventional accounting

    (u/uan a1untansi Menyedia1an informasi yang bermanfaat untu1 pengambilan1eputusan e1onomi.

    )nformasi untu1 pengambilan 1eputusan !istorical cost bermanfaat2 namun tida1 memadai untu1 evaluasi

    1eputusan bisnis. !istorical cost menyata1an lebih tinggi income pada saat harga

    mening1at.

    asar historical cost9 asumsi going:concern

    Matching 8onse1uensi matching principle men/adi1an neraca dalam posisi

    se1under.

    8ebutuhan investor

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    !istorical cost

    +nder the historical cost measurement basis2

    an asset is recorded at the amount of cash or cash

    e

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    Current cost

    For an asset2 current cost represents the

    amount of cash or cash e

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    =ealisable or settlement value

    For an asset2 the realisable value is theamount of cash or cash e

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    %resent value

    (he present value of an asset means the

    discounted future net cash inflows or net

    cash savings that are e3pected to arise in

    the normal course of business.

    (he present value of a liability is the

    discounted future net cash outflows that

    are e3pected to settle the obligation in thenormal course of business.

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    Fair value

    efined as the value determined between1nowledgeable2 willing buyers and sellers in anarm5s length transaction.

    Fair value is the price that would be received tosell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in anorderly transaction between mar1et participantsin the mar1et in which the reporting entitytransacts. #SFAS>?@$

    Fair value should be based on the assumptionsmar1et participants would use when pricing theasset or liability

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    Fair value hierarchy

    *evel ? inputs are observable inputs that

    reflected

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    Current Cost Accounting

    =ationale of Current Cost Accounting

    Financial Capital versus %hysical Capital

    Current Cost in %ractice Criticisms of Current Cost

    )n Support of Current Cost

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    =ationale of Current Cost

    (he Edward and -ell Argument

    Concept of -usiness %rofit

    Dhy !olding ,ains Are a Component of)ncome

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    (he Edward and -ell Argument

    -erapa /umlah aset yang harus dipegang

    pada wa1tu tertentu0:Masalah e1spansi

    -erbentu1 apa aset tersebut0 Masalah

    1omposisi

    -agaimana aset tersebut didanai0

    Masalah pendanaan.

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    (he Edward and -ell Argument

    (u/uan informasi a1untansi9

    Evaluasi oleh mana/er atas 1eputusan

    mere1a di masa lalu untu1 membuat

    1eputusan terbai1 di masa depan.

    Evaluasi mana/er oleh pemegang saham2

    1reditor2 dan lainnya.

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    Concept of -usiness %rofit

    8omponen9 Current operating profit9 1elebihan nilai se1arang

    output yang di/ual di atas nilai se1arang input yangber1aitan

    =ealizable cost savings9 pening1atan nilai se1arangaset yang dimili1i perusahaan pada periode se1arang

    !olding gains and lossesA1untansi 1onvensional menga1ui gain 1alau aset

    dilepas.

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    Dhy !olding ,ains Are a

    Component of )ncome

    %erusahaan menerima manfaat dari

    pening1atan harga aset

    Cost savings mengu1ur 1eunggulan posisi

    1as perusahaan relatif terhadap

    perusahaan lain

    Menun/u11an pening1atan nilai aset

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    Financial Capital versus %hysical Capital

    )n support of %hysical Capital

    Criticisms of %hysical Capital

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    Financial capital

    Capital is synonymous with the net assetsor e

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    %hysical capital

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    )n support of %hysical Capital

    Capital adalah unit fisi1 yang menun/u11an1emampuan operasi perusahaan.

    !olding gains sebagai income9

    Cost savings Menun/u11an pening1atan arus 1as aset di masa

    depan.

    %erubahan dalam biaya se1arang ber1orelasi

    positif dengan perubahan dalam nilai yang dapatdirealisasi bersih atas aset.

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    Criticisms of %hysical Capital

    ifferent units

    ecreasing costs

    Same mar1ets %artial investment

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    current cost accounting

    E3pressing ac

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    replacement cost

    Currentcashoutlaynecessary to duplicatean

    item.

    Current costof replacing an e3isting assetor

    propertywith the same

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    Current Cost in %ractice

    -ac1ground FAS- Statement on Current Cost2 mengung1ap1an

    informasi9 )ncome from continuing operations pada current cost basis

    dengan mengguna1an nominal dollars Current cost of inventory2 and %%E dengan mengguna1an

    nominal dollars %erubahan biaya se1arang inventory dan %%E dengan

    mengguna1an constant dollar basis

    ".'. %hilips Company

    %%E dan inventory berdasar1an replacement value Current Cost in +nited 8ingdom

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    Criticisms of Current Cost

    From !istorical Cost Advocates Melanggar pandangan tradisional penga1uan revenue:gain

    Subye1tifitas penentuan /umlah pening1atan harga po1o1

    From E3it %rice Advocates

    Cost mengimpli1asi1an opportunity cost Masalah alo1asi

    Masalah te1nologi

    Masalah matematis

    (ida1 relevan

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    )n Support of Current Cost

    =ecognition %rinciple +nrealized holding gains menun/u11an fenomena e1onomi a1tual yang

    ter/adi pada periode se1arang. Fa1ta bahwa harga aset berubah

    &b/ectivity of Current Cost

    )tem yang mudah diperoleh harga pasarnya (echnological Changes Current Cost 'ersus E3it %rice. %enggunaan e3it price9

    =evaluasi anomali %ende1atan /ang1a pende1 Antisipasi laba operasi sebelum titi1 pen/ualan

    Comparison of =esults with !istorical Cost Evidence of +sefulness of current Cost

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    Appraisal

    Real estate appraisal2 property

    valuationor land valuationis the

    practice of developing an opinion of the

    value of real property2 usually its Mar1et'alue.

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    Three approaches to value

    (he cost approach. (he theory is that the valueof a property can be estimated by summing theland value and the depreciated value of anyimprovements.

    (he sales comparison approach. . (he approachrecognizes that a typical buyer will compareas1ing prices and see1 to purchase the propertythat meets his or her wants and needs for the

    lowest cost (he income approach. (his approach capitalizesan income stream into a value indication